LOGIC REVIEWER EVALUATING THE CREDIBILITY OF

INFORMATION SOURCES
CRITICAL THINKING
● The author is not biased and should be
● Process of intentional higher level trusted
thinking to define a client's problem●
examine the evidence-based practice in CLARIFYING CONCEPTS
caring for the client, and; ● make ● Having a clear and precise understanding
choices in the delivery of care. of
CLINICAL REASONING RECOGNIZING ASSUMPTIONS
● Cognitive process that uses thinking ● Identify premises in arguments or
strategies to gather and analyse client statements
information
● Evaluate the relevance of the information ● TYPES OF STATEMENTS
and;
● Decide on possible nursing actions to ● FACTS
improve the client's physiologic &
● Can be verified through investigation
psychosocial outcomes.
● INFERNCES
PURPOSE OF CRITICAL THINKING
● Nurses use knowledge from other ● Conclusions drawn from the facts;
subjects & fields going beyond facts to make a statement
● Nurses deal with change in stressful about something not currently known
environments
● Nurses make important decisions ● JUDGMENTS

CREATIVITY ● Evaluation of facts or information that

● Thinking that results in the development reflects values or other criteria; a type of
of new ideas and products opinion
● Ability to develop and implement new
and better solutions for health ● OPINIONS
careoutcomes.
● Beliefs formed over time; include
TECHNIQUES IN CRITICAL THINKING judgements that may fit facts or be
1. Critical Analysis erroneous
2. Inductive & Deductive Reasoning
●
3. Making Valid Inferences
4. Differentiating Facts From Opinions APPLYING CRITICAL
5. Evaluating The Credibility Of THINKING TO NURSING
Information Sources PRACTICE
6. Clarifying Concepts NURSING PROCESS
7. Recognizing assumptions ● A systematic, rational method of
planning and providing individualized
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
nursing care● 5 phases:
● Application of a set of questions to a
● Assessing
particular situation or idea to determine
● Diagnosing
essential information &ideas and discard
● Planning
unimportant information and ideas
● Implementing
INDUCTIVE REASONING ● Evaluating
● Generalizations are formed from set of
PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS
facts or observations
PROBLEM SOLVING
● From specific to general conclusion
● A mental activity in which a problem is
DEDUCTIVE REASONING identified that represents an unsteady
● From general to the specific conclusion state.
DIFFERENT FACTS FROM OPINIONS ● Nurse obtains information that clarifies
● Facts are supported with evidence or the nature of the problem and suggests
beliefs of people without evidence possible solutions.
TRIAL & ERROR ● Needs to be dynamic or flexible because
● A number of approaches are tried until a clinical environment can change quickly,
solution is found requiring changes in priorities.
● Can be dangerous because the client
might suffer harm if an approach is DEVELOPING RATIONALES
inappropriate INTUITION ● Nurse transfers nursing knowledge to the
● Relies on a nurse's inner self clinical situation to justify the plan of
● Understanding or learning of things care.
without the conscious use of reasoning●
LEARNING HOW TO ACT
Known as the sixth sense, hunch,
● Know how to act & when to respond in a
instinct, feeling & suspicion.
clinical situation by recognizing what is
CLINICAL JUDGMENT most urgent or significant
● A decision-making process to ascertain
CLINICAL REASONING-IN-TRANSITION
the right nursing action to be
● Ability to recognize subtle changes in a
implemented at the appropriate time in
client's condition overtime.
the client's care.
● Nurses need to develop a sense of what is
9 ATTITUDES THAT FOSTER CRITICAL most important in each changing clinical
THINKING situation
1. Independence - thinking for themselves
RESPONDING TO CHANGES IN THE
2. Fair-mindedness - objective judgement
CLIENT'S CONDITION
3. Insight into egocentricity - open for other
● Detect changes in the client's condition,
ideas and examine biases and using them
recognize a change in priorities, adjust
to awareness
nursing care & alert the primary care
4. Intellectual humility - admitting that
provider when appropriate.
opinions are fallible and recognize that
beliefs may be wrong REFLECTION
5. Intellectual courage to challenge the ● A key to the success of clinicalreasoning
status quo and rituals - courage to ● The identification of factors that improve
examine ideas fairly client'scare
6. Integrity - apply the same standards
approved to their own beliefs and CONCEPT MAPPING
knowledge as to others ● A technique that uses a graphic depiction
7. Perseverance - determination to face and of nonlinear and linear relationships to
sort out difficulties or challenges represent critical thinking
8. Confidence - well rounded virtues ● A.k.a mind mapping
equates to trustworthy conclusion ● Context dependent & can be used to
9. Curiosity - strong desire to examine or develop analytical skills
question traditional ways ● Are quicker than note taking and
highlight key ideas
COMPONENTS OF CLINICAL
REASONING Logic- greek word logos
COGNITIVE PROCESSES meaning reasoning Aristotle-
● The thinking processes based on the father of logic
knowledge of aspects of client care TRIPARTITE BEING
● Skills are learned thru reading & SOUL
applying health-related literature ● volition, will, choices, temperament,
moods
METACOGNITIVE PROCESSES ● free moral agent
● Include reflective thinking and awareness ● rite of passage
of the skills learned by the nurse in ● Temperament
caring for the client. 1. melancholic
● The nurse reflects on the client's status & 2. phlegmatic
thru the use of critical thinking skills
3. sanguine
determines the most effective plan of
4. choleric
care.
BODY
SETTING PRIORITIES
 ● Olfactory- nose • includepeople's monitoring and control of
● Auditory- ear their cognitions—are central to our approach
● Tactile- touch for understanding SRL and allocation of study
● Gustatory- taste buds time.
● Vision- eyes
Material logic
● Kinesthetic- movements
• it is a branch of logic responsible for

