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 CONTENTS

Title Page
Imprint
Acknowledgements
THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE
I. INTRODUCTORY
II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's.
2. In a series of three or more terms with a single
conjunction, use a comma after each term except the
last.
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a
co-ordinate clause.
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.
6. Do not break sentences in two.
7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence
must refer to the grammatical subject.
III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one
paragraph to each topic.
9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic
sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning.
10. Use the active voice.
11. Put statements in positive form.
12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.
13. Omit needless words.
14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences:
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.
16. Keep related words together.
17. In summaries, keep to one tense.

5
 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.
IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM
V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED
VI. SPELLING
WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED
VII. EXERCISES ON CHAPTERS II AND III
I. Punctuate:
II. Explain the difference in meaning:
III. Explain and correct the errors in punctuation:
IV. Point out and correct the faults in the following
sentences:

6
7
8
 I. INTRODUCTORY

This book aims to give in brief space the principal requirements of

plain English style. It aims to lighten the task of instructor and
student by concentrating attention (in Chapters II and III) on a few
essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most
commonly violated. In accordance with this plan it lays down three
rules for the use of the comma, instead of a score or more, and one
for the use of the semicolon, in the belief that these four rules
provide for all the internal punctuation that is required by nineteen
sentences out of twenty. Similarly, it gives in Chapter III only those
principles of the paragraph and the sentence which are of the widest
application. The book thus covers only a small portion of the field of
English style. The experience of its writer has been that once past the
essentials, students profit most by individual instruction based on
the problems of their own work, and that each instructor has his own
body of theory, which he may prefer to that offered by any textbook.
The numbers of the sections may be used as references in
correcting manuscript.
The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell
University have greatly helped him in the preparation of his
manuscript. Mr. George McLane Wood has kindly consented to the
inclusion under Rule 10 of some material from his Suggestions to
Authors.
The following books are recommended for reference or further
study: in connection with Chapters II and IV, F. Howard Collins,
Author and Printer (Henry Frowde); Chicago University Press,
Manual of Style; T. L. De Vinne, Correct Composition (The Century
Company); Horace Hart, Rules for Compositors and Printers (Oxford
University Press); George McLane Wood, Extracts from the Style-

9
Book of the Government Printing Office (United States Geological
Survey); in connection with Chapters III and V, The King's English
(Oxford University Press); Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, The Art of
Writing (Putnam), especially the chapter, Interlude on Jargon;
George McLane Wood, Suggestions to Authors (United States
Geological Survey); John Lesslie Hall, English Usage (Scott,
Foresman and Co.); James P. Kelley, Workmanship in Words (Little,
Brown and Co.). In these will be found full discussions of many
points here briefly treated and an abundant store of illustrations to
supplement those given in this book.
It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard
the rules of rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader will
usually find in the sentence some compensating merit, attained at
the cost of the violation. Unless he is certain of doing as well, he will
probably do best to follow the rules. After he has learned, by their
guidance, to write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him
look, for the secrets of style, to the study of the masters of literature.

10
 II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE

1. F
' .

Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,

Charles's friend
Burns's poems
the witch's malice
This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office
and of the Oxford University Press.
Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names in -es and -
is, the possessive Jesus', and such forms as for conscience' sake, for
righteousness' sake. But such forms as Achilles' heel, Moses' laws,
Isis' temple are commonly replaced by
the heel of Achilles
the laws of Moses
the temple of Isis
The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, and oneself
have no apostrophe.

11
 2. I
,
.

Thus write,
red, white, and blue
gold, silver, or copper
He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.
This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the
Oxford University Press.
In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as,
Brown, Shipley & Co.

3. E
.

The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to
travel on foot.
This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide
whether a single word, such as however, or a brief phrase, is or is not
parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but
slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the
interruption be slight or considerable, he must never insert one
comma and omit the other. Such punctuation as
Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,
or
My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,

12
 is indefensible.
If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the
first comma before the conjunction, not after it.
He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery,
greeted us with a smile.
Always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed between
commas (or, at the end of the sentence, between comma and period)
are the following:
(1) the year, when forming part of a date, and the day of the
month, when following the day of the week:
February to July, 1916.
April 6, 1917.
Monday, November 11, 1918.
(2) the abbreviations etc. and jr.
(3) non-restrictive relative clauses, that is, those which do not
serve to identify or define the antecedent noun, and similar clauses
introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place.
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and
more interested.
In this sentence the clause introduced by which does not serve to
tell which of several possible audiences is meant; what audience is in
question is supposed to be already known. The clause adds,
parenthetically, a statement supplementing that in the main clause.
The sentence is virtually a combination of two statements which
might have been made independently:
The audience had at first been indifferent. It became more and more
interested.
Compare the restrictive relative clause, not set off by commas, in
the sentence,
The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the
place.

13
 Here the clause introduced by who does serve to tell which of
several possible candidates is meant; the sentence cannot be split up
into two independent statements.
The difference in punctuation in the two sentences following is
based on the same principle:
Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner, is a few miles from Bridgewater.
The day will come when you will admit your mistake.
Nether Stowey is completely identified by its name; the statement
about Coleridge is therefore supplementary and parenthetic. The day
spoken of is identified only by the dependent clause, which is
therefore restrictive.
Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions
between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or
dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a
sentence.
Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their
dominions to the east, and rose to royal rank with the possession of
Sicily, exchanged afterwards for Sardinia.
Other illustrations may be found in sentences quoted under Rules
4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18.
The writer should be careful not to set off independent clauses by
commas: see under Rule 5.

4. P
- .

The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its
first years can no longer be reconstructed.
The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.

