CHAPTER -II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A brief review of research work done in Chhattisgarh, India and abroad
related to present experiment entitled “Studies on yield performance with special
emphasis on early transplanted condition of elite rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes
under Bastar condition” under the agro-climatic conditions of Bastar Plateau Zone
carried out during kharif season of 2019 at the Instructional cum Research Farm, S.
G. College of Agriculture and Research Station, Kumhrawand, Jagdalpur (C.G.) is
presented in this chapter under the following heads:
2.1 Effect of early transplanting on rice yield.

2.2 Genetic divergence studies

2.3 Incidence of blast in rice

2.4 Incidence of stem borer in rice

2.5 Path analysis.

2.6 Studies on correlation coefficient analysis

2.1 Effect of early transplanting on rice yield.

Biswas et al. (2001) reported the maximum number of panicle/m2 was

found on July 15 transplanted rice followed by that transplanted on July 25 and
August 4 whereas rice transplanted on August 14 gave the least number of
effective tillers. This might be because of poor crop growth and development due
to soil moisture stress at critical growth stages as a result of less rainfall during the
growing period.

Chandrashekhar et al. (2001) studied that the average number of grains/

panicle was observed 132.59. Rice transplanted on July 25 showed maximum total
grains/ panicle (135.50) whereas minimum number of grains panicle (124.50) was
recorded for the rice transplanted on August 14. Fewer numbers of grains/ panicle
of transplanted rice on August 14 might be due to shortened growth period of the
plant which reduced the leaf area and leaf duration, ultimately reducing assimilate
development.

Mishra et al. (2007) studied at rice seedling at nursery stage varying

densities (high and low) and fertilizer treatments (with and without nitrogen) at 12
and 24 days after sowing (DAS) in wet or dry seedbeds. After transplanting, the
effects of seedling age at the time of transplanting (12 and 30 days), method of
raising seedlings (dry or wet seedbed) and water regimes (flooded or non-flooded)
were studied. Seedling age was found to be the most important factor affecting
both shoot characteristics after transplanting (number of tillers, plant height, dry
matter production) and root characteristics (root length density, root weight
density). Younger seedlings performed better than older seedlings transplanted into
either flooded or non-flooded soils with greater uptake of nitrogen and manganese
than older seedlings.

Nahar et al. (2009) studied the effect of low temperature stress influenced
by date of transplanting on yield attributes and yields of two rice varieties. BRRI
dhan 46 had significantly higher values of yield attributes (effective tillers/hill,
panicles/hill, panicle length, spikelet fertility, filled grains panicle and 1000-grain
weight) and yields than the BRRI dhan 31 in late transplanted conditions. There
were significant reductions in yield attributes and yields after delayed
transplanting. Spikelet sterility was increased by late transplanting due to low
temperature at panicle emergence stage. Yield reduction of BRRI dhan 46 due to
late transplanting at 10 September, 20 September and 30 September were 4.44,
8.88 and 15.55%, respectively compared to 01 September transplanting.

Faghani et al. (2011) studied the effects of seedling age and planting date
on yield and yield components of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Some agronomical traits
such as total tiller number, fertile tiller number, panicle number per m 2, total
spikelet per panicle, total sterile spikelet per panicle, 1000 grains weight, plant
height, biological yield, grain yield and harvest index were measured. Results
showed that the effect of planting date on plant height, total sterile spikelet per
panicle, 1000 grains weight, number of panicle number per m 2, grain yield and
harvest index was significant at 0.01 probability level.
 Karki et al. (2011) studied the effect of transplanting dates and cultivars on
growing degree days at different phonological stages of drought tolerant rice was
found significant. rice cultivars was found significantly higher for July 15
transplanted rice at maturity stage, whereas, August 14 transplanted rice received
significantly lower for maintaining maturity stage.

Thakur et al. (2017) studied seven treatments viz., broad casting, and broad
casting with Biasi (Beushening), line sowing by seed drill, conventional
transplanting, improved transplanting, Lehi method and system of rice
intensification (SRI). Significantly highest number of tillers, panicle length, yield,
straw yield, biological and harvest index was recorded under SRI method followed
by improved transplanting method, but in case of bulk density, improved
transplanting was recorded significantly highest at 30 DAP which was at par with
Lehi method, conventional transplanting and SRI method.

