Artificial Intelligence

Lecture Notes - 4
(Subject Code: CSC 602, ITC 651)

Prepared by
Dr. Sourabh Jain
Indian Institute of Information Technology Sonepat
 Informed Search Algorithms
 Informed search algorithm contains an array of knowledge such as how far
we are from the goal, path cost, how to reach to goal node, etc. This
knowledge help agents to explore less to the search space and find more
efficiently the goal node.

 The informed search algorithm is more useful for large search space.
Informed search algorithm uses the idea of heuristic, so it is also called
Heuristic search.
 Heuristics Function
 Heuristic is a function which is used in Informed Search, and it finds the
most promising path. It takes the current state of the agent as its input and
produces the estimation of how close agent is from the goal.

 The heuristic method, however, might not always give the best solution,
but it guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time. Heuristic
function estimates how close a state is to the goal.

 It is represented by h(n), and it calculates the cost of an optimal path

between the pair of states. The value of the heuristic function is always
positive.
 Heuristics Function (Cont…)
Admissibility of the heuristic function is given as:

h(n) <= h*(n)

Here h(n) is heuristic cost, and h*(n) is the estimated cost.

Hence heuristic cost should be less than or equal to the estimated cost.

Pure Heuristic Search:

 Pure heuristic search is the simplest form of heuristic search algorithms. It expands nodes based
on their heuristic value h(n).

 It maintains two lists, OPEN and CLOSED list. In the CLOSED list, it places those nodes which
have already expanded and in the OPEN list, it places nodes which have yet not been expanded.

 On each iteration, each node n with the lowest heuristic value is expanded and generates all its
successors and n is placed to the closed list. The algorithm continues until a goal state is found.
 Informed Search Algorithms (Cont…)
In the informed search, there are two main algorithms which are given
below:

1. Best First Search Algorithm(Greedy search)

2. A* Search Algorithm
 Best-first Search Algorithm (Greedy Search)
 Greedy best-first search algorithm always selects the path which appears best at that
moment.

 It is the combination of depth-first search and breadth-first search algorithms. It uses

the heuristic function and search.

 Best-first search allows to take the advantages of both algorithms. With the help of
best-first search, at each step, we can choose the most promising node. In the best
first search algorithm, we expand the node which is closest to the goal node and the
closest cost is estimated by heuristic function, i.e.
f(n)= h(n).

Where, h(n)= estimated cost from node n to the goal.

 The greedy best first algorithm is implemented by the priority queue.

 Algorithm of Best-first Search (Greedy Search)
Step 1: Place the starting node into the OPEN list.

Step 2: If the OPEN list is empty, Stop and return failure.

Step 3: Remove the node n, from the OPEN list which has the lowest value of h(n), and places it in
the CLOSED list.

Step 4: Expand the node n, and generate the successors of node n.

Step 5: Check each successor of node n, and find whether any node is a goal node or not. If any
successor node is goal node, then return success and terminate the search, else proceed to Step 6.

Step 6: For each successor node, algorithm checks for evaluation function f(n), and then check if
the node has been in either OPEN or CLOSED list. If the node has not been in both list, then add it
to the OPEN list.

Step 7: Return to Step 2.

 Best-first Search (Greedy Search): Example
 In this search example, we are using two lists which
are OPEN and CLOSED Lists.

 Expand the nodes of S and put in the CLOSED list

 Initialization: Open [A, B], Closed [S]

 Iteration 1: Open [A], Closed [S, B]

 Iteration 2: Open [E, F, A], Closed [S, B]

: Open [E, A], Closed [S, B, F]

Iteration 3: Open [I, G, E, A], Closed [S, B, F]

: Open [I, E, A], Closed [S, B, F, G]

Hence the final solution path will be: S----> B----->F----> G

 Best-first Search Algorithm (Greedy Search)
Advantages:

 Best first search can switch between BFS and DFS by gaining the advantages
of both the algorithms.

 This algorithm is more efficient than BFS and DFS algorithms.

Disadvantages:

 It can behave as an unguided depth-first search in the worst case scenario.

 It can get stuck in a loop as DFS.

 This algorithm is not optimal.

 Best-first Search Algorithm (Greedy Search)
Time Complexity: The worst case time complexity of Greedy best first search is
O(bm).

Space Complexity: The worst case space complexity of Greedy best first search
is O(bm). Where, m is the maximum depth of the search space.

Complete: Greedy best-first search is also incomplete, even if the given state
space is finite.

Optimal: Greedy best first search algorithm is not optimal.

 A* Search Algorithm
 A* search is the most commonly known form of best-first search. It uses heuristic function
h(n), and cost to reach the node n from the start state g(n).

 It has combined features of UCS and greedy best-first search, by which it solve the problem
efficiently.

 A* search algorithm finds the shortest path through the search space using the heuristic
function. This search algorithm expands less search tree and provides optimal result faster.

 In A* search algorithm, we use search heuristic as well as the cost to reach the node. Hence
we can combine both costs as following, and this sum is called as a fitness number.
 Algorithm of A* Search
Step1: Place the starting node in the OPEN list.

Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not, if the list is empty then return failure and
stops.

Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value of evaluation
function (g+h), if node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise

Step 4: Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list.
For each successor n', check whether n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list, if not
then compute evaluation function for n' and place into Open list.

Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED, then it should be attached to the
back pointer which reflects the lowest g(n') value.

Step 6: Return to Step 2.

 A* Search: Example
 In this example, The heuristic value of all states is given in the below table so we will
calculate the f(n) of each state using the formula f(n)= g(n) + h(n), where g(n) is the cost
to reach any node from start state.

 Here we will use OPEN and CLOSED list.

 A* Search: Example
Solution

Initialization: {(S, 5)}

Iteration1: {(S--> A, 4), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration2: {(S--> A-->C, 4), (S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration3: {(S--> A-->C--->G, 6), (S--> A-->C--->D, 11),

(S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration 4: It will give the final result, as it provides the

optimal path with cost 6.

S--->A--->C--->G
 A* Search Algorithm
Advantages:

 A* search algorithm is the best algorithm than other search algorithms.

 A* search algorithm is optimal and complete.

 This algorithm can solve very complex problems.

Disadvantages:

 It does not always produce the shortest path as it mostly based on heuristics and
approximation.

 A* search algorithm has some complexity issues.

 The main drawback of A* is memory requirement as it keeps all generated nodes in

the memory, so it is not practical for various large-scale problems.
 A* Search Algorithm
Time Complexity: The time complexity of A* search algorithm depends on heuristic function, and
the number of nodes expanded is exponential to the depth of solution d. So the time complexity is
O(b^d), where b is the branching factor.

Space Complexity: The space complexity of A* search algorithm is O(b^d).

Complete: A* algorithm is complete as long as:

 Branching factor is finite.

 Cost at every action is fixed.

Optimal: A* search algorithm is optimal if it follows below two conditions:

 Admissible: the first condition requires for optimality is that h(n) should be an admissible
heuristic for A* tree search. An admissible heuristic is optimistic in nature.

 Consistency: Second required condition is consistency for only A* graph-search.

If the heuristic function is admissible, then A* tree search will always find the least cost path.