14
 Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be
in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma
is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought.
Further, and is the least specific of connectives. Used between
independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between
them without defining that relation. In the example above, the
relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be
rewritten:
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first
years can no longer be reconstructed.
Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of
escape.
Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story
of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.
But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly
compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the
style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief.
Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in
easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to
construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).
Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by
as (in the sense of because), for, or, nor, and while (in the sense of
and at the same time) likewise require a comma before the
conjunction.
If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a semicolon, not
a comma, is required (see Rule 5). The connectives so and yet may be
used either as adverbs or as conjunctions, accordingly as the second
clause is felt to be co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either
mark of punctuation may be justified. But these uses of so
(equivalent to accordingly or to so that) are somewhat colloquial
and should, as a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple correction,
usually serviceable, is to omit the word so and begin the first clause
with as or since:

15
 I had never been in the place As I had never been in the place
before; so I had difficulty in before, I had difficulty in finding
finding my way about. my way about.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set
off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma
is needed after the conjunction.
The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly,
there is still one chance of escape.
When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed
only once, a comma is required if the connective is but. If the
connective is and, the comma should be omitted if the relation
between the two statements is close or immediate.
I have heard his arguments, but am still unconvinced.
He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.

5. D .

If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a

conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper
mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.
It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences
each, replacing the semicolons by periods.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.
If a conjunction is inserted the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).

16
Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.
A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the
advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better than
the second form, because it suggests the close relationship between
the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and
better than the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible.
Indeed it may be said that this simple method of indicating
relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of
composition. The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause or
of consequence.
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as
accordingly, besides, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a
conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very
short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:
Man proposes, God disposes.
The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.
Note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause or
consequence. Also in the colloquial form of expression,
I hardly knew him, he was so changed,
a comma, not a semicolon, is required. But this form of expression
is inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue of a story or play,
or perhaps in a familiar letter.

6. D .

In other words, do not use periods for commas.

17
I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from
Liverpool to New York.
He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the
world and lived in half a dozen countries.
In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a
comma, and the following word begun with a small letter.
It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the
purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:
Again and again he called out. No reply.
The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is
warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in
syntax or in punctuation.
Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the
punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly
mastered that their application becomes second nature.

7. A
.

Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two

children.
The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the
woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must
recast the sentence:
He saw a woman accompanied by two children, walking slowly down
the road.
Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition,
nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under
the same rule if they begin the sentence.
On arriving in Chicago, his When he arrived (or, On his arrival)

18
friends met him at the station. in Chicago, his friends met him at
the station.
A soldier of proved valor, they A soldier of proved valor, he was
entrusted him with the defence entrusted with the defence of the
of the city. city.
Young and inexperienced, the Young and inexperienced, I thought
task seemed easy to me. the task easy.
Without a friend to counsel
Without a friend to counsel him, he
him, the temptation proved
found the temptation irresistible.
irresistible.
Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.
Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very
cheap.
Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.

19
 III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF
COMPOSITION

8. M :
.

If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you

intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it
into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary
work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely
outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these
is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been
written, examine it to see whether subdivision will not improve it.
Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics,
each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object
of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the
reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new
step in the development of the subject has been reached.
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the
composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem might
consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of
two paragraphs:

A. Account of the work.

B. Critical discussion.

A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of

seven paragraphs:

20
 A. Facts of composition and publication.
B. Kind of poem; metrical form.
C. Subject.
D. Treatment of subject.
E. For what chiefly remarkable.
F. Wherein characteristic of the writer.
G. Relationship to other works.

The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem.

Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined
circumstances of the poem (the situation), if these call for
explanation, and would then state the subject and outline its
development. If the poem is a narrative in the third person
throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise
summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas
and show how they are made prominent, or would indicate what
points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.
A novel might be discussed under the heads:

A. Setting.
B. Plot.
C. Characters.
D. Purpose.

An historical event might be discussed under the heads:

A. What led up to the event.

B. Account of the event.
C. What the event led up to.

In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would

probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here
given.
As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as
paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition,
indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or
argument. Frequent exceptions are also necessary in textbooks,

21
guidebooks, and other works in which many topics are treated
briefly.
In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph
by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of
speaker. The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative
are combined, is best learned from examples in well-printed works of
fiction.

9. A ,
,
.

Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here

recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each
paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain this purpose in mind
as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally useful kind of
paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which
(a) the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;
(b) the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the
statement made in the topic sentence; and
(c) the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic
sentence or states some important consequence.
Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is
particularly to be avoided.
If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to
what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be
expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase
(again; therefore; for the same reason) in the topic sentence.
Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by
one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one

22
such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the
transitional sentences as a separate paragraph.
According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above,
relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more
of several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic
sentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms,
by denying the contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances;
he may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its
implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry
out several of these processes.
1 Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon
alone. 2 If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it is no longer a
walking tour in anything but name; it is something else and more in
the nature of a picnic. 3 A walking tour should be gone upon alone,
because freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop
and go on, and follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and
because you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a
champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl. 4 And you must be
open to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what
you see. 5 You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. 6 “I
cannot see the wit,” says Hazlitt, “of walking and talking at the same
time. 7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country,”
which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter. 8 There
should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the meditative
silence of the morning. 9 And so long as a man is reasoning he cannot
surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much
motion in the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and
sluggishness of the brain, and ends in a peace that passes
comprehension.—Stevenson, Walking Tours.
1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning made clearer by denial of the
contrary. 3 The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form, and
supported by three reasons; the meaning of the third (“you must
have your own pace”) made clearer by denying the contrary. 4 A
fourth reason, stated in two forms. 5 The same reason, stated in still
another form. 6–7 The same reason as stated by Hazlitt. 8 Repetition,
in paraphrase, of the quotation from Hazlitt. 9 Final statement of the