Roy et al. (2018) reported plant height was significantly influenced by

seedling age at staggered transplanting. The tallest plant was found when 30day
old seedlings were transplanted followed in order by old seedlings at staggered
transplanting. The tallest plant was found with 30 day old seedlings due to early
recovery of transplanting shock and better growth of the plants. The maximum
number of effective tillers was found when 60 day old seedlings were transplanted
and the minimum number of non-effective tillers hill was obtained when 30 day
old seedlings were transplanted.

Tahir et al. (2018) studied the suitable rice transplanting time for four
different coarse genotypes. The indicated statistically significant differences
among genotypes as well as transplanting dates irrespective of all studied traits
while interactive effects of both were found to be non-significant. NIBGE-1
performed best with maximum paddy yield of 6.05 t/ha while KSK-434 performed
poor with paddy yield of 2.78 t/ha. Increased paddy yield and yield related
parameters of all rice genotypes were recorded where transplantation was early.
2.2 Genetic divergence studies

Madhavilatha et al. (2005) conducted an experiment and classified the

genotypes into nine clusters based on Mahalanobsi D 2 statistic. Geographical and
genetic diversity were observed to be unrelated as genotypes from diverse
geographical regions were placed in the same cluster, while genotypes from the
same centre were grouped into different clusters. The results on cluster means
revealed greater yield, number of grains per panicle, panicle length, plant height
and days to 50% flowering for cluster IV, indicating the desirability of genotypes
from the cluster for improvement of grain yield and these yield components.

Asish et al. (2010) investigated genetic divergence of fifty one breeding

lines/cultivars of rice for fourteen physic-chemical quality characteristics of
different duration group’s viz., early, mid-early, medium, long duration. The
genotypes were grouped into thirteen clusters of which cluster III with seventeen
varieties was the largest. The genetic diversity observed was not related to duration
of groups and genotypes of same duration group were distributed in different
clusters.

Singh et al. (2010) evaluated twenty aromatic rice genotypes for seven
biometrical characters and reported wide variation among traditional aromatic rice
genotypes. The plant height among the genotypes ranged from 75.40 cm to
155.18cm whereas the tillers per plant ranged from 4.6 to 8.2 with the mean value
of 5.8.Similar variation was also observed in respect of panicle length, grains per
panicle and yield in kg per plot. The coefficient of variation (CV) was highest in
case of 100 grain weight (34.20 %) followed by grains per panicle (20.91 %), grain
yield in kg/ plot (19.60 %) and tillers per plant (18.16 %) whereas CV was lowest
(0.74%) in case of days to maturity indicating extent of variation present in
different characters.

Babu et al. (2012) investigated is to study the genetic parameters for yield,
yield attributing, quality and nutritional characters in twenty one rice hybrids.
Analysis of variance revealed significant differences for all the traits under study.
The characters viz., number of filled grains per panicle, number of chaffy grains
per panicle and iron content exhibited high Genotypic Coefficient of Variation
(GCV) and Phenotypic Coefficient of Variation (PCV). Small differences between
GCV and PCV were recorded for all the characters studied which indicated less
influence of environment on these characters. The characters viz., number of filled
grains per panicle and water uptake exhibited high heritability coupled with high
genetic advance.

Chanbeni et al. (2012) analysed nine clusters by considering 13

quantitative characters in 70 rice genotypes. Cluster I and cluster III constituted
maximum number of genotypes. The genotypes falling in cluster VII had the
maximum divergence, which was closely followed by cluster V and cluster I. The
inter cluster distance was maximum between cluster VI and VII followed by
cluster III and IX. Traits like spikelet per panicle, plant height and biological yield
were the major contributors to genetic divergence. Considering the importance of
genetic distance and relative contribution of characters towards total divergence,
the present study indicated that parental lines selected from cluster VI for plant
height, biological yield and panicle length and cluster VII for spikelet per panicle
and harvest index.

Prasad et al. (2013) reported significant differences among the 470

genotypes for all the nineteen characters studied. The quantum of genetic
divergence was assessed by cluster analysis using Mahalanobis’s Euclidean
squared distances which grouped the entire material into eight clusters and
estimated the average distance between them. It was interesting to observe that
most of the genotypes of one cluster were adapted to only one region. The
clustering pattern reflects the closeness between the clusters and the geographical
adaptation of the genotypes.

