Subgroups

Rhodelyn Adeser

Batangas State University - Pablo Borbon

March 2023

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 1 / 31

”The purpose of proof is to understand,
not to verify”.
- Arnold Ross

”For example” is not a proof.

- Jewish proverb

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 2 / 31

Topics:

1
Order of a Group and an Element
2
Subgroups
3
Cyclic Subgroups

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 3 / 31

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1 Illustrate the order of a group, order of an element, and the subgroup concept by
producing examples and non-examples.
2 Explain the structures and characteristics of different subgroups like cyclic
subgroup, center of a group and centralizer of an element.
3 Assess and justify whether a given set of elements together with a binary
operation is a subgroup.
4 Compose proofs for related propositions using previous theorems.
.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 4 / 31

Readings:

Contemporary Abstract Algebra (9th edition) by

Joseph A Gallian - p. 60-68

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 5 / 31

Order of a Group

Definition 1 (Order of a Group)

The number of elements of a group (finite or infinite) is called its order. We will use
|G| to denote the order of G.

Example:
(Z, +) has infinite order.
U (10) = {1, 3, 7, 9} under multiplication modulo 10 has order 4.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 6 / 31

Order of an Element

Definition 2 (Order of an Element)

The order of an element g in a group G is the smallest positive integer n such that
g n = e. (In additive notation, this would be ng = 0.) If no integer exists, we say that
g has infinite order. The order of an element g is denoted by |g|.

So, to find the order of a group element g, you need only to compute the
sequence of products g, g 2 , g 3 , . . . , until you reach the identity for the first time.
The exponent of this product (or coefficient if the operation is addition) is the
order of g.
If the identity never appears in the sequence, then g has infinite order.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 7 / 31

Example:

EXAMPLE 1:
Consider U (15) under multiplication modulo 15.
What are the elements of U (15)
U (15) = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}
What is the |U (15)|?
|U (15)| = 8
What is the identity element of U (15) under multiplication modulo 15?
1
What is the order of the element 7?
We have to compute the sequence 71 = 7, 72 = 4, 73 = 13, 74 = 1.
Therefore, |7| = 4.
What is the order of element 11?
|11| = 2

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 8 / 31

Example:

What is |1|?
What is |2|?
What is |4|?
What is |8|?
What is |13|?
What is |14|?

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 9 / 31

Example:

EXAMPLE 2:
Consider Z10 under addition modulo 10.
What are the elements of Z10 under addition modulo 10?
Z10 = {0, 1, 2, , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
What is the |Z10 | under addition modulo 10? |Z10 | = 10
What is the identity of Z10 under addition modulo 10? e = 0
For additive notation, we have, ng = 0, to find the order of the element g.
What is |0|?
What is |1|?
What is |2|?
What is |6|?

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 10 / 31

Example:

EXAMPLE 3:
Consider Z under ordinary addition.
Let a = 0 ∈ Z. What is the order of the element 0?
Let a ̸= 0 ∈ nZ. What is the order of the element a?
Observe that every non-zero element of Z has infinite order since the sequence
a, 2a, 3a, . . . never includes 0 when a ̸= 0.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 11 / 31

Subgroup

Definition 3 (Subgroup)
If a subset H of a group G is itself a group under the operation of G, we say that H is
a subgroup of G.

Remarks:
We use the notation H ≤ G to mean that H is a subgroup of G.
If we want to indicate that H is a subgroup of G but is not equal to G itself, we
write it as H < G. Such a subgroup is called a proper group.
The subgroup e is called a trivial subgroup of G.
Is Zn under addition modulo n a subgroup of Z under addition? NO! They have
different operation.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 12 / 31

Subgroup Tests

When determining whether or not a subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G, one

need not directly verify the group axioms. The next three results provide simple tests
that suffice to show that a subset of a group is a subgroup.

Theorem 4 (One-Step Subgroup Test)

Let G be a group and H a non-empty subset of G. If ab−1 is in H whenever a and b
are in H, then H is a subgroup of G. (In additive notation, if a − b is in H whenever a
and b are in H, then H is a subgroup of G.)

