Measurement Scales: Tools of Sound Measurement

 Scales of measurement refers to the way which variables or the numbers are
classified or categorized
 Each scale has the specific property and features
 Scaling is a process or set of procedures, which is used to assess the attitude of an
individual. Scaling is defined as the assignment of objects to numbers according to a
rule. The objects in the definition are text statements, which can be the statements of
attitude or principle. Attitude of an individual is not measured directly by scaling. It is
first migrated to statements and then the numbers are assigned to them
 Comparative Scales : It involve the direct comparison of two or more objects
 . 2. Non-comparative Scales : Objects or stimuli are scaled independently of each
other.

These are of four kinds of scales, namely: 1. Nominal scale 2. Ordinal scale 3. Interval scale 4. Ratio
scale
1-NOMINAL SCALE

 Nominal scale deals with the non-numeric data that is with the categorical
data
 It is a system of assigning number to the variable to label them only for
identification and to distinguish them from each other. Example: Car-1, Buses-
2
 It is a measure that simply divides objects or events into categories
 It is considered as the weakest tool of the measurement.
 It shows the quality of data.
 Here, categories are designated with names or numerals but ordering of
categories is meaningless i.e. there is no order
 Examples: Gender, race, color preference, etc.
 Researchers may add the number or represent by number male=1 and female
=2 but that number has no numerical value. These are nominal because they
are numerical in name only
 The only mathematical operation that can be performed is count or say
frequency
2-ORDINAL SCALE
 It is system that ranks the value or data in order
 The gap between the variables are not quantified and doesn’t have to be
same.
 Here a variable is categorized in different subgroups in ascending or
descending order. However, the interval between the successive categories
are unequal.
 A measure that divides objects or events into categories and arrange them in
order of magnitude to provide ordered categories with unequal interval size.
  Used to interpret the relative positions.
 Example of the ordinal variable is the rating scale, Likert scale etc.

3-INTERVAL SCALE
 Interval scale is a system of assigning number to the variable to label them for
identification and ranking based on a scale having equal interval size with
arbitrary zero.
 Here, zero is arbitrary that allows measurement on either side of zero.
 Here, a variable is categorized in different subgroups in ascending or
descending order and intervals between the successive categories are equal
and constant.
 We can know bigger value and also how much bigger they are.
 Zero is not the lowest value there are point on scale which are below than it
 Examples include Celsius, Fahrenheit Temperature, IQ (intelligence scale), SAT
scores.
 Here, 0 degree Celsius does not mean no temperature or no heat
 Likewise, 0 IQ does not mean no IQ
 Likewise, 64 degrees Fahrenheit is 32 units more than 32 degrees
Fahrenheit but not twice as warm as 32 degrees Fahrenheit
 IQ 100 is 50 times more than IQ 50 but individual with IQ 100 is
not two times intelligent than individual with IQ 50.
4-RATIO SCALE
 Ratio scale is a system of assigning number to the variable to label them for
identification and ranking based on a scale having equal interval size with
absolute zero that allows measurement on only one side of zero.
 It is a top level of the measurement
 Here, a variable is categorized in different subgroups in ascending or
descending order and intervals between the successive categories are equal
and constant.
 Same as the interval scale except zero has the true value i.e. zero represent
the absolute value
 All the mathematical operations are applicable in this scale.
 Examples include: weight, height, sales figures, ruler measurements, number of
children.
 Here, weight 0 means no weight and weight 60 kgs mean it is 30
units more than 30 kgs and two times of 30 kgs.
Non-comparative Scale

Continuous Rating Scale

VERY POOR …………….............VERY GOOD

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Likert Scale :

It is known as summated rating scale. This consists of a series of statements concerning an attitude
object. Each statement has ‘5 points’, Agree and Disagree on the scale. They are also called
summated scales, because scores of individual items are summated to produce a total score for the
respondent. The Likert Scale consists of two parts item part and evaluation part. Item part is usually
a statement about a certain product, event or attitude. Evaluation part is a list of responses

like “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. The five point-scale is used

here. The numbers like +2, +1, 0, –1, –2 are used.

Semantic Differential Scale :This is very similar to the Likert Scale. It also consists of a

number of items to be rated by the respondents. The essential difference between Likert and
Semantic Differential Scale is as follows: It uses “Bipolar” adjectives and phrases. There are no
statements in the Semantic Differential Scale. Each pair of adjective is separated by a seven point
scale.

Multidimensional Scaling :This is used to study consumer attitudes, particularly with respect

to perceptions and preferences. These techniques help identify the product attributes that are
important to the customers and to measure their relative importance. Multi-Dimensional Scaling is
useful in studying the following:

1. (a) What are the major attributes considered while choosing a

product (soft drinks, modes of transportation)? (b) Which

attributes do customers compare to evaluate different brands

of the product? Is it price, quality, availability etc.?

2. Which is the ideal combination of attributes according to the

customer? (i.e., which two or more attributes consumer will

consider before deciding to buy.)

3. Which advertising messages are compatible with the

consumer’s brand perceptions?

Stapel Scales

1. Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as

a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to

create pairs of bipolar adjectives.

2. The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as

the results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential.

However, the stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and

administer

Data Processing and Tabulation:

EDITING: The process of checking and adjusting responses in the completed questionnaires for

omissions, legibility, and consistency and readying them for coding and storage.

Purpose of Editing For consistency between and among responses. For completeness in responses–

to reduce effects of item non-response. To better utilize questions answered out of order. To

facilitate the coding process.

