BAKER, Susan

Sustainable Development
The current focus on sustainable development opens up debates surround-

ing our relationship with the natural world, about what constitutes social
progress and about the character of development, both in the Global North
and the Global South. The promotion of sustainable futures is taking on
a new urgency in the context of climate change and biodiversity loss.
This concise and accessible text explores how the international commu-
nity is responding to the challenge of sustainable development. It also
investigates the prospect for, and barriers to, the promotion of sustaina-
ble development in high-consumption societies of the industrialised
world, from the USA and the EU to the economies of transition in
Eastern Europe and Southern Asia. This global coverage is balanced
by investigating how local action, ranging from the transition towns
movement in the UK to the Green Belt movement in Kenya, can
contribute to the pursuit of sustainable development.
The second edition has been extensively revised and updated and bene-
fits from the addition of three new chapters: sustainable development in
China; the governance of sustainable development; and sustainable pro-
duction and consumption. Climate change and biodiversity management
have also been expanded into full chapters.
Providing an up-to-date and comprehensive treatment of the issues

surrounding the promotion of sustainable development, this unique,
internationally focused book combines a strong conceptual analysis
with wide-ranging empirical focus and a wealth of case material.
Including summary points and suggestions for further reading, as well
as web resources and an extensive bibliography, it is ideal for students,
scholars and researchers in the fields of environmental sciences, politics,
geography, sociology and development studies.
Susan Baker is a Professor in the Cardiff School of Social Sciences

and Co-Director of the Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff
University, UK. Her current research focuses on the interrelationship
between social and ecological processes, particularly in relation to
climate change and biodiversity loss.
Routledge Introductions to Environment Series
Published titles
Environmental science texts Series Editor:

Timothy Doyle
Atmospheric Processes and
Systems
Natural Environmental Change Environment and society texts
Environmental Biology
Using Statistics to Understand the Environment and Philosophy
Environment Energy, Society and Environment,
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Environmental Chemistry Gender and Environment
Biodiversity and Conservation, Environment and Business
2nd Edition Environment and Law
Ecosystems, 2nd Edition Environment and Society
Coastal Systems, 2nd Edition Representing the Environment
Environment and Social Theory,
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Environmental Values
Environment and Tourism, 2nd
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Environment and the City
Environment, Media and
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Environmental Policy, 2nd
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Environment and Economy
Environment and Food
Environmental Governance
Environment and Citizenship
Sustainable Development, 2nd
Edition
Environment and Politics, 4th
Edition
Sustainable
Development
Second edition
Susan Baker
First published 2016
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Susan Baker
The right of Susan Baker to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or

registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Baker, Susan, 1955-
Sustainable development / Susan Baker. – Second edition.
(Routledge introductions to environment series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Sustainable development. 2. Globalization–Economic aspects.
3. Globalization–Environmental aspects. 4. Economic policy–Environmental
aspects. 5. International organization. I. Title.
HC79.E5B347 2015
338.9’27–dc23
2015010679
ISBN: 978-0-415-52291-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-52292-2 (pbk)
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Typeset in Times New Roman

by Cenveo Publisher Services
In memory of my father Micheál Bácaoir, for showing me the signs
of the ebbing tide, and how to watch in silence for the spideog to land.
For my daughter Niamh, whose respect for animals and passion for
politics continues to inspire me.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
List of illustrationsix
Preface to Routledge Introductions to Environment Seriesxi
Acknowledgementsxv
List of abbreviationsxvii
Chapter 1 Introduction: the environment and

sustainable development 1
Part I Theoretical and conceptual exploration
of sustainable development 19
Chapter 2 The concept of sustainable development 21
Chapter 3 The governance of sustainable development 67
Chapter 4 Sustainable production and sustainable consumption 101
Part II International engagement with sustainable
development133
Chapter 5 Global governance and UN environment summits 135
Chapter 6 Climate change and sustainable futures 170
Chapter 7 Addressing biodiversity loss 209
Chapter 8 Local actions for sustainable development 239
Part III Sustainable development in different contexts 279
Chapter 9 High consumption societies: the promotion of
sustainable development in the European Union 281
Chapter 10 Changing times in Eastern Europe 309
viii • Contents
Chapter 11 Challenges in the Third World 340

Chapter 12 Emerging economies: China’s model of
sustainable development 386
Chapter 13 Conclusion: the promotion of sustainable
development: what has been achieved? 426
Index437
Illustrations
Figures
1.1 Sustainable development: linking economy,

ecology and society 10
2.1 Planetary boundaries 27
2.2 Kuznet Curve: Pollution rises at earlier stages of industrial

development then diminishes as societies shift into
a post-industrial age. 40
5.1 The Rio+20 Conference was marked by deep

ideological divisions. 156
5.2 The UN system of the promotion of sustainable development

penetrates all areas of international governance. 160
9.1 Structure of the Seventh EAP 293
10.1 Promoting sustainable development in transition societies 333
13.1 Promoting sustainable development involves

multi-dimensional actions 429
Tables
2.1 The ladder of sustainable development: the global focus 38
4.1 SCP policies and initiatives 107
9.1 Priorities of the Sixth EAP 286
9.2 Strengths and weaknesses of EAPs 294

Preface to Routledge
Introductions to
Environment Series
Series Editor: Timothy Doyle
Professor of Politics and International Studies, University of Adelaide,

Australia;
Professor of Politics and International Relations, Keele University,
United Kingdom;
Distinguished Research Fellow, Curtin University, Australia;
Chair, Indian Ocean Rim Association Academic Group, Port Louis,
Mauritius;
Chief Editor, Journal of the Indian Ocean Region, Routledge,
Taylor & Francis, London, UK.
It is openly acknowledged that a critical understanding of socio-

economic, political and cultural processes and structures is central in
understanding environmental problems and establishing alternative
modes of equitable development. As a consequence, the maturing of
environmentalism has been marked by prolific scholarship in the social
sciences and humanities, exploring the complexity of society–
environment relationships.
This series builds on the work of the founding series editor, David
Pepper, to continue to provide an understanding of the central socio-
economic, political and cultural processes relating to environmental
studies, providing an interdisciplinary perspective to core environmental
issues. David initiated the series by celebrating the close connections
between the academic traditions of environmental studies and the emer-
gence of the Green movement itself. Central to the goals of the move-
ment were social and environmental change. As the ‘new science’ of
ecology was interdisciplinary, seeking to understand relationships within
and between ecosystems, so too was the belief within the academy
xii • Preface to Routledge Introductions to Environment Series
(informed by the movement), that real environmental change could only