Proof:
Let (G, ·) be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G together with the binary
operation in the group.
i. Since (G, ·) is a group, then the associative property holds for every element in
G. Clearly, the associative property holds in H.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 13 / 31

Subgroup Tests
Proof.
Suppose ab−1 ∈ H whenever a, b ∈ H. Since H is non-empty, we may pick some
x ∈ H.
ii. Let a = x and b = x. Then, ab−1 = xx−1 = e. Hence, e ∈ H.
iii. Let a = e and b = x. Then ab−1 = ex−1 = x−1 ∈ H. Hence, x−1 ∈ H
whenever x ∈ H.
iv. Let x, y ∈
H. By iii, y −1 ∈ H whenever y ∈ H. Let a = x and b = y −1 .
−1
Then xy = x y −1 = ab−1 ∈ H. Hence, H is closed under the operation in G.
Therefore, by definition 3, H is a subgroup of G.

Steps in Applying Theorem 4 (One-Step Subgroup Test)

1 Identify the property P that distinguishes the elements of H; that is, identify the

defining condition.
2 Prove that the identity has property P . (This verifies that H is non-empty).

3 Assume that two elements a and b have property P .

4 Use the assumption that a and b have property P to show that ab−1 has property

P.
Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 14 / 31
Subgroup Tests

Example:

Let G be an Abelian group with identity e. Prove that H = {x ∈ G|x2 = e} is a

subgroup of G.

Proof.
Let G be an Abelian group and let (1) H = {x ∈ G|x2 = e}. (2) Observe that
e2 = e. Hence, e ∈ H. Thus, H is non-empty. (3) Suppose a, b ∈ H. Then a2 = e
and b2 = e. Since G is an Abelian group, H is an Abelian subset of of G. (4) Observe

2
2
−1
that ab−1 = ab−1 ab−1 = a2 b−1 = a2 b2 = ee−1 = e. Thus, ab−1 ∈ H.

By One-Step Subgroup Test, H ≤ G.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 15 / 31

Subgroup Tests

Theorem 5 (Two-Step Subgroup Test)

Let G be a group and let H be a non-empty subset of G. If ab ∈ H whenever a, b ∈ H
(H is closed under the operation), and a−1 ∈ H whenever a ∈ H (H is closed under
taking inverses), then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof.
Let (G, ·) be a group and let H be a non-empty subset of G. Let ab ∈ H whenever
a, b ∈ H and let a−1 ∈ H whenever a ∈ H.
i. Since H is closed under taking inverses and closed under the binary operation,
aa−1 = e ∈ H
ii. The associativity of the binary operation · in H follows from the associativity
of · in G.

Since H is a group under the operation of G, then by definition 3, H ≤ G.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 16 / 31

Subgroup Tests

Steps in Applying Theorem 5 (Two-Step Subgroup Test)

1 Identify the property P that distinguishes the elements of H; that is, identify the
defining condition.
2 Prove that the identity has property P . (This verifies that H is non-empty).
3 Assume that two elements a and b have property P .
4 Use the assumption that a and b have property P to show that ab has property P .
5 Use the assumption that a and b have property P to show that a−1 has property
P.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 17 / 31

Example:
Let G be an Abelian group. Prove that H = {x ∈ G | |x| is finite } is a subgroup of G.
Proof.
Let G be an Abelian group. Define H = {x ∈ G | |x| is finite }. Clearly, e1 = e, and
1 is finite. Thus, e ∈ H.
Suppose a, b ∈ H. By definition, |a| and |b| are both finite. Let |a| = m and |b| = n
such that m, n are finite positive integers.
i. Since m, n are positive integers, their product mn is also a finite positive
integer. Since G is Abelian, note that,

(ab)mn = (amn ) (bmn ) = (am )n (bn )m = en em = e.

Thus, ab ∈ H.
ii. Since G is Abelian,

(a−1 )m = a(−1)(m) = (am )−1 = e−1 = e

Hence a−1 ∈ H.
By the two-step subgroup test H is a subgroup of G.
Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 18 / 31
Subgroup Tests

We next illustrate how to use the Two-Step Subgroup Test by introducing an

important technique for creating new subgroups of Abelian groups from existing ones.
The method will be extended to some subgroups of non-Abelian groups in later
chapters.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 19 / 31

Example:

Let G be an Abelian group and let H and K be subgroups of G. Prove that

HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K} is a subgroup of G.
Proof.
Let G be an Abelian group and let H and K be subgroups of G. Suppose
HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}. Note that e ∈ H and e ∈ K. Then, ee = e. Thus,
e ∈ HK.
Suppose a, b ∈ HK. By definition of HK, a = h1 k1 and b = h2 k2 for some
h1 , h2 ∈ H and k1 , k2 ∈ K.
Since G is Abelian, every elements in G commutes. And since H and K are
subgroups of G, they are closed under the binary operation of G.
i. Hence, ab = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) = (h1 k1 h2 k2 ) = (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 )
Since (h1 h2 ) ∈ H and (k1 k2 ), then, by definition of HK, (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 ) = ab ∈ HK.
ii. Note that a−1 = (h1 k1 )−1 = k1−1 h−11 by the Socks-Shoe Property. Since G is
Abelian, k1−1 h−1
1 = h −1 −1
1 k 1
By the two-step subgroup test H is a subgroup of G.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 20 / 31