23
fourth reason, in language amplified and heightened to form a strong
conclusion.
1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different
conception of history grew up. 2 Historians then came to believe that
their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem; to
explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth,
prosperity, and adversity. 3 The history of morals, of industry, of
intellect, and of art; the changes that take place in manners or
beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods; the
rise, fall, and modification of political constitutions; in a word, all the
conditions of national well-being became the subject of their works. 4
They sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of
kings. 5 They looked especially in history for the chain of causes and
effects. 6 They undertook to study in the past the physiology of
nations, and hoped by applying the experimental method on a large
scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the conditions on
which the welfare of society mainly depend.—Lecky, The Political
Value of History.
1Topic sentence. 2 The meaning of the topic sentence made clearer;
the new conception of history defined. 3 The definition expanded. 4
The definition explained by contrast. 5 The definition supplemented:
another element in the new conception of history. 6 Conclusion: an
important consequence of the new conception of history.
In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with
a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the
details that follow.
The breeze served us admirably.
The campaign opened with a series of reverses.
The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of
entries.
But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism.
More commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject
with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned.
At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.
He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.

24
 Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.
The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often
without even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between
them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into
prominence some detail of the action.

10. U .

The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:
I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.
This is much better than
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.
The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the
writer tries to make it more concise by omitting “by me,”
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,
it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed,
or the world at large, that will always remember this visit?
This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely
discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and
sometimes necessary.
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.
Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the
Restoration.
The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists
of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of
modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of
the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice
is to be used.
As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another.

25
Gold was not allowed to be It was forbidden to export gold
exported. (The export of gold was prohibited).
He has been proved to have
It has been proved that he was seen
been seen entering the
to enter the building.
building.
In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly
related to the second passive is made the subject of the first.
A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a
noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no
function beyond that of completing the sentence.
A survey of this region was made in This region was surveyed in
1900. 1900.
Mobilization of the army was rapidly The army was rapidly
effected. mobilized.
Confirmation of these reports cannot These reports cannot be
be obtained. confirmed.
Compare the sentence, “The export of gold was prohibited,” in which
the predicate “was prohibited” expresses something not implied in
“export.”
The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This
is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in
writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or
exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in
the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is, or
could be heard.
There were a great number of dead Dead leaves covered the
leaves lying on the ground. ground.
The sound of a guitar somewhere in Somewhere in the house a
the house could be heard. guitar hummed sleepily.
The reason that he left college was that Failing health compelled
his health became impaired. him to leave college.
It was not long before he was very
He soon repented his words.
sorry that he had said what he had.

26
 11. P .

Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-

committal language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in
antithesis, never as a means of evasion.
He was not very often on time. He usually came late.
He did not think that studying Latin was He thought the study
much use. of Latin useless.
The women in The
The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in
Taming of the Shrew
spots. Shakespeare does not portray
are unattractive.
Katharine as a very admirable character, nor
Katharine is
does Bianca remain long in memory as an
disagreeable, Bianca
important character in Shakespeare's works.
insignificant.
The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative.
The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's
intention.
All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not.
Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being
told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it
is better to express even a negative in positive form.
not honest dishonest
not important trifling
did not remember forgot
did not pay any attention to ignored
did not have much confidence in distrusted
The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:

27
Not charity, but simple justice.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.
Negative words other than not are usually strong:
The sun never sets upon the British flag.

12. U , , .

Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the
concrete to the abstract.
It rained every day for
A period of unfavorable weather set in.
a week.
He showed satisfaction as he took possession He grinned as he
of his well-earned reward. pocketed the coin.
There is a general agreement among those All who have tried
who have enjoyed the experience that surf- surf-riding agree that
riding is productive of great exhilaration. it is most exhilarating.
If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one
point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding
the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete.
Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest
writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant
definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern
author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines
from My Last Duchess,
Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast,
The dropping of the daylight in the west,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule
She rode with round the terrace—all and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech,
Or blush, at least,
and those which end the poem,

28
Notice Neptune, though,
Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,
Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.
These words call up pictures. Recall how in The Bishop Orders his
Tomb in St. Praxed's Church “the Renaissance spirit—its worldliness,
inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy, ignorance of itself, love of art, of
luxury, of good Latin,” to quote Ruskin's comment on the poem, is
made manifest in specific details and in concrete terms.
Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid
by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David
Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to
countless readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of
being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of
the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used.
It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well
as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not
vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination,
can project himself into the scene.
In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose
his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general
principles, he must give particular instances of their application.
“This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort
required to translate words into thoughts. As we do not think in
generals, but in particulars—as whenever any class of things is
referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual
members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the
hearer or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more
by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing
this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by
employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once
suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression
produced.”
Herbert Spencer, from whose Philosophy of Style the preceding
paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences:
In proportion as the manners, In proportion as men delight in
customs, and amusements of a battles, bull-fights, and combats

29
nation are cruel and barbarous, the of gladiators, will they punish
regulations of their penal code will by hanging, burning, and the
be severe. rack.