emerge if traditional borders and boundaries of knowledge and power
were bypassed, transgressed and, where necessary, challenged.
This bid for engaged knowledge and interdisciplinarity also informs the
structure and ‘pitch’ of these books. For it is no good communicating
with just one particular group within society. It is equally important to
construct forms of knowledge which can cross over demographic and
market borders, bringing together communities of people who may
never ‘meet’ in the usual course of events. So, the epistemological
design of this series is oriented around three particular audiences, pro-
viding an unparalleled interdisciplinary perspective on key areas of
environmental study: (1) students (at undergraduate and coursework
post-graduate levels); (2) policy practitioners (in civil society, govern-
ments and corporations); and (3) researchers. It is important to note,
therefore, that these books – though strongly used in diverse levels of
tertiary teaching – are also built, in large part, on the primary and often
ground-breaking research interests of the authors.
In his own ground-breaking work, David Pepper was particularly inter-

ested in exploring the relationships between capitalism, socialism and
the environment. David argued that the modern environmentalist move-
ment grew at a rapid pace in the last third of the twentieth century. It
reflected popular and academic concerns about the local and global deg-
radation of the physical environment which was increasingly being doc-
umented by scientists. It soon became clear, however, that reversing
such degradation was not merely a technical and managerial matter:
merely knowing about environmental problems did not of itself guaran-
tee that governments, businesses or individuals would do anything about
them. Since David wrote his last series preface, this focus has continued
to be important, but with special permutations as time has worn on. One
more recent, key feature of these society–environment relationships has
been the clear differentiation between the environmentalisms of the
majority worlds (the Global South) and environmentalisms of the minor-
ity worlds (the more affluent Global North). Whereas environmentalism
came to the less affluent world later (in the 1980s), key environmental
leadership is now being provided by activists in the South, oriented
around a post-colonial environmentalism, with its key issues of human
dispossession and survival: water, earth (food security and sustainabil-
ity), fire (energy), and air (not climate). Much of the focus in environ-
mentalism in the South relates to a critique of capitalism and its big
business advocates as being the major perpetrators of severe
Preface to Routledge Introductions to Environment Series • xiii
environmental problems which confront the Earth. In the global North

(where the modern movement began in the 1960s), there has been far
more emphasis on post-materialism and post-industrialism and, more
recently, building a sustainable capitalism.
Climate change is now the neoliberal cause célèbre of this approach,

with its heavily biased focus on market mechanisms and green consum-
erism as answers to environmental crises. In fact, climate change, in the
Global North, has now become so powerful and omnipresent that many
more affluent world green activists and academics now comprehend all
environmental problems within its rubric, its story. Of course, climate
change issues will continue to be crucial to the planet’s continued exist-
ence, but more importantly, it must be acknowledged that in living
social movements – like the Green movement – issues will come and
go; will be reordered and rearranged on the issue attention cycle; be
rebadged under different symbols, signs and maps; and new green narra-
tives, issues and stories will emerge. The environment movement, born
in the North – and its associated academic studies – will continue to
be the foremost global social movement for change for many years to
come – if it can continue to truly engage with the Global South –
utilising these new and revised banners, issues and colours to continu-
ally and creatively mark out its territories, constructing versions of
environmentalism for all, not just for the few. And it is within these
new sites of politics and knowledge that some of the most exciting
advances in the relationships between societies and ‘nature’ will con-
tinue to emerge and be celebrated. Much still is to be learned from our
universe, the planet Earth, its human and non-human communities.
Tim Doyle
October 2014
Acknowledgements
This first edition of this book was written while I held a royal appoint-
ment as King Carl XVI Gustaf Professor in Environmental Science. I
remain indebted to His Majesty King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden for
providing me with the opportunity to engage in this task. A special
thanks also to Umeå University, Sweden for hosting me in situ, and with
such generosity and kindness.
My daughter Niamh deserves special thanks. For the second edition of

this book she work diligently, digging out much needed new material on
the UN, LA21 and the USA, while also meeting a host of other
demands.
Jackie Swift kindly took on the task of proof reading, while Richard
Bloor managed to trawl the text to extract a list of abbreviations. I am
very grateful to both.
I would also like to thank the series editor, Dr David Pepper, for his ini-
tial suggestion that I write this book. A special thanks to the production
team at Routledge, especially Andrew Mould, for his ongoing patience
and understanding as deadlines were set and missed.
Susan Baker
Cardiff, December 2014
Abbreviations
10YFP Ten-Year Framework Programme of the UN

BRIC Brazil, Russia, India and China
CAP Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union
CBD UN Convention on Biological Diversity
CCAD Central American Commission for Environmental Development
CCS Carbon Capture and Sequestration/Carbon Capture and Storage
CDM Clean Development Mechanism of the UN FCCC
CDR Common but Differentiated Responsibility
CITES Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species
Flora and Fauna
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CoP Conference of Parties
CSD Commission of Sustainable Development
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
DG Environment Director-General of the Environment, European
Commission
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
EAP Environmental Action Programme of the European Union
EEA European Economic Area
EEA European Environment Agency
EEB European Environment Bureau
EFCA Ecological Function Conservation Area
EIT Parties to UN FCCC, countries with economies in transition
EMS Environmental Management Systems
EPI Environmental Policy Integration
EU European Union
EU ETC EU Emission Trading Scheme
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FLO Fairtrade International
xviii • Abbreviations
FYP Five-Year Plan

FYRM Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
GBO Global Biodiversity Outlook
GEF Global Environment Facility
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Greenhouse Gas Emissions
GMO Genetically Modified Organisms
GONGO Government Organised Non-Governmental Organisation
GRI Global Reporting Initiative
GTGP Grain to Green Programme
HDR Human Development Report
HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons
ICLEI International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives –
Local Governments for Sustainability
IPA Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance of the European
Union
IPBES Inter-governmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
JNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
LA21 Local Agenda 21
LCA Lifecycle Assessments
LDCs Least Developed Countries
LMO Living Modified Organisms
LULUCF Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry
MDG Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations
MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreements
MOSAICC Micro-Organisms Sustainable Use and Access Regulations
International Code of Conduct
NFCP Natural Forest Conservation Programme
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NIMBY Not In My Back Yard
NMC National Model City
NSDS National Sustainable Development Strategy
ODA Official Development Assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OSCE Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe
Abbreviations • xix
PES Payments for Ecosystem Services