Types of Editing:

1. Field Editing Preliminary editing by a field supervisor on the same day as the

interview to catch technical omissions, check legibility of handwriting, and clarify responses that are

logically or conceptually inconsistent.

2. Editing performed by a central office staff; often done more rigorously than field editing.

CODING

The process of identifying and classifying each answer with a numerical score or other

character symbol. The numerical score or symbol is called a code, and serves as a rule for

interpreting, classifying, and recording data. Identifying responses with codes is necessary if data is

to be processed by computer.

TABULATION

Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in

compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical table) for further analysis When mass data has been
assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise

logical order, which may be called tabulation.

Advantages of Tabulation: :

1. It simplifies complex data.

2. It facilitates comparison.

3. It facilitates computation.

4. It presents facts in minimum possible space.

5. Tabulated data are good for references and they make it easier to present the information in the
form of graphs and diagrams.

Hypothesis Testing
A systematic procedure for deciding whether the results of a research study support a
particular theory which applies to a population.
Hypothesis testing allows us to use a sample to decide between two statements made about
a population characteristic. Population Characteristics are things like “ The mean of a
population” or “the proportion of the population who have a particular property”. These
two statements are called the Null Hypothesis and the Alternative Hypothesis.
-The Null Hypothesis- This is the hypothesis or claim that is initially assumed to be true(.H0)
-The Alternative Hypothesis(HA): This is the hypothesis or claim which we initially assume to
be false but which we may decide to accept if there is sufficient evidence
Null -H0 : The mean lifetime of an energy-saving light bulb is 60
days.
Alternative-H1 : The mean lifetime of an energy-saving light
bulb is less than 60 days

A one-tailed test may be either left-tailed or right-tailed.

A left-tailed test is used when the alternative
hypothesis states that the true value of the parameter
specified in the null hypothesis is less than the null
hypothesis claims.

A right-tailed test is used when the alternative

hypothesis states that the true value of the parameter
specified in the null hypothesis is greater than the null
hypothesis claims
Report

Definition : A report may be defined as a formal document based on collection of facts, events and

opinion and usually expresses a summarized and interpretative value of information. It can be

defined as communication in which a person, who is assigned the work of report making, gives

information to some individual or organization because it is his or her responsibility to do so. The

word ‘report’ is derived from the Latin word – ‘reportare’ – means to bring back.

Presents facts and information specifically, no opinions

Written for a specific audience, a report concerns itself to only a certain set of people related

The structure is very crisp and clean, using pointers and numbered headings and sub-headings

Using tables, graphs, charts to prove a point is very common

A report often needs a quick summary addressing highlighting points

Often has appendices

Crisp, often pre-designed layouts

Types of Reports : Reports can be classified as follows : (1) Formal and Informal Repots (2) Routine
and special Reports (3) Oral and written reports (4) Informational and Analytical

write-up flows like – introduction, body, conclusion and summary. The layout is pretty crisp with a
title page, numbered subheadings, clear bulleted points, recommendations, references, appendices,
dates, and timings reported exactly sometimes, and so on. This format stays consistent throughout.

All your facts and information presented in the report not only have to bias-free, but they also have
to be a 100% correct. Proof-reading and fact-checking is always what you do as a thumb rule before
submitting a report.
Long Report and Short Reports:
These kinds of reports are quite clear, as the name suggests. A two-
page report or sometimes referred to as a memorandum is short, and
a thirty-page report is absolutely long.

Internal and External Reports:

As the name suggests, an internal report stays within a certain

organization or group of people. In the case of office settings, internal
reports are for within the organization.

We prepare external reports, such as a news report in the newspaper

about an incident or the annual reports
of companies for distribution outside the organization. We call these
as public reports.

Periodic Reports:

Periodic reports are sent out on regularly pre-scheduled dates. In

most cases, their direction is upward and serves as management
control. Some, like annual reports, is not vertical but is a Government
mandate to be periodic in nature.

That is why we have annual or quarterly or half-yearly reports.

Proposal Reports:

These kinds of reports are like an extension to the

analytical/problem-solving reports. A proposal is a document one
prepares to describe how one organization can provide a solution to a
problem they are facing.

Functional Reports:

These kinds of reports include marketing reports, financial reports,

accounting reports, and a spectrum of other reports that provide a
function specifically. By and large, we can include almost all reports
in most of these categories. Furthermore, we can include a single
report in several kinds of reports.

Following are the parts of a report format that is most common.

 Executive summary – highlights of the main report.
 Table of Contents – index page.
 Introduction – origin, essentials of the main subject.
 Body – main report.
 Conclusion – inferences, measures taken, projections.
 Reference – sources of information.
 Appendix.

Research Report
• TITLE [in a memorandum, the subject]
• ABSTRACT [in a memorandum, the first paragraph]
• 1. INTRODUCTION
• 1.1 Background
• 1.2 Outline of the problem and its context
• 1.3 Previous related work
• 2. PURPOSE
• 2.1 Hypothesis or hypotheses
• 2.2 Definitions
• 2.3 Assumptions
• 3. METHODS
• 3.1 What are the data that were used?
• 3.2 How were they collected?
• 3.3 How were they analyzed?
• 4. RESULTS
• 5. CONCLUSIONS
• 6. RECOMMENDATIONS
• 7. SUMMARY AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• APPENDIX OR APPENDICES