13. O .

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no

unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the
same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a
machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer
make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his
subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell.
Many expressions in common use violate this principle:
the question as to whether whether (the question whether)
there is no doubt but that no doubt (doubtless)
used for fuel purposes used for fuel
he is a man who he
in a hasty manner hastily
this is a subject which this subject
His story is a strange one. His story is strange.
In especial the expression the fact that should be revised out of every
sentence in which it occurs.
owing to the fact that since (because)
in spite of the fact that though (although)
call your attention to the fact that remind you (notify you)
I was unaware that (did not
I was unaware of the fact that
know)
the fact that he had not
his failure
succeeded
the fact that I had arrived my arrival

30
See also under case, character, nature, system in Chapter V.
Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous.
His brother, who is a member of the His brother, a member of the
same firm same firm
Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last
Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle
battle
As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active
voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given
under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.
A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single
complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent
clauses which might to advantage be combined into one.
Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him Encouraged by his wife,
to wish to become king of Scotland. The Macbeth achieved his
witches told him that this wish of his ambition and realized
would come true. The king of Scotland at the prediction of the
this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his witches by murdering
wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was Duncan and becoming
thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. king of Scotland in his
(51 words.) place. (26 words.)
There were several less important courses,
These, the most
but these were the most important, and
important courses of all,
although they did not come every day,
came, if not daily, at
they came often enough to keep you in
least often enough to
such a state of mind that you never knew
keep one under constant
what your next move would be. (43
strain. (21 words.)
words.)

14. A :

This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type,

those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by

31
a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may
be unexceptionable (see under Rule 4), a series soon becomes
monotonous and tedious.
An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of
sentences of this kind, using as connectives and, but, so, and less
frequently, who, which, when, where, and while, these last in non-
restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening,
and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was
the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the
instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the
first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high
reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very
gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series
annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May
10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented.
Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is
weak because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical
symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the
paragraphs quoted under Rule 9, or in any piece of good English
prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) to Vanity Fair.
If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the
type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the
monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two
clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses,
by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best
represent the real relations of the thought.

15. E - .

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions

of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The
likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the

32
likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible
are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the
Lord's Prayer.
The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken
belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is
true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may
have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from
Stevenson quoted under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow
the principle of parallel construction.
Formerly, science was taught by
Formerly, science was taught by
the textbook method, while now
the textbook method; now it is
the laboratory method is
taught by the laboratory method.
employed.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is
undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of
expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the
writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the
members of a series must either be used only before the first term or
else be repeated before each term.
The French, the Italians, The French, the Italians, the Spanish,
Spanish, and Portuguese and the Portuguese
In spring, summer, or in In spring, summer, or winter (In
winter spring, in summer, or in winter)
Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also;
either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the
same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of
speech. (Such combinations as “both Henry and I,” “not silk, but a
cheap substitute,” are obviously within the rule.) Many violations of
this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement;
others (as the last) from the use of unlike constructions.
It was both a long ceremony and The ceremony was both long and
very tedious. tedious.
A time not for words, but for
A time not for words, but action.
action.

33
Either you must grant his request You must either grant his request
or incur his ill will. or incur his ill will.
My objections are, first, the My objections are, first, that the
injustice of the measure; second, measure is unjust; second, that it
that it is unconstitutional. is unconstitutional.
See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule 13.
It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large
number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty
consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he
will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty
ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle
only within each group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by
putting his statements in the form of a table.

16. K .

The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of

showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as
possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are
related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.
The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a
rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the
beginning.
Wordsworth, in the fifth book of In the fifth book of The
The Excursion, gives a minute Excursion, Wordsworth gives a
description of this church. minute description of this church.
Cast iron, when treated in a By treatment in a Bessemer
Bessemer converter, is changed converter, cast iron is changed
into steel. into steel.
The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly
interrupts the natural order of the main clause. Usually, however,
this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a

34
relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in
periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used
means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).
The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its
antecedent.
There was a look in his eye that In his eye was a look that boded
boded mischief. mischief.
He wrote three articles about his He published in Harper's
adventures in Spain, which were Magazine three articles about his
published in Harper's Magazine. adventures in Spain.
This is a portrait of Benjamin This is a portrait of Benjamin
Harrison, grandson of William Harrison, grandson of William
Henry Harrison, who became Henry Harrison. He became
President in 1889. President in 1889.
If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at
the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.
The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who
A proposal to amend the A proposal, which has been
Sherman Act, which has been variously judged, to amend the
variously judged. Sherman Act.
A proposal to amend the much-
debated Sherman Act.
The grandson of William Henry William Henry Harrison's
Harrison, who grandson, who
A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative,
because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.
The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by
the Whigs
Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If
several expressions modify the same word, they should be so
arranged that no wrong relation is suggested.
Not all the members were
All the members were not present.
present.
He only found two mistakes. He found only two mistakes.

35
Major R. E. Joyce will give a On Tuesday evening at eight
lecture on Tuesday evening in P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give
Bailey Hall, to which the public is in Bailey Hall a lecture on “My
invited, on “My Experiences in Experiences in Mesopotamia.”
Mesopotamia” at eight P. M. The public is invited.

17. I , .

In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use

the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should
preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers.
If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be
expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.
An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar
Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's
arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been
compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that
Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar
Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter.
But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in
indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.
The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.
Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer
chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the
other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare
Rule 15).
In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in
summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid
intercalating such expressions as “he said,” “he stated,” “the speaker
added,” “the speaker then went on to say,” “the author also thinks,”
or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that

36
what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the
notification.
In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature,
summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for
children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in
their own words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature
the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He
may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the
subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he
may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should
aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a
summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his
discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not
to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the
beginning at establishing general conclusions.

18. P
.

The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words,
which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.
Humanity has hardly advanced in Humanity, since that time, has
fortitude since that time, though advanced in many other ways,
it has advanced in many other but it has hardly advanced in
ways. fortitude.
This steel is principally used for Because of its hardness, this steel
making razors, because of its is principally used in making
hardness. razors.
The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is
usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in the sentence,
as it is in the second example.