When is the subset of a group not a subgroup?
How do you prove that a subset of a group is NOT a subgroup? Here are the
possible ways, any one of which guarantees that the subject is not a subgroup.:
1 Show that the identity is not in the set.
2 Exhibit an element of the set whose inverse is not in the set.
3 Exhibit two elements of the set whose product is not in the set.

Example:
Let G be the group of non-zero real numbers under multiplication,
√ H = {x ∈√G |√
Let x = 1 or x is irrational }. Then His not a subgroup of G, since
2 ∈ H but 2 · 2 = 2 ∈
/ H.
Let K = {x ∈ G | x ≥ 1}. Then Kis not a subgroup of G since 2 ∈ K but
2−1 ∈
/ K.

Remark:
When dealing with finite groups, it is easier to use the next subgroup test.
Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 21 / 31
Subgroup Tests

Theorem 6 (Finite Subgroup Test)

Let H be a non-empty finite subset of a group G. If H is closed under the operation
of G, then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof.
Let H be a non-empty finite subset of a group G and suppose that H is closed
under the operation of G.
Let a ∈ H.
Case 1: Let a = e. Then a−1 = e−1 = e = a. Thus, a−1 ∈ H.
Case 2: Suppose a ̸= e. Then | a |̸= 1. Consider the sequence a, a2 , a3 , . . . . Since H
is closed under the operation in G, all of those elements belongs to H. Since H is
finite, not all of these elements are distinct. Hence, ai = aj and i > j. Since a ̸= e
and i − j > 1, then ai−j = e. Thus, aai−j−1 = ai−j = e. Hence, ai−j−1 = a−1 .Since
i − j − 1 ≥ 1, then ai−j−1 ∈ H.
By the Two Step Subgroup test, H is a subgroup of G.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 22 / 31

Examples of Subgroups
For any element a from a group, let ⟨a⟩ denote the set {an | n ∈ Z}. Note that the
exponents of a include all negative integers as well as 0 and the positive integers (a0 is
defined to be the identity).
Theorem 7 (⟨a⟩ is a Subgroup)
Let G be a group, and let a be any element of G. Then, ⟨a⟩ is a subgroup of G.

Proof.
Since a ∈ ⟨a⟩, ⟨a⟩ is non-empty. Let an , am ∈ ⟨a⟩. Then, an (am )−1 = an−m ∈ ⟨a⟩.
Hence, by One Step Subgroup Test, ⟨a⟩ is a subgroup of G.

Remark:
The subgroup ⟨a⟩ is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.
In case that G = ⟨a⟩, we say that G is cyclic and a is a generator of G.
A cyclic group may have many generators.
Notice that although the list . . . , a−2 , a−1 , a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , has infinitely many
entries, the set {an | n ∈ Z} might have only finitely many elements.
Every cyclic group is Abelian. ai aj = ai+j = aj+i = aj ai
Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 23 / 31
Examples of Subgroups
Example 1:
Consider U (10) = {1, 3, 7, 9}. Observe that

30 = 1 31 = 3 32 = 9 33 = 7
34 = 1 35 = 3 36 = 9 3−1 = 7 since 3 · 7 = 1
3−2 = 9 3−3 = 3 3−4 = 1 3−5 = 7

Hence, ⟨3⟩ = {3, 9, 7, 1}.

Example 2:
Note that an means na when the operation is addition. In Z10 , ⟨2⟩ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 0}.
Example 3:

In Z, ⟨−1⟩ = Z. Each entry in the list

. . . , −2(−1), −1(−1), 0(−1), 1(−1), 2(−1), . . .

represents a distinct group elements.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 24 / 31

Dihedral Groups

An important family of examples of groups is the class of groups whose elements

are symmetries of geometric objects. The simplest subclass is when the geometric
objects are regular planar figures.