RBMP River Basin Management Plan
REDD & Redd+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation
SAPARD Special Accession Programme for Agriculture and
Development of the European Union
SCP Sustainable Consumption and Production
SIDS Small Island Developing States
SIP Sustainable Industrial Policy
SOER The European Environment – State and Outlook 2010
TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
ULB Urban Local Body
UN United Nations
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development
UNCSD United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation
UN FCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNGASS United Nations General Assembly Special Session
US EAP US Environment Protection Agency
USDA US Department of Agriculture
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WEDO Women’s Environment and Development Organisation
WEHAB Water and Sanitation, Energy, Health, Agriculture,
Biodiversity Protection and Ecosystem Management
WFD European Union Water Framework Directive
WSSD UN World Summit on Sustainable Development
WTO World Trade Organisation
1 Introduction
The environment and sustainable
development
Key issues
●● Re-conceptualising development
●● Ultimate limits to growth
●● The common good
●● Promoting sustainable development: sustainability
●● Three pillars of sustainable development.
Promoting sustainable development opens up debates about our relation-

ship with the natural world, about what constitutes social progress and
about the character of development, both in the North and the South, in
the present and into the future. These interrelated issues form the main
themes of this book. The book explores the prospects for, and barriers
to, the promotion of sustainable development as presented in the classic
Brundtland formulation and promoted by the United Nations (UN).
It looks at policy developments and actions in different socio-economic
contexts: the high consumption societies of the industrialised world,
including in Europe and North America; the Third World; the econo-
mies in transition in East and Central Europe; and the emerging econo-
mies, especially that of China. The exploration is international in its
focus, because it recognises that promoting sustainable development is a
quintessentially global task. At the same time, it takes account of the
fact that policy implementation, and its related actions, take place at
lower scales, including at the regional, national and sub-national levels.
Challenging the dominant model of development
Sustainable development represents a direct challenge to the conven-

tional form of economic development. Conventional approaches see
development as simply modernisation of the globe along Western lines.
2 • Introduction
Modernisation theory holds that the more structurally specialised

and differentiated a society is, the more modern and progressive it is
(Pepper, 1996). To be modernised, a society has to become more techni-
cally sophisticated and urbanised and to make increased use of markets
for the distribution of economic goods and services. Modernisation also
brings social changes, including the development of representative
democracy, increased mobility and the weakening of traditional kinship
groups and communities. Modernisation is closely tied to the promotion
of individual self-advancement. The transformation of nature, such as
taming wilderness into natural parks, harnessing wild rivers to make
energy and clearing forests for agricultural production, is one of the
hallmarks of modernisation.
In the conventional model, society is understood to go through different

‘stages of economic growth’ (Rostow, 1960). Traditional societies
develop to a stage of economic ‘take-off’. This sees new industries and
entrepreneurial classes emerge, as they did in Britain in the nineteenth
century. In ‘maturity’, steady economic growth outstrips population
growth. A ‘final stage’ is reached when high mass consumption allows
the emergence of social welfare (Pepper, 1996). This model of develop-
ment assumes a linear progression, in which it becomes necessary for
Third World societies to ‘catch up’ with the Western style of develop-
ment. This means opening up their economies to Western values,
influences, investment and trade, thereby becoming more integrated into
the global market system.
Modern environmentalism has emerged as a critique of this Western-

centric development model, although it takes different forms and has
different expressions (Barry, 2006). Environmentalism points to the
failure of a model of development that results in ecological destruction,
and at a global scale. Social exclusion, economic alienation and rising
levels of stress and ill health in OECD countries are accompanied by
socially disruptive, politically unstable and at times violent transitions
in the countries of the former Soviet Union, ecologically disastrous
industrialisation in emerging economies, while the human tragedies of
the failed development strategies continue to mar life for many in the
Third World. Environmentalism challenges many of the basic assump-
tions that the Western model of development makes about the use of
nature and natural resources, the meaning of progress and the ways in
which society is governed, including both the traditional patterns of
authority within society and how public policy is made and
implemented.
Introduction • 3
Several other social and political movements, such as Marxism and the
dependencia theories of Third World under-development have made
similar critiques. However, while environmentalism may find common
cause with these arguments, it can be distinguished by its focus on the
economic, social and ecological dimensions and repercussions of devel-
opment. Seven key arguments form the backbone of the environmental-
ist challenge. First, environmentalism takes issue with the understanding
of progress found in the Western model. Progress is understood in a
limited way, primarily in terms of increased domination over nature and
the use of her resources solely for the benefits of humankind. In this
model, the domination of nature has become a key indicator of human
progress (Macnaghten and Urry, 1998). Progress is seen, for example,
in the clearance of forested land for agricultural production or in the use
of natural resources, such as coal, oil and gas, to produce energy in the
form of electricity that, in turn, drives production and its related con-
sumption. This, in turn, results in pollution and related climate change.
This path of development is bolstered by public policies or practices
that induce behaviour that is harmful to the environment. Known as
‘perverse incentives’, such policy failures include government grants,
subsidies or tax incentives that fail to take into account the creation of
environmental externalities.
Underlying this domination is a reduction of nature merely to a natural

resource base, a reduction that values nature only in terms of the use
that these resources have for human beings. This gives nature only
‘instrumental value’, ignoring the ‘intrinsic value’ of the natural world,
that is, the value that nature has over and above its usefulness to
humans. Viewing nature instrumentally also leads to neglect of the
needs of other, non-human species and life forms.
Second, the Western development model prioritises economic growth,

even though the heightened consumption patterns that it stimulates now
threaten the very resource base upon which future development depends.
This model assumes environmental deterioration to be an inevitable
consequence of development. Although Western society has seen
enhanced legal and technical efforts to address environmental pollution,
its model of development is nonetheless premised on the acceptance of
a ‘trade-off’ or unequal exchange between economic development and
the environment, where the environment is relinquished for the sake of
development. Third, the model assumes that consumption is the most
important contributor to human welfare. Here, it is common practice to
measure welfare by means of the ‘standard of living’, that is, the amount
4 • Introduction
of disposable income that an individual has to purchase goods and

services. A development model based on individualistic consumption,
rather than fostering social cohesion, leads to increased inequality,
especially in an economic system subject to cyclical recession (Ekins,
2000). It prioritises individual self-attainment at the expense of consid-
eration of the common good (Baker, 2012). In contrast, environmental-
ism focuses not on the ‘standard of living’ but on the ‘quality of life’.
Quality of life refers to the collective, not the individual, level and to
enhancing the quality of the public domain, such as through the provi-
sion of public education, health care and environmental protection.
Fourth, the model ignores that fact that social stability requires the
maintance of natural resources. The deterioration of the natural environ-
ment causes social disruptions, insecurity, and damage to human health.
For example, loss of wild biodiversity in agricultural systems increases
the vulnerability of local communities, especially with respect to food
supply, which in turn, leads to social unrest that can undermine social
and political institutions (Gowdy, 1999).
Fifth, the traditional understanding of development ignores the fact that