SPIRIT analyzing the content of its premises, in

● beliefs, divine , God contrast to formal logic, which only studies
the structure of propositions. It is also known
Logos as applied logic, since it is designed to lead to
• the Word of God, or principle of divine reason a logical conclusion that has utility in the real
and creative order, identified in the Gospel of world.
John with the second person of the Trinity
incarnate in Jesus Christ. DEFINITION:
• refers to the use of rational or logical 1. Lexical Definition:
thinking. The term has various interpretations ● A lexical definition provides the meaning

depending on the context in which it is used of a word as it is commonly used in

everyday language. It aims to capture the
Logic commonly accepted usage of a term.
• science of reasoning ● dictionary

• is a non-empirical science like mathematics. ● Example: Defining "friend" lexically as "a

• Distinguishing correct reasoning from person whom one knows and has a bond
incorrect reasoning is the task of logic of mutual affection with."
• Logos latin word
2. Stipulative Definition:
• Logice Greek word
● A stipulative definition assigns a specific
Apprehension (Pangamba) meaning to a term for the purpose of a
• important for engaging in logical analysis,
particular discussion, context, or field,
identifying valid or invalid arguments, and especially when the term might not have a
drawing reasoned conclusions. well-established meaning.
● new word
• The ability to apprehend and understand the
● slang word
logical elements of an argument is
● Example: In a technical discussion,
fundamental to the practice of logic.
stipulatively defining "widget" as "a
Ideogenesis small, interchangeable device used in a
• is a theory that was first put forward by mechanical system."
Aristotle. In basic terms, this is the study of
3. Precising Definition:
how ideas are generated and developed within
● A precising definition is used to reduce
the mind.
vagueness or ambiguity in a term by
• For example, this theory states that if the
providing additional details or criteria for
mind is not able to form an idea, there is
its application.
nothing to think about.
● Example: Defining "reasonable time" in a