37
 The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the
prominence which it gives to the main statement.
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian
mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the
service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward
passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of
Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.
With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside
all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself
unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful
prosecution of this war.
The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any
element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become
emphatic when placed first.
Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.
So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand
years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first
sight, like works of nature.
A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly
by its position alone. In the sentence,
Great kings worshipped at his shrine,
the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from
the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence
must take the position of the predicate.
Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.
The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most
prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to
the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a
composition.

38
 IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM

H . Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the

title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled
paper, begin on the first line.
N . Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write
them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.
August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)
Rule 3
Chapter XII
352nd Infantry
P . A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis
is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the
expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is
punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted
unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.
I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he
had left town.
He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is
now certain of success.
(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized,
the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)
Q . Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence,
are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.
The provision of the Constitution is: “No tax or duty shall be laid on
articles exported from any state.”

39
 Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of
verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.
I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, “Gratitude is a lively sense of
benefits to come.”
Aristotle says, “Art is an imitation of nature.”
Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh
line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks.
Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:
Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
But to be young was very heaven!
Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirect
discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.
Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.
Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin
require no quotation marks.
These are the times that try men's souls.
He lives far from the madding crowd.
The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.
R . In scholarly work requiring exact references,
abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an
alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references
in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit
the words act, scene, line, book, volume, page, except when referring
by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.
In the second
In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in
scene of the third
parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence)
act
After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14).
2 Samuel i:17–27
Othello II.iii. 264–267, III.iii. 155–161.
S . If there is room at the end of a line for one or more
syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word,

40
unless this involves cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only
two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be
laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:
(a) Divide the word according to its formation:
know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-
scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);
(b) Divide “on the vowel:”
edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious;
oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable);
deco-rative; presi-dent;
(c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of
the simple form of the word:
Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.
(d) Do not divide before final -ed if the e is silent:
treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).
The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from
examples:
for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-
tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-
diary.
The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a
number of pages of any carefully printed book.
T . For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers
italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers
varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using
Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks.
Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in
writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial
A or The from titles when you place the possessive before them.
The Iliad; the Odyssey; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The Newcomes;
A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities.

41
 V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
COMMONLY MISUSED

(Some of the forms here listed, as like I did, are downright bad
English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are in
such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still
others, as case, factor, feature, interesting, one of the most, are good
in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves into places
where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his purpose
from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought,
and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves
him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him
little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has
used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up
the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another,
but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples
below and in others under Rules 12 and 13.)
A . Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in
the sense, “Agreed,” or “Go ahead.” In other uses better avoided.
Always written as two words.
A . Expressions of this type should be
corrected by rearranging the sentence.
My opinion is as good or My opinion is as good as his, or better
better than his. (if not better).
A . Whether is sufficient; see under Rule 13.
B . Takes the infinitive without to. The past tense in the sense,
“ordered,” is bade.
B . Unnecessary after doubt and help.

42
I have no doubt but that I have no doubt that
He could not help see but that He could not help seeing that
The too frequent use of but as a conjunction leads to the fault
discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed with but can
always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with although,
as illustrated under Rule 4.
Particularly awkward is the following of one but by another,
making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation. This
is easily corrected by re-arrangement.
America had vast resources, but America seemed almost wholly
she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had
unprepared for war. But within a vast resources. Within a year she
year she had created an army of had created an army of four
four million men. million men.
C . Means am (is, are) able. Not to be used as a substitute for may.
C . The Concise Oxford Dictionary begins its definition of this
word: “instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs.” In these
two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.
In many cases, the rooms were poorly Many of the rooms were
ventilated. poorly ventilated.
It has rarely been the case that any Few mistakes have been
mistake has been made. made.
See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68–71, and Quiller-Couch,
The Art of Writing, pp. 103–106.
C . Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others
use very, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this
kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.
C . Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of
wordiness.
Acts of a hostile character Hostile acts
C , . With object-noun, means lay claim to. May be used with a
dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: “He claimed that he
was the sole surviving heir.” (But even here, “claimed to be” would be

43
better.) Not to be used as a substitute for declare, maintain, or
charge.
C . This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted
to ingenuity displayed in small matters.
C . To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances,
between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to
compare with is mainly to point out differences, between objects
regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been
compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be
compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to
ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.
C . Not followed by as when it means “believe to be.” “I
consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare, “The lecturer
considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator,”
where “considered” means “examined” or “discussed.”
D . A plural, like phenomena and strata.
These data were tabulated.
D . A needless substitute for reliable, trustworthy.
D . Not permissible. Substitute different from, other
than, or unlike.
D . Not to be misused for composed of. The line is
sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but
poems are composed of stanzas.
D ' . Contraction of do not. The contraction of does not is
doesn't.
D . Incorrectly used for through, because of, or owing to, in
adverbial phrases: “He lost the first game, due to carelessness.” In
correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun:
“This invention is due to Edison;” “losses due to preventable fires.”
F . A collective noun, equivalent to people. Use the singular
form only.
E . As noun, means result; as verb, means to bring about,
accomplish (not to be confused with affect, which means “to

44
influence”).
As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions,
music, painting, and other arts: “an Oriental effect;” “effects in pale
green;” “very delicate effects;” “broad effects;” “subtle effects;” “a
charming effect was produced by.” The writer who has a definite
meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.
E . Equivalent to and the rest, and so forth, and hence not to be
used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would
be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to
objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in
full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.
At the end of a list introduced by such as, for example, or any
similar expression, etc. is incorrect.
F . Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct
verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event
happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature,
are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of
modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful,
however incontestable they may be, are not properly facts.
On the formula the fact that, see under Rule 13.
F . A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part
can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.
His superior training was the great He won the match by being
factor in his winning the match. better trained.
Heavy artillery has become an Heavy artillery has played a
increasingly important factor in constantly larger part in
deciding battles. deciding battles.
F . Another hackneyed word; like factor it usually adds
nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.
A feature of the (Better use the same number of words to
entertainment especially tell what Miss A. sang, or if the
worthy of mention was the programme has already been given, to
singing of Miss A. tell how she sang.)