Western development was, and continues to be, based upon the exploita-
tion not only of their own natural resource base but that of many Third
World societies, including their plant and animal genetic resources,
land, timber and mineral ore. The human resources of the Third World
have also been exploited, including but not limited to the practice of
slavery. Exploitation has caused under-development in the Third World,
not least by creating resource poverty and a culture of dependency.
In this view, poverty is caused by the penetration of Western, environ-
mentally destructive development models into Third World societies,
not alleviated by it. This condemns Third World societies to ‘backward-
ness’, while ignoring their long traditions of community resource man-
agement. These traditions have built a body of indigenous knowledge,
which has enabled many traditional societies to live in harmony with
their natural surroundings, although of course not all traditional societies
have managed to live in this way.
Sixth, the model is blind to the fact that is not possible to achieve a
global replication of the resource-intensive, affluent lifestyle of the high
consumption economies of the North. The planet’s ecosystem cannot
absorb the resultant pollution, as witnessed by global environmental
change, that is climate change and biodiversity loss. Furthermore, there
are not enough natural resources, including water, to support such
Introduction • 5
development. In other words, the model of development pursued by

Western industrial society cannot be carried into the future, either in its
present forms or at its present pace.
Finally, and closely related to the previous point, is that the environ-
mental critique points to the failure of the Western development model
to acknowledge that there are limits to economic growth. Limits to
growth are imposed by the carrying capacity of the planet, especially
the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities,
and the fact that the amount of resources that the planet contains,
including water and minerals, is finite and that ecosystem services are
reduced or eliminated through overuse. Technological advancement,
while it may enable society to produce goods with more resource effi-
ciency, will not overcome this limitation. There are thus ultimate limits
to growth. This means that development has to be structured around the
need to adopt lifestyles within the planet’s ecological means. Several
recent assessments, including by the United Nations, warn of serious
consequences for human societies as ecosystems become incapable of
providing the goods and services on which hundreds of millions of
people depend (Rockström et al., 2009). Such thresholds have already
been passed in certain coastal areas where ‘dead zones’ now exist,
including a range of coral reefs and lakes that are no longer able to sus-
tain aquatic species; and some dryland areas that have been effectively
transformed into deserts. Similarly thresholds have been passed for
some fish stocks. The expansion of the Western, consumerist model of
development, coupled with population growth, sees human demands on
ecosystems increase at the risk of further weakening the natural infra-
structure on which all societies depend. The relationship between popu-
lation growth and resource use is not, however, straightforward, as
discussed in this book.
What is significant about this multiple environmental critique of the tra-

ditional model of development is that it has shown that the post-World
War II experience of economic growth and prosperity was both excep-
tional and contingent (Redclift and Woodgate, 1997). It was exceptional
in that it cannot be replicated across space (from the West to the global
level) or across time (into the future). It was contingent upon a short-
term perspective, the prioritisation of one region of the globe over
another, and upon giving preference to one species (humans) over the
system as a whole. Environmentalism has also undermined the assump-
tion of a progressive view of society’s evolution (Redclift and Wood-
gate, 1997). The environmental critique of development shows that there
6 • Introduction
is no continuous linear development guaranteed for modern society,

nor is this development necessarily harmonious (Barry, 2006).
Protecting and improving our future well-being requires wiser and
less destructive use of natural assets. This in turn involves major
changes in the way we make and implement decisions. We must
learn to recognize the true value of nature – both in an economic
sense and in the richness it provides to our lives … Above all, pro-
tection of these assets can no longer be seen as an optional extra, to
be considered once more pressing concerns such as wealth creation
or national security have been dealt with.
(MEA, 2005)
It is in this critical context that the model of sustainable development

has gained traction.
Emergence of a new model of development
Many environmental development models have emerged to replace

the old development paradigm. These promote forms of social change
that are aimed at fulfilling human material and non-material needs,
advancing social equity, expanding organisational effectiveness and
building human and technical capacity towards sustainability (Rose-
land, 2000). They share in common the objectives of protecting the
natural resource base upon which future development depends. For
many, valuing nature and non-human life forms in an intrinsic way is
also essential. The environmental development model is not just
aimed at protecting nature, but creating an ecological society that
lives in harmony with nature. This means reconciling economic activ-
ity, social progress and environmental protection. Well-being is pro-
moted, as opposed to a mere focus on measures such as GDP as
indicators of progress. In this understanding, the promoting of human
well-being and happiness does not have to depend upon the destruc-
tion of nature.
The ‘sustainable development’ model represents an important example

of the new environmentalist approach. It seeks to reconcile the ecologi-
cal, social and economic dimensions of development, now and into the
future, and adopts a global perspective in this task. It aims at promoting
a form of development that is contained within the ecological carrying
capacity of the planet, which is socially just and economically inclu-
sive. It focuses not upon individual advancement but upon protecting
Introduction • 7
the common future of humankind. Put this way, sustainable develop-

ment would appear to be an aspiration that almost everyone thinks is
desirable: indeed, it is difficult not to agree with the idea.
Sustainable development is part of new efforts, albeit tentative, to integrate

environmental, economic and (more recently) social considerations into a
new development paradigm. There are many versions of this new
approach. They are united in their belief that there are ultimate, biophysical
limits to growth. This challenges industrial societies not only to reduce the
resource intensity of production (sustainable production) but to undertake
new patterns of consumption that not only reduce the levels of consump-
tion but change what is consumed and by whom (sustainable consumption).
This creates the conditions necessary for ecologically legitimate develop-
ment, particularly in the Third World.
However, there are many versions of the sustainable development

model and not all of them are mutually compatible. There is very little
agreement on what sustainable development means and even less
agreement on what is required to promote a sustainable future (Redclift
and Woodgate, 1997).
The Brundtland model of sustainable development
Despite ambiguity in meaning, the term ‘sustainable development’ has

been prominent in discussions about environmental policy since the
mid-1980s. Following the central role it played in the UN-appointed
Brundtland Commission (1984–87) and its report, Our Common Future
(WCED, 1987), it has appeared with increasing frequency in academic
studies and in reports of international agencies and of governments.
The Brundtland formulation of sustainable development has come to
represent mainstream thinking about the relationship between environ-
ment and development. It now commands authoritative status, acting as
a guiding principle of economic and social development (Lafferty and
Meadowcroft, 2000).
An increasing number of international organisations and agencies sub-

scribe to at least some, and often most or all, of its objectives (Lafferty and
Meadowcroft, 2000). These include the European Union (EU), the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank. National
governments, sub-national regional and local authorities, as well as groups
within civil society and economic actors, have all made declaratory and
8 • Introduction
practical commitments to the goal of promoting sustainable development.