Aristotle contract as "within 10 business days" to

• Aristotle was one of the greatest philosophers
provide a more precise understanding.
who ever lived and the first genuine scientist
4. Theoretical Definition:
in history.
● A theoretical definition provides the
• Father of logic
meaning of a term within the context of a
specific theoretical framework or
Francis Bacon/ Aristotle
scientific theory.
• was one of the leading figures in natural
● according to the theory
philosophy and in the field of scientific
● Example: Defining "force" theoretically in
methodology in the period of transition from
the field of physics as "an influence that
the Renaissance to the early modern era.
causes an object to undergo a change in
Metacognitive Process speed, direction, or shape."
• Is knowledge is knowing your own
5. Enumerative Definition:
limitations to all aspects of learning
 ● An enumerative definition lists all the • Extracting essential elements or general
individual members or examples of the principles from specific propositions.
concept being defined. • Focusing on the core ideas and ignoring

● Example: Defining "constellations" irrelevant details for analysis.

enumeratively as "Orion, Ursa Major, 6. Generalization:
Cassiopeia, and other recognizable star • Drawing broader conclusions from specific
patterns in the night sky." propositions.
6. Definition by subclass • Extending the implications of particular
● main class and divide into sub class statements to more universal principles.
● Naming them in groups, members of a 7. Differentiation:
class • Distinguishing between various elements
● Assign meaning to a term by naming within propositions.
subclass by the class denoted by the term • Recognizing nuances or distinctions that
● Examples: Tree: Oak, narra, Acacia impact the overall meaning.
● Flower: Rose, Lilies, Daisy, Zinnia 8. Elimination:
• Removing unnecessary or irrelevant elements
7. Etymological
from propositions.
● greek word and root word
• Simplifying statements by discarding
● Assign meaning to a word by disclosing
extraneous information.
the word ancestry in own language
9. Inference:
● Word root meaning
• Deriving new propositions or conclusions
● Examples: Captain- Latin= “ caput” (
based on existing statements.
head)
• Applying logical rules to draw reasoned
● Anthropology- Greek “ Athropos”= Man
implications from given information.
& Logos= word, reason .
10. Analysis:
importance of knowing the different types of • Breaking down complex propositions into

definition: simpler components for examination.

● increase vocabulary • Understanding the structure of statements and

● to influence attitudes
how they contribute to logical reasoning.
● explain clearly
FALLACIES
● eliminates ambiguity
Falo- Latin Fallere- greek
● explain the word theoretically
fallacies started sophist
Mental Operations of Material Fallacy: “ Fallere” which means to deceive.
Logic 1. Identification: ● Type of argument that may appear to be

• Recognizing and understanding the true but upon examination, will be proven
components of propositions. false
• Identifying the subject, predicate, and any ● False argument that has an appearance of

qualifiers in statements. truth

2. Comparison: ● Sophism: Fallacy committed with the

• Evaluating the similarities and differences intention to deceive & mislead an

between propositions. opponent
• Assessing how different statements relate to ● Paralogism: Fallacy employed

each other in terms of content or meaning. unknowingly due to ignorance of the rues
3. Classification: for correct reasoning
• Categorizing propositions based on common
Fallacies of Relevance:
features or characteristics.
●Premises of an argument are
• Sorting statements into groups or classes to
irrelevant to the conclusion of that
facilitate analysis.
argument
4. Combination:
●Supports a different conclusion
• Integrating or combining multiple

propositions to form more complex 1. Argumentum ad Baculum-

● Appeal to Force or Appeal to Threat of
statements.
• Creating compound statements or arguments
Force; Illegitimate mode of persuasion
by linking individual propositions. using force or threat; not to jeopardize his
5. Abstraction: job, social standing, freedom or eternal
salvation
 ● may threaten expensive; cost of operating such a
system during summer is astronomical. In
Examples: view of these considerations, we therefore
1)An employee threatens the boss to raise the reject the idea.
salary or she will tell the wife about his illicit
sexual relations with his sexpot client 7. Red-Herring Fallacy-
2)When a teacher threatens the student with a ● Changing the subject to an eye-catching

failing grade if the student does not give topic to distract the listener’s attention
satisfactory rating on the Teacher Evaluation ● Fallacy committed when someone tries to

Survey intentionally divert attention from the

3)When a child threatens not to eat food unless current topic of conversation o a new
the mother buys him the toy he wants unrelated topic.
2. Argumentum ad Misericordiam- Appeal to ● Examples: Andy got home late, past

