PHYSICS

Formulae & Definitions

Base quantities & units Mass (kg); Length (m); Time (s); Current (A); Temperature (K);
*Luminous intensity (cd); Amount of substance (mol)
Prefixes pico (p) = 10-12; nano (n) = 10-9; micro () = 10-6; milli (m) = 10-3; centi (c) = 10-2; deci (d) = 10-1;
kilo (k) = 103; mega (M) = 106; giga (G) = 109; tera (T) = 1012
Scalar Physical quantity that has only magnitude but not direction eg distance, speed, mass
Vector Physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction eg displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, weight
Speed, u or v Distance traveled per unit time (or rate of change of distance or change in distance per unit time )
Velocity Distance traveled per unit time in a specified direction
v = s v : speed or velocity (m s-1)
t s : distance or displacement (m)
t : time (s)
Distance or displacement For constant acceleration s : distance or displacement (m)
s = average velocity x time u : initial velocity (m s-1)
= ½(u + v)t v : final velocity (m s-1)
t : time (s)
Acceleration, a Rate of change of velocity (or change in velocity per unit time)
a = v = v – u a : acceleration (m s-2)
t t v : final velocity (m s-1)
u : initial velocity (m s-1)
t : time (s)
Acceleration of free fall, g An object falling freely under influence of gravity experiences uniform acceleration
g = 10 m s-2
Force, F or f A force is a push or pull that changes the motion, size, or shape of a body
Newton’s 1st Law Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a resultant
force acts on it
Newton’s 2nd Law When a resultant force acts on an object of constant mass, the object will accelerate in the direction
of the resultant force. The product of mass and acceleration of the object gives the resultant force.
F = ma F : resultant force (N)
m : mass (kg)
a : acceleration (m s-2)
Newton’s 3rd Law For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Newton, N 1 newton is defined as the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m s-2.
Mass A measure of the amount of substance in a body
Inertia Property of an object that resists a change in its state of rest or state of motion (related to mass)
Gravitational field A region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction
Gravitational field strength, g Gravitational force per unit mass
g = 10 N kg-1
Weight, W Force on an object due to gravity
W = mg W : weight (N)
m : mass (kg)
g : 10 N kg-1
Centre of gravity The point on a body at which its weight appears to act
Density, ρ Mass per unit volume
ρ = m ρ : density (kg m-3)
V m : mass (kg)
V : volume (m3)
Moment of a force (or torque) Product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force
Moment = Fxd T : torque or moment (Nm)
T = Fxd F : force (N)
d : perpendicular distance of the force from pivot (m)
Principle of moments For a system in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same point.
Pressure, P or p Force acting perpendicularly per unit area
P = F P : pressure (N m-2 or Pa)
A F : normal force (N)
A : area (m2)
Pressure due to column of liquid P : pressure (N m-2 or Pa)
P = hρg h : height of liquid column (m)
ρ : density of liquid (kg m-3)
g : gravitational field strength (N kg-1)
Pressure of gases at constant P1 : initial pressure (N m-2 or Pa)
temperature V1 : initial volume (m3)
P1V1 = P2V2 P2 : final pressure (N m-2 or Pa)
V2 : final volume (m3)
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Pascal, Pa 1 pascal is defined as the pressure due to a force of 1 N acting on an area of 1 m2
Energy, E Capacity to do work eg kinetic, elastic potential, gravitational potential, chemical potential, thermal
Joule, J 1 joule is defined as the work done when a force of 1 N moves through a distance of 1 m in the
direction of the force.
Principle of conservation of energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed – it can only be converted from one form to another, the
total amount remaining the same.
Work or work done, W or E Product of a force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
W = Fd W : work done (J)
F : force (N)
d : distance moved in direction of force (m)
Gravitational potential energy, EP The energy possessed by a body due to its height or its position in a gravitational field.
EP = mgh EP : gravitational potential energy (J)
m : mass (kg)
g : gravitational field strength (N kg-1)
h : vertical height (m)
Kinetic energy, EK The energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
EK = ½ mv2 EK : kinetic energy (J)
m : mass (kg)
v : velocity (m s-1)
Power, P Work done per unit time or rate of doing work
P = E = W P : power (W)
t t E or W : energy or work (J)
t : time (s)
Watt 1 watt is defined as the power required to do work at the rate of 1 joule per second
Kinetic Model of Matter All matter is made up of tiny particles in constant random motion.
*Gas Laws Explain relationships using kinetic model P1 & P2 : initial & final pressure (N m-2 or Pa)
P1V1 = P2V2 V1 & V2 : initial & final volume (m3)
T1 T2 T1 & T2 : initial & final temperature (K)
Conduction Transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature by
molecular vibration (fastest in solids).