This is also recognised as a crosscutting policy task, that is, it cuts across
many areas of public policy, including international development, trade,
urban and land use planning, environmental protection, energy policy, and
agricultural and industrial policy, to name but a few.
The UN has played a particularly prominent role in stimulating this

engagement. It has organised several world summits, including the
UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which
took place in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, otherwise known as the
Rio Earth Summit; the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSD), held in 2002; and more recently the Rio+20
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, held in
Rio de Janeiro in 2012. The Rio Declaration, which arose from the
original Rio Earth Summit, provides an authoritative set of normative
principles, that is, principles that deal with moral issues, including
gender equality, intra-generational equity (within a generation) and
inter-generational equity (between generations) and matters relating to
environmental justice. The Declaration also details the governance
principles needed so as to best manage and organise the promotion of
sustainable development within society, institutions, and at the politi-
cal level. Both the Rio Declaration and subsequent activity organised
under the UN have advanced the understanding of what sustainable
development means. Summits have also led to several international
legally binding environmental agreements, including the UN Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change (UN FCCC) and its related
Kyoto Protocol, as well as the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD). UN engagement has also led to a proliferation of institutions
and organisations, including within civil society and from the business
community, with a remit to promote sustainable development, such as
the Women’s Environment and Development Organisation (WEDO)
and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development
(WBCSD). The ‘UNCED process’ is used as a shorthand way to indi-
cate the range of activities that has taken place under the auspices of
the UN since the publication of the Brundtland Report. Each of these
activities, from the World Summits to the development of legally
binding agreements, from the engagement of states to the role of civil
society and business interests, is explored in this book. In addition,
the normative and governance principles that have come to be associ-
ated with the term sustainable development are explained and criti-
cally discussed.
Introduction • 9
Clarifying the terms used
There is need for some conceptual clarity at this point. This book is
about sustainable development. It is not about the concept of sustaina-
bility. The term sustainability originally belongs to ecology, and referred
to the potential of an ecosystem to subsist over time (Reboratti, 1999).
More recently, the term sustainability has come to be associated with
the goal of policy.
With the addition of the notion of development to the notion of sustain-

ability, the focus of analysis shifted from that of ecology to that of
society. The chief focus of sustainable development is on society, and
its aim is to include environmental considerations in the steering of
societal change, especially through changes to the way in which the
economy functions.
Sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to

reconcile the ecological, economic and social dimensions of life. This can
include, for example, the promotion of sustainable agriculture and forestry,
sustainable production and consumption, good government, research and
technology transfer, education and training, recognition of cultural values
and different forms of knowledge.
Sustainability is the long-term goal, that is, a more sustainable world.
Promoting sustainable development is about steering societal change at

the interface between:
1 The social: this relates to human mores and values, relationships and
institutions.
2 The economic: this concerns the allocation and distribution of scarce
resources.
3 The ecological: this involves the contribution of both the economic
and the social and their effect on the environment and its resources.
These are known as the three dimensions, or pillars, of sustainable
development (Ekins, 2000).
Sustainable development is a dynamic concept. It is not about society
reaching an end state, nor is it about establishing static structures or
about identifying fixed qualities of social, economic or political life.
It is better to speak about promoting, not achieving, sustainable devel-
opment. Promoting sustainable development is an ongoing process,
10 • Introduction
Society
Economy
Sustainable
development
Figure 1.1 Sustainable development: Ecology

linking economy, ecology and society.
whose desirable characteristics change over time, across space and

location and within different social, political, cultural and historical
contexts. Therefore, in this book the expression ‘promoting sustainable
development’ is used to show sensitivity to evolving understandings of,
and judgements about, what constitutes sustainable development
(sensitive across time) and to the fact that different societies, cultures
and groups may aspire to different sustainable development pathways
(sensitive across place).
Adopting a dynamic understanding of sustainable development also

helps emphasise that alternative futures lie before society. The pro-
motion of sustainable development is about envisioning these alterna-
tives and, through attitudinal and value changes, policy innovations,
political transformations and economic restructuring, embracing a
future that is sustainable. While this will be different for different
societies, across space and time, there are certain global or common
‘baseline’ conditions that are required if humanity is to embrace sus-
tainability. These include a healthy ecosphere and biosphere. They
also include adherence to certain normative principles and acceptance
of guidelines about what constitutes good governance practice, issues
that are given particular attention in this book. This is what is meant
by saying that promoting sustainable development requires recogni-
tion of the common good (Baker, 2012). Its challenge is to ensure
that society moves along a social trajectory – one that avoids both
pathways that lead to a direct deterioration of the social state
and those that lead to a situation from which further progress is
impossible (Meadowcroft, 1999).
Introduction • 11
The governance challenge
Governance can be understood as the steering of society towards col-

lective goals. However, the environmental challenge to the traditional
model of development has led to a questioning of the traditional modes
of governance within society, including at the international level.
Environmentalism has, for example, challenged the ability and legiti-
macy of traditional forms of government intervention and policy mak-
ing to address the complex issues posed by the promotion of
sustainable development. Furthermore, rather than being the task of
national governments acting alone and using traditional policy means,
promoting sustainable development is seen to require engagement
across all levels of social organisation, from the international, the
national, the sub-national and the societal to the level of the individual.
The rise of global environmental problems, such as climate change, biodi-

versity loss and deforestation, has led to a growing demand for interna-
tional interventions to deal with both transboundary and global
environmental matters. This has stimulated the rapid growth of interna-
tional environmental laws, and management and administration (govern-
ance) regimes (Gupta, 2002). The rise of global environmental governance
has been accompanied by pressure to try new and innovative procedures,
including expanding the range and role of non-state actors involved in
steering societal change. It embraces efforts to enhance the involvement of
business interests as well as non-governmental organisations (NGOs), that
is, organisations operating at the national and, increasingly, international
level, which have administrative structures, budgets and formal members,
and are non-profit making. Thus, while states continue to serve as the pri-
mary repositories of authority in relation to environmental governance
(Young, 1997; 2003), these are increasingly combined with participatory
practices aimed at enhancing both the legitimacy and democratic nature of
policy making. At the same time, sub-national, regional and local engage-
ment also act to press for the development of new forms of governance,
not least so that regional and local variations, capacities and needs can be
taken into account in sustainable development plans.
The term ‘new practices of environmental governance’ refers to the partici-