Pity; Pity is evoked in order to support a curfew; He distracted his parents by

statement in question. talking to them about the weather.
● Make an appeal to compassion due to Examples ( Red Herring fallacy)
disgraced situation Example: ● Your phone bill have gone over the limit;

● A suitor appeals to be loved in return for Distract mother & tell her how hard your
all his sacrifices for the girl. math class
● Lawyer pleads for acquittal of the accused ● Liezl knows she cheated on the test. What

client on the ground that he is the sole will she do if her Parents will kill her for
breadwinner of his family failing the test.

3. Argumentum ad Populum- Mob Appeal 8.Argumentum Ad Verecundiam- Appeal to

Fallacy Authority. Examples TV Ads, commercial ads-
● One attempts to influence the judgment of claims that is valid due to the influencers,
others by appealing to prejudices, expert without supporting evidence.
attitudes ● Michael Jordan eats Oat meals.

● Persuasion is accomplished by heavy use ● Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary

of rhetoric, highly emotional language, biologist, foremost expert in the field,

appeals to people’s sentiments says that evolution is True. Therefore, it is
● Examples: Tagline of a drinking soda:_ true.
the Choice of the New Generation ● 6 out
of 10 beer drinkers drink _____ Beer! 9. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam- Appeal to
Ignorance; then a given statement is
4. Argumentum ad Hominem: Argument accepted as true simply because it cannot be
against the person or attack against the man proven false Examples:
● Meant to discredit the other person ● “ If you have not proven your innocence, I

● Poisoning the Well Fallacy- attacks the must assume that you are guilty.
character of the person ● There must be intelligent life on Mars. No

● Tu Quoque Fallacy- countercharge against one has proven there is not.

accusations of others: “ Yu say I am not ● Evelyn has not said nor has she said that

handsome? Look who’s talking! she does not like me. So probably she is
interested….
5.Fallacy of Hasty Generalization- When a
general rule is applied to a specific case 10. Post Hoc Fallacy: After this, Therefore,
without restriction. before this. It infers a causal connection based
Example: Jogging is good for the health. on mere correlation.
Therefore, a person with heart disease could Examples:
improve his health by joggig. ● Merry did a tik-tok dance & it rained that

night
6. Straw Man Fallacy ● Cramming for the test really helps. I
● Committed when a person distorts n received a perfect score in the test.
opponent’s argument for the purpose of
demolishing it. 11. Slippery slope Fallacy
● Example: To provide factory workers with ● Committed when the conclusion of an

better ventilation in their work premises argument rests upon a alleged chain
to be more efficient, an air conditioning reaction ● An argument that suggests
system be placed. Unfortunately, it is so
 taking a minor action will lead to a
major consequences.
● It is a string of “of, if then” statements

● One step can lead to chain or related

events that result to undesirable

consequential happenings
Examples: Slippery Slope
● If you don’t become an honor student,

you won’t get to study in college. ●

Skinny- you get ugly; Ugly- no lover;
No lover- No marriage ● Alone-
Depression; It could lead to sickness &
eventually death.

12. Petitio Principii- Begging

the question
● A circular reasoning in a chain
of inferences
● Examples: Everyone wants the new

Iphone because it is the trendiest, hottest

gadget on the market
● Adults should not play childish games

because they are old.

13. Nonsequitor: Drawing a conclusion

that does not follow from the evidence
Examples:
● Good people don’t lie. You told a lie.

Therefore you are not a good person.

● Santa Claus is real. The Santa in the Mall

has fake beard. Therefore, Santa is

obviously not real.

14. Affirming the Consequent- If the

consequent is true, the antecedent is said to be
true as a result.
Example:
● Virginia had a flu last week; she has
experienced fever. Therefore, since you
have fever today, that might lead to flu.

15. Argumentum Tradition- appeal to tradition.

Concludes that something is good or true
because it has been accepted for a long time. “
It’s always been done”.
Example:
● Gay marriage is wrong for marriage has
always been between man & a woman.