Convection Transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature
due to differences in density (mostly in fluids).
Radiation Transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature by
means of electromagnetic waves.
Ice point (Lower fixed point) Temperature of pure melting ice at one atmospheric pressure (0oC)
Steam point (Upper fixed point) Temperature of steam from water boiling at one atmospheric pressure (100oC)
Temperature scale oC = l - l0 x 100 Change in thermometric property = constant
l100 – l0 Change in temperature
Heat capacity, C Amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a body by 1 oC or 1 K. (J oC-1 or J K-1)
Specific heat capacity, c Amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (or 1 unit mass) of a substance
by 1 oC or 1 K. (J kg-1 oC-1 or J kg-1 K-1)
Q = C Q : thermal energy (J)
= mc C : heat capacity (J oC-1)
m : mass (kg)
c : specific heat capacity (J kg-1 oC-1)
 : Temperature change (oC or K)
Latent heat, L Amount of thermal energy required to change the state of a body at constant temperature.
Specific latent heat of fusion, lf Amount of thermal energy required to change the state of 1 kg (or 1 unit mass) of a substance from
solid to liquid at constant temperature.
Specific latent heat of vaporization, lv Amount of thermal energy required to change the state of 1 kg (or 1 unit mass) of a substance from
liquid to vapour at constant temperature.
Q = mlf Q : thermal energy (J)
Q = mlv m : mass (kg)
lf : specific latent heat of fusion (J kg-1)
lv : specific latent heat of vaporization (J kg-1)
Transverse wave Vibration is perpendicular to direction of wave motion eg electromagnetic waves
Longitudinal wave Vibration is in the same direction as wave motion eg sound waves
Wavefront Line joining all adjacent points which are vibrating in phase
Amplitude, a Maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position
Period, T Time taken to produce one wave cycle or one oscillation
T=t T : time taken for one oscillation (s)
n t : time taken for n oscillations (s)
Frequency, f Number of wave cycles or oscillations produced per unit time
f = 1 f : frequency (Hz)
T T : period (s)
Wave speed, v Distance traveled by the wave per unit time.
Wavelength,  Distance between two consecutive crests or troughs; or two consecutive compressions or
rarefactions; or two consecutive points vibrating in phase
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 v = f v : wave speed (m s-1)
 : wavelength (m)
f : frequency (Hz)
Normal A line perpendicular to a surface at the point of incidence.
Angle of incidence, i Angle between an incident ray and the normal.
Angle of reflection, r Angle between a reflected ray and the normal.
For reflection i : angle of incidence (o)
i = r r : angle of reflection (o)
Angle of refraction, r Angle between a refracted ray and the normal
Refractive index, η The ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in the medium.
η = c η : refractive index (no units)
v c : speed of light in vacuum = 3x108 m s-1
v : speed of light in the medium (m s-1)
η = sin i i : angle of incidence (in air or vacuum) (o)
sin r r : angle of refraction (in denser medium) (o)
Critical angle, c The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the less
dense medium is 90o.
η = 1 . η : refractive index (no units)
sin c c : critical angle (o)
Total internal reflection The reflection of all light within a medium. Occurs only for light traveling from an optically denser
medium to a less dense medium and when the angle of incidence within the denser medium is greater
than the critical angle.
Principal focus / Focal point, F The point on the principal axis of a lens through which rays parallel to the principal axis converge
after passing through the lens.
Focal length, f Distance between the optical centre and principal focus of a lens.
Linear magnification, m Ratio of image height to object height or ratio of image distance to object distance
m = hi = v m : linear magnification (no units)
ho u hi : height of image (m)
ho : height of object (m)
v : distance between lens and image (m)
u : distance between lens and object (m)
*Lens formula 1 = 1 + 1 f : focal length (m)
f u v u : object distance (m)
v : image distance (m)
Ultrasound Sound of frequency above normal human audible range (above 20 kHz)
Echoes v = 2d v : speed of sound = 330 m s-1
t d : distance between sound source and reflecting
surface (m)
t : time taken for echo to return (s)
Law of electrostatics Like charges repel; Unlike charges attract.
Electric field Region in which an electrical charge experiences a force
Electrostatic induction Redistribution of electrical charge in an object (charge separation), caused by the influence of
nearby charges
Current, I Rate of flow of electric charge
I = Q I : current (A)
t Q : charge (C)
t : time (s)
Current in series I = I1 = I2 = I3 = …
Current in parallel I = I1 + I2 + I3 + …
Electromotive force (e.m.f.), E Work done by a source in driving a unit charge around a complete circuit
Potential difference (pd) or voltage, V Work done to drive a unit charge through a circuit component
E or V = W E or V : electromotive force or potential difference (V)
Q W : work done (J)
Q : charge (C)
Volt, V 1 volt is defined as the potential difference between two points where 1 coulomb of charge does 1
joule of work in going from one point to the other.