45
As a verb, in the advertising sense of offer as a special attraction, to
be avoided.
F . Colloquial in America for arrange, prepare, mend. In writing
restrict it to its literary senses, fasten, make firm or immovable, etc.
G . The colloquial have got for have should not be used in
writing. The preferable form of the participle is got.
H . A common type of redundant expression; see
Rule 13.
He is a man who is very ambitious. He is very ambitious.
Spain is a country which I have always I have always wanted to
wanted to visit. visit Spain.
H . See under B .
H . In the meaning nevertheless, not to come first in its
sentence or clause.
The roads were almost The roads were almost
impassable. However, we at last impassable. At last, however, we
succeeded in reaching camp. succeeded in reaching camp.
When however comes first, it means in whatever way or to
whatever extent.

46
However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.
However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.
I . Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of
introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is
interesting, make it so.
(Tell the story without
An interesting story is told of
preamble.)
In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B., who it is
Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall expected will soon visit
that he America
K . Not to be used as a substitute for rather (before adjectives
and verbs), or except in familiar style, for something like (before
nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: “Amber is a kind of fossil
resin;” “I dislike that kind of notoriety.” The same holds true of sort
of.
L . Should not be misused for fewer.
He had less men than in the He had fewer men than in the
previous campaign previous campaign
Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. “His troubles are less than
mine” means “His troubles are not so great as mine.” “His troubles
are fewer than mine” means “His troubles are not so numerous as
mine.” It is, however, correct to say, “The signers of the petition were
less than a hundred,” where the round number a hundred is
something like a collective noun, and less is thought of as meaning a
less quantity or amount.
L . Not to be misused for as. Like governs nouns and pronouns;
before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is as.
We spent the evening like in the We spent the evening as in the
old days. old days.
He thought like I did. He thought as I did (like me).
L , . Line in the sense of course of procedure,
conduct, thought, is allowable, but has been so much overworked,
particularly in the phrase along these lines, that a writer who aims at
freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

47
Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. Mr. B. also spoke, to the
same effect.
He is studying along the line of French He is studying French
literature. literature.
L , . Often incorrectly used in support of
exaggeration or violent metaphor.
A literal flood of abuse. A flood of abuse.
Literally dead with fatigue Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired)
L . Meant to be more emphatic than lose, but actually less so,
because of its commonness. The same holds true of try out, win out,
sign up, register up. With a number of verbs, out and up form
idiomatic combinations: find out, run out, turn out, cheer up, dry
up, make up, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the
simple verb. Lose out is not.
M . Not to be used for almost.
Most everybody Almost everybody
Most all the time Almost all the time
N . Often simply redundant, used like character.
Acts of a hostile nature Hostile acts
Often vaguely used in such expressions as a “lover of nature;” “poems
about nature.” Unless more specific statements follow, the reader
cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural
life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.
N . Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English,
though the analogy of close by and hard by seems to justify it. Near,
or near at hand, is as good, if not better.
Not to be used as an adjective; use neighboring.
O , . Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The
modern word is often.
O . Retain the and in this and similar
expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose
from Old English times.

48
 O . Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this
formula, as, “One of the most interesting developments of modern
science is, etc.;” “Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries
of Europe.” There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare
and forcible-feeble.
A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause
following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the
subject.
One of the ablest men that has One of the ablest men that have
attacked this problem. attacked this problem.
P .
Do you mind me asking a Do you mind my asking a
question? question?
There was little prospect of the There was little prospect of the
Senate accepting even this Senate's accepting even this
compromise. compromise.
In the left-hand column, asking and accepting are present
participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal nouns
(gerunds). The construction shown in the left-hand column is
occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet it is easy to see that the
second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the Senate, but with
a prospect of accepting. In this example, at least, the construction is
plainly illogical.
As the authors of The King's English point out, there are sentences
apparently, but not really, of this type, in which the possessive is not
called for.
I cannot imagine Lincoln refusing his assent to this measure.
In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln
himself, in the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning would be
virtually the same, except for a slight loss of vividness, if he had
written,
I cannot imagine Lincoln's refusing his assent to this measure.
By using the possessive, the writer will always be on the safe side.

49
 In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single,
unmodified term, immediately preceding the verbal noun, and the
construction is as good as any that could be used. But in any
sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute for something
simpler, or in which the use of the possessive is awkward or
impossible, should of course be recast.
In the event of a reconsideration
If it should become necessary to
of the whole matter's becoming
reconsider the whole matter
necessary
There was great dissatisfaction
There was great dissatisfaction
with the decision of the
that the arbitrators should have
arbitrators being favorable to the
decided in favor of the company.
company.
P . The people is a political term, not to be confused with the
public. From the people comes political support or opposition; from
the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.
P . Means a stage of transition or development: “the phases of
the moon;” “the last phase.” Not to be used for aspect or topic.
Another phase of the subject Another point (another question)
P . Not to be used as a mere substitute for have or own.
He had great courage (was very
He possessed great courage.
brave).
He was the fortunate possessor
He owned
of
P . The past participle is proved.
R , . These words may usually be omitted
with advantage.
Works of fiction are listed
Works of fiction are listed under the
under the names of their
names of their respective authors.
authors.
The one mile and two mile runs The one mile and two mile runs
were won by Jones and Cummings were won by Jones and by
respectively. Cummings.