pation of non-state actors, alongside state and international organisations, as
well as the utilisation of a wide range of policy instruments (including legal,
voluntary and market instruments) and normative and governance principles
to promote sustainable development.
12 • Introduction
There is a clear relationship between the type and mode of governance

and the success of efforts to promote sustainable development. With this
in mind, this book explores whether, and to what extent, the commitment
by an increasing number of international organisations and agencies to the
objectives of the Brundtland model of sustainable development has
resulted in any changes in the power relations between state institutions
and societal actors.
The structure of the book
This book is divided into three parts. Part I presents a theoretical and con-
ceptual exploration of sustainable development. Part II looks at multi-
level engagement, including international efforts and the involvement of
the sub-national, local level. Part III looks at the promotion of sustainable
development in different social, political and economic contexts.
Part I
This introductory Chapter 1 sets out the themes of the book, placing the
study of sustainable development in the wider context of understanding
social development and change. Chapter 2 provides the conceptual
framework that informs the discussions in the rest of the book. It
explores the evolution in the meaning and use of the concept of sustain-
able development. It begins by briefly tracing the development of the
concept from its early use in resource ecology to its eventual adoption
as a norm of global environmental politics. This discussion is then
expanded to take account of new ways of theorising the relationship
between ecological and social systems that take a planetary focus.
This pays attention to the coupled nature of socio-ecological relation-
ships, as reflected in the notion of planetary boundaries. The concept
of ‘ecological footprint’ is also included in the discussion on limits to
growth. The chapter then proceeds to explore the variations in meaning
and subsequent disputes over the value of the concept, but pays particu-
lar attention to the authoritative Brundtland formulation. It also exam-
ines the claims that sustainable development is premised upon a strong
‘anthropocentric’ approach that endorses a managerial relationship with
nature. The elaboration of a unifying or precise definition of the concept
is less important than understanding the political, economic and social
challenges presented in practice. The ladder of sustainable development,
as elaborated by Baker et al. in 1997, is updated and expanded to take
Introduction • 13
account of current thinking in the literature, including in relation to eco-

system functioning and ecosystem services and matters of governance.
This ladder is used to explore the range of normative and governance
principles, as well policy issues associated with the promotion of sus-
tainable development at the global level.
Chapter 3 examines how society is and can be steering towards a more

sustainable future. It begins by detailing the role of the three classical
styles of governance, namely markets, networks and hierarchies. The
discussion on markets includes critical analysis of the growing use of
market-led environmental policy instruments, including voluntary agree-
ments and tradable permits. This theme is taken up in several other
chapters of the book, including Chapter 6, where carbon trading is
explored. Chapter 3 also explores the use of policy networks, including
public/private partnerships. The role of hierarchies, in particular top-
down regulations and thus of the state and state-like actors, is also given
attention. New ways of theorising the governance of sustainable devel-
opment have emerged, including the notions of both ‘meta governance’
and ‘reflexive governance’. These developments are covered in the chap-
ter, as are normative arguments about the type of governance arrange-
ments that ought to be put in place to promote sustained development.
Chapter 4 looks at sustainable development from the point of view of its

two main component parts: sustainable production and sustainable con-
sumption. It begins by explaining how the promotion of sustainable
development requires changes in both production and consumption
activity. It then deals with issues in relation to sustainable production,
while the section dealing with sustainable consumption provides a new
opportunity to shift from the focus on institutional engagement to inves-
tigate the role of individual behaviour, including consumer behaviour.
The ‘lifestyle’ approach, including voluntary simplicity, is briefly exam-
ined. The discussion on sustainable consumption opens up investigation
of the role of cultural values. This provides a forum for the discussion of
issues in relation to environmental justice and fair trade, issues addressed
throughout the book. The key distinctions between ecological modernisa-
tion and sustainable development are itemised and critically analysed.
Part II
Chapter 5 explores the rationale behind, significance of and theoretical

explanations for the construction of a global regime for the promotion of
14 • Introduction
sustainable development. It develops a historically informed, critical

awareness of the role played by the UN. It looks at how recognition of
the global nature of the challenge has been stimulated by and, in turn,
has stimulated a new era of global environmental governance. Attention
is also paid to the association of sustainable development with specific
governance principles. The steps from the Brundtland Commission’s
Report, Our Common Future, to the Rio Earth Summit, Rio+5 and
onwards to the 2002 WSSD and the 2012 Rio+20 Conference, alongside
the ongoing reportage, monitoring and evaluation regimes established
under the auspices of UNCED, are followed. This will familiarise the
reader with historical developments at the global level and their institu-
tional expressions.
The next two chapters provide the reader with an understanding of the
links between the promotion of sustainable development and the reso-
lution of certain critical global environmental problems. The Rio
Earth Summit led to two binding conventions, on climate change and
on biological diversity. These chapters show how climate change and
biodiversity loss present key challenges that need to be addressed as
part of the promotion of sustainable development. Both conventions
are examined in some detail, as they raise a number of key issues that
are of concern for this book. In relation to Chapter 6 and the discus-
sion on climate change, these include the marked imbalance in
resource use between the industrialised and the Third World and
hence differences in the burden each is placing on the limited carrying
capacity of the planet. It also presents an ideal opportunity to explore
whether and in what ways the principles of sustainable development
help shape the concrete responses taken to particular environmental
problems. Chapter 6 includes discussion on energy policy, explaining
the links between energy policy and climate change and the chal-
lenges involved in making the transition to a post-carbon future. The
focus on institutional responses is combined with discussion on cli-
mate justice, including in relation to climate change adaptation.
Extensive treatment of the USA is given, including a focus on the
state and city levels, which are seeing vibrant local initiatives and
responses.
Chapter 7 examines the loss of biodiversity, as this throws into sharp