1 volt is defined as the potential difference between two points on a conductor carrying a current of
1 ampere, when the power dissipated between these points is 1 watt.
Potential difference in series V = V1 + V2 + V3 + …
Potential difference in parallel V = V1 = V2 = V3 = …
Ohm’s Law The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between
its ends, provided that temperature and other physical conditions are constant (V=IR)
Resistance, R Ratio of potential difference across a component to current through it
R = V R : resistance (Ω)
I V : potential difference (V)
I : current (A)
R = ρl R : resistance (Ω)
A ρ : resistivity (Ωm)

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 l : length of conductor (m)
R1 = l1 = A2 = r22 = d22 A : cross-sectional area of conductor (m2)
R2 l2 A1 r12 d12 r : radius (m); d : diameter (m)
Resistance in series R = R1 + R2 + R3 + … R : resistance (Ω)
Resistance in parallel 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + …. R : resistance (Ω)
R R1 R2 R3
Potential divider (Potentiometer) V1 = R1 x VTotal Two resistors R1 & R2 in series with voltage source VTotal
R1 + R2
V2 = R2 x VTotal V1 : Potential difference across resistor R1
R1 + R2 V2 : Potential difference across resistor R2
Electrical energy or Work done E or W = VQ = VIt = I2Rt = V2t E or W : energy (J)
R V : potential difference (V)
Q : charge (C)
I : current (A)
t : time (s)
R : resistance (Ω)
Power, P Rate at which energy is converted from electrical into other forms
P = VI = I2R = V2 P : power (W)
R
Electrical energy, E E = Pt E : energy (J)
P : power (W)
t : time (s)
E = Pt E : energy (kWh)
P : power (kW)
t : time (h)
Cost of electricity Total cost = Pt x cost per unit P : power (kW)
t : time (h)
Appliance rated 240 V 400 W Appliance works normally at 240 V & rate of energy conversion is 400 J s-1
Live wire At high potential ( 240 V)
Carries current to or from mains supply; Current I = V/R
Switches and fuses in live wire to disconnect appliance from high voltage so that appliance is not ‘live’
Neutral wire At earth / zero potential (0 V); Completes the circuit; Earthed at power station
Normally carries same current as the live wire
Earth wire At earth / zero potential (0 V); Earthed
Normally no current
Protects user from electric shock should the metal casing of an appliance become ‘live’ by providing a
path of low resistance to earth
Fuse Protects circuit from overloading by melting and breaking the circuit when current exceeds fuse
rating
Circuit breaker Protects circuit from overloading / Detects faults in a circuit by breaking the circuit when current
exceeds rating or when there is a current leak
Double insulation Electrical cable is insulated from internal metal parts which are also insulated from external metals
parts of an appliance. Ensures outer casing of appliance is not ‘live’ even if internal insulation is
damaged. Hence no earth wire required.
Law of magnetism Like poles repel; Unlike poles attract.
Magnetic field The region where a magnetic substance experiences a force
Induced magnetism The magnetism acquired by magnetic material while it is in a magnetic field
Electromagnet Magnet produced by a current in a solenoid with a soft iron core
Motor effect (Electromagnetism) A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force due to the interaction of the
two magnetic fields.
Directions of the current, magnetic field and force given by Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule.
Split ring commutator Reverses direction of current flow in the coil every half rotation so that the coil is able to rotate
(in d.c. motor) continuously in one direction.
Electromagnetic induction Production of an induced emf or induced voltage in a conductor due to changing magnetic flux linkage
with a conductor / changing magnetic field passing through a conductor.
Faraday’s Law Induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage
Lenz’s Law Direction of induced emf is always in such a direction that the current it would produce would oppose
the change which causes the induced emf.
Slip rings Provides electrical connection so that the alternating current induced in the rotating coil is
(in a.c. generator) transmitted to the external circuit
Transformer Steps up or steps down alternating voltage by means of electromagnetic induction
Turns ratio Np : number of turns on the primary coil
Ns = Vs Ns : number of turns on the secondary coil
Vp : potential difference across primary coil (V)
Np Vp
Vs : potential difference across secondary coil (V)
For ideal transformer VP : potential difference across primary coil (V)
Power input = Power output VS : potential difference across secondary coil (V)
IP : current in primary coil (A)
VpIp = VsIs
IS : current in secondary coil (A)

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