50
In some kinds of formal writing, as geometrical proofs, it may be
necessary to use respectively, but it should not appear in writing on
ordinary subjects.
S , W . The future tense requires shall for the first person,
will for the second and third. The formula to express the speaker's
belief regarding his future action or state is I shall; I will expresses
his determination or his consent.
S . See under W .
S . Avoid, in writing, the use of so as an intensifier: “so good;” “so
warm;” “so delightful.”
On the use of so to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.
S . See under K .
S I . There is precedent from the fourteenth century
downward for interposing an adverb between to and the infinitive
which it governs, but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by
nearly all careful writers.
To diligently inquire To inquire diligently
S . Not to be used as a mere substitute for say, remark. Restrict
it to the sense of express fully or clearly, as, “He refused to state his
objections.”
S B . A needless and awkward expression meaning no
more than the simple word students.
A member of the student body A student
Popular with the student body Liked by the students
The student body passed The students passed
resolutions. resolutions.
S . Frequently used without need.
Dayton has adopted the commission Dayton has adopted
system of government. government by commission.
The dormitory system Dormitories
T Y A . This sounds as if the writer meant, “It
will not be worth my while to write to you again.” In making your
request, write, “Will you please,” or “I shall be obliged,” and if

51
anything further seems necessary write a letter of acknowledgment
later.
T . A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when
the antecedent is a distributive expression such as each, each one,
everybody, every one, many a man, which, though implying more
than one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar
to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural
pronoun with the antecedent anybody, any one, somebody, some
one, the intention being either to avoid the awkward “he or she,” or
to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even
say, “A friend of mine told me that they, etc.”
Use he with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must
be feminine.
V . Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use
words strong in themselves.
V . Write point of view, but do not misuse this, as many
do, for view or opinion.
W . Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and, but, and
although. Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for and or
but, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from
uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In
this use it is best replaced by a semicolon.
The office and salesrooms are on The office and salesrooms are on
the ground floor, while the rest of the ground floor; the rest of the
the building is devoted to building is devoted to
manufacturing. manufacturing.
Its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable in sentences
where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.
While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.
This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase,
I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a
better cause.
Compare:

52
While the temperature reaches Although the temperature reaches
90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime,
the nights are often chilly. the nights are often chilly.
The paraphrase,
The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the
same time the nights are often chilly,
shows why the use of while is incorrect.
In general, the writer will do well to use while only with strict
literalness, in the sense of during the time that.
W . Often incorrectly used for who before he said or similar
expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb.
His brother, whom he said His brother, who he said would send
would send him the money him the money
The man whom he thought The man who (that) he thought was his
was his friend friend (whom he thought his friend)
W . Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with
not) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: “Is it worth
while to telegraph?”
His books are His books are not worth reading (are not worth
not worth one's while to read; do not repay reading; are
while. worthless).
The use of worth while before a noun (“a worth while story”) is
indefensible.
W . A conditional statement in the first person requires
should, not would.
I should not have succeeded without his help.
The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the past
tense is should, not would.
He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.
To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without
would, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.
Once a year he would visit the old Once a year he visited the old

53
mansion. mansion.

54
 VI. SPELLING

The spelling of English words is not fixed and invariable, nor does it
depend on any other authority than general agreement. At the
present day there is practically unanimous agreement as to the
spelling of most words. In the list below, for example, rime for
rhyme is the only allowable variation; all the other forms are co-
extensive with the English language. At any given moment, however,
a relatively small number of words may be spelled in more than one
way. Gradually, as a rule, one of these forms comes to be generally
preferred, and the less customary form comes to look obsolete and is
discarded. From time to time new forms, mostly simplifications, are
introduced by innovators, and either win their place or die of neglect.
The practical objection to unaccepted and over-simplified spellings
is the disfavor with which they are received by the reader. They
distract his attention and exhaust his patience. He reads the form
though automatically, without thought of its needless complexity; he
reads the abbreviation tho and mentally supplies the missing letters,
at the cost of a fraction of his attention. The writer has defeated his
own purpose.

WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED

accidentally
advice
affect
believe

55
benefit
challenge
coarse
course
criticize
deceive
definite
describe
despise
develop
disappoint
dissipate
duel
ecstasy
effect
embarrass
existence
fascinate
fiery
formerly
humorous
hypocrisy
immediately
impostor
incident
incidentally
latter
led
lose
marriage
mischief
murmur
necessary
occurred
opportunity
parallel
Philip
playwright
preceding

56
 prejudice
principal
principle
privilege
pursue
repetition
rhyme
rhythm
ridiculous
sacrilegious
seize
separate
shepherd
siege
similar
simile
too
tragedy
tries
undoubtedly
until
villain

Note that a single consonant (other than v) preceded by a stressed

short vowel is doubled before -ed and -ing: planned, letting,
beginning. (Coming is an exception.)
Write to-day, to-night, to-morrow (but not together) with a
hyphen.
Write any one, every one, some one, some time (except in the
sense of formerly) as two words.