relief the tension between economic development and environmental
protection, both within the developing world and also within the high
consumption societies of the West. There are also growing disputes
between the interests of the biotechnology industry of the industrialised
Introduction • 15
world and Third World countries over who should have access to and
use of plant and animal genetic resources. A shift in the conceptualisa-
tion of biodiversity as ‘ecosystem services’ has contributed to a major
change in how biodiversity is perceived, and has helped to heighten its
policy salience. The loss of ecosystem services is now receiving consid-
erable attention at international, EU and member-state levels. The
launch of The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
Report 2010, completion of national ecosystem assessments and, in the
UK, the publication of the Lawton Report 2011, to take some key
examples, have contributed to this development. These developments
have enhanced our understanding of the ecological pillar of sustainable
development.
Chapter 8 explores the tensions involved in global regimes seeking to

facilitate bottom-up engagement with sustainable development. The
promotion of sustainable development is being encouraged by top-
down, global environmental management regimes. At the same time,
UNCED is also encouraging bottom-up engagement. Local Agenda 21
(LA21) is the most important action-orientated, bottom-up initiative to
emerge from the UNCED process. This chapter begins with an outline
of the aims and objectives of LA21. It then goes on to explore the expe-
riences within several countries in organising LA21. This will include
short case studies of industrialised, transition, Third World, and emerg-
ing economies. The extent to which LA21 contributes to new forms of
participatory governance that help promote sustainable development,
and the structural challenges involved in that undertaking, are critically
assessed.
Part III
Part III looks at the promotion of sustainable development in different

contexts. Chapter 9 examines high consumption societies, paying par-
ticular attention to the role and actions of the EU. The EU is an
important exemplar of efforts to translate into practice the declaratory
statements issued after the Rio Earth Summit. The extent to which EU
practice is in keeping with the spirit and principles of Rio is examined.
The discussion points to the need for new patterns of sustainable con-
sumption and sustainable production. In the EU context, social actors
play a key role in the shift to sustainable consumption; firms and
industry, including business interest associations, play a vital role in
shifting to more sustainable forms of production.
16 • Introduction
Chapter 10 looks at the economies in transition in Eastern Europe.

Many of these countries are now EU member states, and the EU’s
influence on transition states continues to deepen. The chapter focuses
attention on the challenges involved in the countries in transition in
Eastern and Central Europe. It asks, in the context of marketisation and
democratisation, what are the prospects for the promotion of sustainable
development in transition countries?
Chapter 11 looks at the Third World. Here, the issues raised stand in
contrast to the challenges facing high consumption societies. Protection
of the environment and achieving necessary economic development are
closely linked with the need to address issues of global justice, poverty
and equity in resource use, and the terms of global trade. Both the trade
agreements promoted by the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and the
financial instruments controlled by the World Bank and the Global
Environmental Facility are included in the analysis. An additional aim
of the chapter is to infuse gender awareness into the study of sustainable
development. Finally, Chapter 12 examines the rise of China and con-
siders the global impact of China’s industrial boom, as well as how Chi-
nese investments are shaping the prospects for sustainable development
beyond its own borders. The Chinese model of sustainable development
is examined in detail.
The Conclusion to the book returns to the conceptual and theoretical

issues raised in this Introduction. Having exposed the reader to detailed
and critical discussions of the multifaceted challenges involved, it asks
whether and to what extent the adoption of sustainable development as
a norm of global, regional, national and sub-national politics is helping
society to find ways to overcome the tension between economic devel-
opment and environmental protection.
Summary points
●● Environmentalism challenges the dominant, Western model of

economic development. This model has a limited understanding of
progress, prioritises growth and fails to recognise the interrelationship
between economic, social and ecological systems.
●● The sustainable development model represents a new approach to
development and the steering of social change.
●● The Brundtland formulation of sustainable development has attained
authoritative status.
Introduction • 17
Further reading
Barry, J. (2006), Environment and Social Theory (London: Routledge, 2nd edn).
Blühdorn, I. and Welsh, I. (eds) (2008), The Politics of Unsustainability:
Eco-Politics in the Post-Ecologist Era (London and New York: Routledge).
Dodds, F., Strauss, M. and Strong, M. F. (2012), Only One Earth: The Long
Road via Rio to Sustainable Development (London: Earthscan).
Helm, D. and Hepburn, C. (eds) (2009) The Economics and Politics of Climate
Change (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
McMichael, P. (2012), Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective
(London: Sage, 5th edn).
Sachs, J. (2014), Speaking on Sustainable Development Goals at Monash
Sustainability Institute, available online at http://jeffsachs.org/category/
sustainable-development/
Stephens, P., Barry, J. and Dobson A. (2009), Contemporary Environmental
Politics: From Margins to Mainstream (London: Taylor and Francis).
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) (1987),
Our Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
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Sustainable Development’, in J. Meadowcroft, O. Langhelle and A. Ruud
(eds), Democracy, Governance and Sustainable Development: Moving
Beyond the Impasse (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar), 249–271.
Baker, S., Kousis, M., Richardson, R. and Young, S. (eds) (1997), The Politics of
Sustainable Development: Theory, Policy, and Practice within the European
Union (London: Routledge).
Ekins, P. (2000), Economic Growth and Environmental Sustainability: The
Prospects for Green Growth (London: Routledge).
Gowdy, J. (1999), ‘Economic Concepts of Sustainability: Relocating Economic
Activity within Society and Environment’, in E. Becker, and T. Jahn (eds),
Sustainability and the Social Sciences: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to
Integrating Environmental Considerations into Theoretical Reorientation
(London: Zed Books), 162–181.
Gupta, J. (2002), ‘Global Sustainable Development Governance: Institutional
Challenges from a Theoretical Perspective’, International Environmental
Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 2: 361–388.
Lafferty, W. M. and Meadowcroft, J. (2000), ‘Introduction’, in W. M. Lafferty
and J. Meadowcroft (eds), Implementing Sustainable Development:
Strategies and Initiatives in High Consumption Societies (Oxford: Oxford
University Press), 1–22.
Macnaghten, P. and Urry, J. (1998), Contested Natures (London: Sage).
18 • Introduction
Meadowcroft. J. (1999), ‘Planning for Sustainable Development: What Can Be