For each n ∈ Z+ , n ≥ 3, let Dn be be the set of symmetries of a regular n − gon,

where a symmetry is any rigid motion of the n − gon which can be effected by
taking a copy of the n − gon, moving this copy in any fashion in 3−space and
then placing the copy back on the original n − gon so it exactly covers it.

| Dn |= 2n

Some resources used D2n but we will stick with Dn to be consistent with the
book that we are using.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 25 / 31

Examples of Subgroups
360
In Dn , the dihedral group of order 2n, let R denote a rotation of degrees. Then,
n
Rn = R360◦ = e, Rn+1 = R, Rn+2 = R2 , . . .
−1
R =R n−1 , −2
R =R n−2 ,...
so that ⟨R⟩ = {e, R, . . . , Rn−1 }
The powers of R cycles back periodically with period n.
Rn = e

Rn+1 = R R−1 = Rn−1

Rn+2 = R2 R−2 = Rn−2

. . .
Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 26 / 31
Examples of Subgroups
For any element a of a group G, it is useful to think of ⟨a⟩ as the smallest subgroup
of G containing a. This notion can be extended to a any collection S of elements from
a group G by defining ⟨S⟩ as the subgroup of G with the property that ⟨S⟩ contains S
and if H is any subgroup of G containing S, then H also contains ⟨S⟩. Thus, ⟨S⟩ is
the smallest subgroup of G that contains S. The set ⟨S⟩ is called the subgroup
generated by S.
Z20 ⟨8, 14⟩ = {0, 2, 4, . . . , 18} = ⟨2⟩
Z ⟨8, 13⟩ = Z
D4 ⟨H, V ⟩ = {H, H 2 , V, HV }
2 , R3 , R4 , V, R V, R2 V, R3 V } = D
D4 ⟨R90 , V ⟩ = {R90 , R90 90 90 90 90 90 4
In R, √
the group of real numbers
√ under addition,
⟨2, π, 2⟩ = {2a + bπ + c 2 | a, b, c ∈ Z}.
In C, the group of complex numbers under addition, ⟨1, i⟩ = {a + bi | a, b ∈ Z}.
This group is called the Gaussian Integers.
In C∗ , the group of non-zero complex numbers under multiplication,
⟨1, i⟩ = {1, −1, i, −i} = ⟨i⟩.
Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 27 / 31
Center of a Group

Definition 8 (Center of a Group)

The center, Z(G) of a group G is the subset of elements in G that commute with
every element of G. In symbols,

Z(G) = {a ∈ G | ax = xa ∀x ∈ G}

The notation Z(G) comes from the fact that the German word for center is Zentrum

Example:
For n ≥ 3,
(
{R0 , R180 }, when n is even
Z(Dn ) =
{R0 }, when n is odd

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 28 / 31

Examples of Subgroups

Theorem 9 (Center is a Subgroup)

The center of a group G is a subgroup of G.

Proof.
Let Z(G) be the center of a group G. By definition, Z(G) ⊆ G
Since G is a group, e ∈ G. Note that ex = xe ∀x ∈ G. Hence, e ∈ Z(G) and
Z(G) is non-empty.
Suppose a, b ∈ Z(G). Then, (ab)x = a(bx) = (ax)b = (xa)b = x(ab) for all x ∈ G.
Thus, ab ∈ Z(G).

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 29 / 31

Examples of Subgroups

Proof.
Suppose a ∈ Z(G). Then, ax = xa ∀x ∈ G. Observe that

ax = xa
−1
a (ax)a−1 = a−1 (xa)a−1
(a−1 a)xa−1 = a−1 x(aa−1 )
exa−1 = a−1 xe
xa−1 = a−1 x
a−1 x = xa−1

Hence, a−1 ∈ Z(G) whenever a ∈ Z(G).

By the Two Step Subgroup Test, Z(G) is a subgroup of G.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 30 / 31

Centralizer of a in G
Definition 10 (Centralizer of a in G)
Let a be a fixed element of a group G. The centralizer of a in G, C(a), is the set of
all elements in G that commutes with a. In symbols, C(a) = {g ∈ G | ga = ag}.

Example:
D4 have the following centralizers:

C(R0 ) = D4 = C(R180 ),
C(R90 ) = {R0 , R90 , R180 , R270 } = C(R270 )
C(H) = {R0 , H, R180 , V } = C(V )
C(D) = {R0 , D, R180 , D′ } = C(D′ )

Theorem 11 (C(a) is a subgroup)

For each a in a group G, the centralizer of a is a subgroup of G.

The proof is left as a practice exercise.

Rhodelyn Adeser Subgroups 31 / 31