57
 VII. EXERCISES ON CHAPTERS II AND
III

I. P :

1. In 1788 the King's advisers warned him that the nation was facing
bankruptcy therefore he summoned a body called the States-General
believing that it would authorize him to levy new taxes. The people of
France however were suffering from burdensome taxation
oppressive social injustice and acute scarcity of food and their
representatives refused to consider projects of taxation until social
and economic reforms should be granted. The King who did not
realize the gravity of the situation tried to overawe them collecting
soldiers in and about Versailles where the sessions were being held.
The people of Paris seeing the danger organized militia companies to
defend their representatives. In order to supply themselves with
arms they attacked the Invalides and the Bastille which contained
the principal supplies of arms and munitions in Paris.
2. On his first continental tour begun in 1809 Byron visited
Portugal Spain Albania Greece and Turkey. Of this tour he composed
a poetical journal Childe Harold's Pilgrimage in which he ascribed
his experiences and reflections not to himself but to a fictitious
character Childe Harold described as a melancholy young nobleman
prematurely familiar with evil sated with pleasures and embittered
against humanity. The substantial merits of the work however lay not
in this shadowy and somewhat theatrical figure but in Byron's
spirited descriptions of wild or picturesque scenes and in his
eloquent championing of Spain and Greece against their oppressors.

58
On his return to England in 1811 he was persuaded rather against his
own judgment into allowing the work to be published. Its success
was almost unprecedented in his own words he awoke and found
himself famous.

II. E :

3. ‘God save thee, ancyent Marinere!

‘From the fiends that plague thee thus—
Lyrical Ballads, 1798.
‘God save thee, ancient Mariner!
From the fiends, that plague thee thus!—
Lyrical Ballads, 1800.

III. E
:

4. This course is intended for Freshmen, who in the opinion of the

Department are not qualified for military drill.
5. A restaurant, not a cafeteria where good meals are served at
popular prices.—Advt.
6. The poets of The Nation, for all their intensity of patriotic
feeling, followed the English rather than the Celtic tradition, their
work has a political rather than a literary value and bears little upon
the development of modern Irish verse.
7. We were in one of the strangest places imaginable. A long and
narrow passage overhung on either side by a stupendous barrier of
black and threatening rocks.

59
 8. Only a few years ago after a snow storm in the passes not far
north of Jerusalem no less than twenty-six Russian pilgrims perished
amidst the snow. One cannot help thinking largely because they
made little attempt to save themselves.

IV. P
:

9. During childhood his mother had died.

10. Any language study is good mind training while acquiring
vocabulary.
11. My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land,
having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's lease.
12. Prepared to encounter a woman of disordered mind, the
appearance presented by Mrs. Taylor at his entrance greatly
astonished him.
13. Pale and swooning, with two broken legs, they carried him into
the house.
14. Count Cassini, the Russian plenipotentiary, had several long
and intimate conversations during the tedious weeks of the
conference with his British colleague, Sir Arthur Nicholson.
15. But though they had been victorious in the land engagements,
they were so little decisive as to lead to no important results.
16. Knowing nothing of the rules of the college or of its customs, it
was with the greatest difficulty that the Dean could make me
comprehend wherein my wrong-doing lay.
17. Fire, therefore, was the first object of my search. Happily, some
embers were found upon the hearth, together with potato-stalks and
dry chips. Of these, with much difficulty, I kindled a fire, by which
some warmth was imparted to our shivering limbs.

60
 18. In this connection a great deal of historic fact is introduced into
the novel about the past history of the cathedral and of Spain.
19. Over the whole scene hung the haze of twilight that is so
peaceful.
20. Compared with Italy, living is more expensive.
21. It is a fundamental principle of law to believe a man innocent
until he is proved guilty, and once proved guilty, to remain so until
proved to the contrary.
22. Not only had the writer entrée to the titled families of Italy in
whose villas she was hospitably entertained, but by royalty also.
23. It is not a strange sight to catch a glimpse of deer along the
shore.
24. Earnings from other sources are of such a favorable character
as to enable a splendid showing to be made by the company.
25. But while earnings have mounted amazingly, the status of
affairs is such as to make it impossible to predict the course events
may take, with any degree of accuracy.
Transcriber's Note:
The following is a list of corrections made to the original. The first
passage is the original passage, the second the corrected one.

Page 5:
of his manuscript Mr. George McLane Wood has
of his manuscript. Mr. George McLane Wood has
Page 20:
Compare the sentence. “The export of gold was prohibited,”
Compare the sentence, “The export of gold was prohibited,”
Page 26:
under Rule 10. But apart from this, he should follow the
under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow the
Page 36:
in the sense, “ordered”) is bade.
in the sense, “ordered,” is bade.
Page 39:
E . As noun, means result; as verb, means to bring

61
E . As noun, means result; as verb, means to bring
Page 39:
they ma ybe, are not properly facts.
they may be, are not properly facts.
Page 42:
Acts of a hostile nature.
Acts of a hostile nature
Page 45:
Dayton has adopted the commission system of government
Dayton has adopted the commission system of government.
Page 48:
embarass
embarrass

62
Contents
Title Page 1
Imprint 3
Acknowledgements 4
Contents 5
THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE 7
I. INTRODUCTORY 9
II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE 11
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's. 11
2. In a series of three or more terms with a single
12
conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. 12
4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-
14
ordinate clause.
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma. 16
6. Do not break sentences in two. 17
7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must
18
refer to the grammatical subject.
III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION 20
8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one
20
paragraph to each topic.
9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence,
22
end it in conformity with the beginning.
10. Use the active voice. 25
11. Put statements in positive form. 27
12. Use definite, specific, concrete language. 28
13. Omit needless words. 30
14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences: 31
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form. 32
16. Keep related words together. 34
17. In summaries, keep to one tense. 36

63
 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end. 37
IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM 39
V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED 42
VI. SPELLING 55
WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED 55
VII. EXERCISES ON CHAPTERS II AND III 58
I. Punctuate: 58
II. Explain the difference in meaning: 59
III. Explain and correct the errors in punctuation: 59
IV. Point out and correct the faults in the following
60
sentences:

64