Learnt from the Critics?’ in M. Kenny and J. Meadowcroft (eds), Planning
Sustainability (London: Routledge), 12–38.
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Young, O. R. (2003), ‘Environmental Governance: The Role of Institutions in
Causing and Confronting Environmental Problems’, International
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Introduction
Blühdorn I. Welsh I. (eds) (2008), The Politics of Unsustainability: Eco-Politics in the Post-
Ecologist Era (London and New York: Routledge).
Dodds, F. , Strauss, M. and Strong, M. F. (2012), Only One Earth: The Long Road via Rio to
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Helm D. Hepburn C. (eds) (2009) The Economics and Politics of Climate Change (Oxford:
Oxford University Press).
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5th edn).
Sachs, J. (2014), Speaking on Sustainable Development Goals at Monash Sustainability
Institute, available online at http://jeffsachs.org/category/sustainable-development/
Stephens, P. , Barry, J. and Dobson A. (2009), Contemporary Environmental Politics: From
Margins to Mainstream (London: Taylor and Francis).
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) (1987), Our Common Future
(Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Baker, S. (2012), ‘Climate Change, the Common Good and the Promotion of Sustainable
Development’, in J. Meadowcroft O. Langhelle A. Ruud (eds), Democracy, Governance and
Sustainable Development: Moving Beyond the Impasse (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar), 249–271.
Baker S. Kousis M. Richardson R. Young S. (eds) (1997), The Politics of Sustainable
Development: Theory, Policy, and Practice within the European Union (London: Routledge).
Ekins, P. (2000), Economic Growth and Environmental Sustainability: The Prospects for Green
Growth (London: Routledge).
Gowdy, J. (1999), ‘Economic Concepts of Sustainability: Relocating Economic Activity within
Society and Environment’, in E. Becker T. Jahn (eds), Sustainability and the Social Sciences: A
Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Integrating Environmental Considerations into Theoretical
Reorientation (London: Zed Books), 162–181.
Gupta, J. (2002), ‘Global Sustainable Development Governance: Institutional Challenges from a
Theoretical Perspective’, International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and
Economics, 2: 361–388.
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(eds), Implementing Sustainable Development: Strategies and Initiatives in High Consumption
Societies (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1–22.
Macnaghten, P. and Urry, J. (1998), Contested Natures (London: Sage).
Meadowcroft. J. (1999), ‘Planning for Sustainable Development: What Can Be Learnt from the
Critics?’ in M. Kenny J. Meadowcroft (eds), Planning Sustainability (London: Routledge), 12–38.
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Pepper, D. (1996), Modern Environmentalism: An Introduction (London: Routledge).
Reboratti, C. E. (1999), ‘Territory, Scale and Sustainable Development’, in E. Becker T. Jahn
(eds), Sustainability and the Social Sciences: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Integrating
Environmental Considerations into Theoretical Reorientation (London: Zed Books), 207–222.
Redclift, M. and Woodgate, G. (1997), ‘Sustainability and Social Construction’, in M. Redclift G.
Woodgate (eds), The International Handbook of Environmental Sociology (Cheltenham: Edward
Elgar), 55–70.
Rockström, J. , Steffen, W. , Noone, K. , Persson, A. , Chapin, F. S. , Lambin, E. , Lenton, T. M.
, Scheffer, M. , Folke, C. , Schellnhuber, H. , Nykvist, B. , De Wit, C. A. , Hughes, T. , van der
Leeuw, S. , Rodhe, H. , Sörlin, S. , Snyder, P. K. , Costanza, R. , Svedin, U. , Falkenmark, M. ,
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Press), 1–25.
Young, O. R. (2003), ‘Environmental Governance: The Role of Institutions in Causing and
Confronting Environmental Problems’, International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law
and Economics, 3: 337–393.
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Sustainable Development

The current focus on sustainable development opens up debates surround-

Providing an up-to-date and comprehensive treatment of the issues

Susan Baker is a Professor in the Cardiff School of Social Sciences

Environmental science texts Series Editor:

© 2016 Susan Baker

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-415-52291-5 (hbk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

Chapter 1 Introduction: the environment and

Chapter 11 Challenges in the Third World 340

1.1 Sustainable development: linking economy,

2.1 Planetary boundaries 27

2.2 Kuznet Curve: Pollution rises at earlier stages of industrial

5.1 The Rio+20 Conference was marked by deep

5.2 The UN system of the promotion of sustainable development

10.1 Promoting sustainable development in transition societies 333

13.1 Promoting sustainable development involves

2.1 The ladder of sustainable development: the global focus 38

4.1 SCP policies and initiatives 107

9.1 Priorities of the Sixth EAP 286

9.2 Strengths and weaknesses of EAPs 294

Series Editor: Timothy Doyle

Professor of Politics and International Studies, University of Adelaide,

It is openly acknowledged that a critical understanding of socio-­

(informed by the movement), that real environmental change could only

In his own ground-breaking work, David Pepper was particularly inter-

environmental problems which confront the Earth. In the global North

Climate change is now the neoliberal cause célèbre of this approach,

My daughter Niamh deserves special thanks. For the second edition of

10YFP Ten-Year Framework Programme of the UN

FYP Five-Year Plan

PES Payments for Ecosystem Services

Promoting sustainable development opens up debates about our relation-

Challenging the dominant model of development

Sustainable development represents a direct challenge to the conven-

Modernisation theory holds that the more structurally specialised

In the conventional model, society is understood to go through different

Modern environmentalism has emerged as a critique of this Western-

Underlying this domination is a reduction of nature merely to a natural

Second, the Western development model prioritises economic growth,

of disposable income that an individual has to purchase goods and

Fifth, the traditional understanding of development ignores the fact that

development. In other words, the model of development pursued by

What is significant about this multiple environmental critique of the tra-

is no continuous linear development guaranteed for modern society,

It is in this critical context that the model of sustainable development

Emergence of a new model of development

Many environmental development models have emerged to replace

The ‘sustainable development’ model represents an important example

the common future of humankind. Put this way, sustainable develop-

Sustainable development is part of new efforts, albeit tentative, to integrate

However, there are many versions of the sustainable development

The Brundtland model of sustainable development

Despite ambiguity in meaning, the term ‘sustainable development’ has

An increasing number of international organisations and agencies sub-

practical commitments to the goal of promoting sustainable development.

Chapter 1 Introduction: the environment and

Chapter 11 Challenges in the Third World 340

1.1 Sustainable development: linking economy,

2.1 Planetary boundaries 27

2.2 Kuznet Curve: Pollution rises at earlier stages of industrial

5.1 The Rio+20 Conference was marked by deep

5.2 The UN system of the promotion of sustainable development

10.1 Promoting sustainable development in transition societies 333

13.1 Promoting sustainable development involves

2.1 The ladder of sustainable development: the global focus 38

4.1 SCP policies and initiatives 107

9.1 Priorities of the Sixth EAP 286

9.2 Strengths and weaknesses of EAPs 294

It is openly acknowledged that a critical understanding of socio-

FYP Five-Year Plan

PES Payments for Ecosystem Services