Vanisree et al. (2013) investigated fifty genotypes comprising both Basmati

and aromatic short grain types and revealed significant differences among
genotypes for yield, its components and grain quality traits. A perusal of genetic
parameters revealed that phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variations were
high in case of number of effective tillers per panicle followed by number of
effective tillers per plant, number of grains per panicle, grain yield per plant, grain
L/B ratio, kernel length after cooking and 1000 grain weight in decreasing order of
their magnitude. High estimates of GCV and PCV for seed yield per plant and for
number of productive tillers per plant, L/B ratio and for kernel length after
cooking. Moderate amount of GCV and PCV were recorded for kernel length,
plant height and kernel elongation ratio. Low estimates of GCV and PCV were
estimated for days to 50 % flowering, kernel length panicle length and harvest
index.

Haque et al. (2014) studied clustering pattern, using Mahalanobis D2

analysis involving a set of 76 rice genotypes, landraces and popular variety
consisting of both indigenous and exotic collection and were studied for yield and
yield related attributing traits under drought. Based on D2 analysis, the genotypes
were grouped into 8 clusters. Maximum number of genotypes (48 genotypes) was
grouped in cluster I.

Patel et al. (2014) studies the nature and magnitude of genetic diversity in
thirty eight aromatic rice accessions collected from different places of Chhattisgarh
were evaluated for their performance. Data generated on nine quantitative
characters were subjected to D2 statistics and result indicated the presence of
appreciable amount of genetic diversity in the material. The 38 genotypes were
grouped into five clusters. Cluster II was the biggest one consisting of eleven
genotypes and cluster III, the smallest one consisting of four genotypes.

Perera et al. (2014) reported weedy rice possesses a high diversity in yield
attributing characteristics and is an important resource for rice improvement
programmes. The present investigation was carried out to estimate the genetic
parameters and the correlations of yield attributing characteristics of weedy rice
using 37 weedy rice. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among
the weedy rice accessions for all the characteristics studied, implying the presence
of a substantial amount of genetic variability and scope for selection. Shattering
percentage, total number of spikelet per plant and the number of filled seeds per
panicle exhibited high genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation
 Rai et al. (2014) studied forty rice genotypes in SHIATS, to identify
diverse genotypes using D2 analysis. Genotypes were grouped into seven clusters
based on Torches cluster analysis with cluster III containing the maximum of 10
genotypes followed by 9 genotypes in cluster II, 7 genotypes in cluster I, 6
genotypes in cluster IV, 4 genotypes in cluster VI and 2 genotypes each in cluster
V & VII. The highest inter cluster distance was observed between cluster IV and
VII followed by cluster III and VII, cluster III and VI.

Sarawgi et al. (2014) reported wide range of variability for plant height
(44.0 - 110.0 cm) followed by leaf length (24.5 - 68.5 cm) and grain yield per plant
(0.8 - 40.0 g). A reasonable amount of genetic variation was displayed for the traits
evaluated. Plant height was the only character with coefficient of variation (CV)
values less than 10 %. However, most traits have CV values above 10 % and as
high as 43.52 % for the grain yield per plant.

Ekka et al. (2015) studies estimates of variability, heritability, genetic

advance, correlation and path analysis were carried out in rice for nineteen
characters. The highest genotypic coefficient of variation and phenotypic
coefficient of variation was observed for number of effective tillers per plant, grain
yield per plant and head rice recovery percentage. Estimates of heritability and
genetic advance were high for number of effective tillers per plant, number of
filled grains per panicle, head rice recovery percentage and grain yield per plant in
genotypes indicating the predominance of additive gene action for these traits,
hence direct selection may be highly effective.

Shrivastava et al. (2015) reported genetic variability is prerequisite for any

crop improvement program as it helps breeders in the selection. This study was
conducted with the aim of evaluating genetic parameters in 125 parental lines of
hybrid rice. High genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation exhibited by
unfilled fertility, spikelet density, harvest index, flag leaf width and culm length.
High heritability accompanied with high genetic advance showed by spikelet
fertility.
 Sritama et al. (2015) evaluated forty three paddy genotypes for three
consecutive years and for non-saline zone and saline zone. At maturity eight agro
morphological characters were studied. After that the statistical analyses were
carried out. The GCV (Genotypic coefficient of variation), PCV (Phenotypic
coefficient of variation), heritability (H2b) in the broad sense, genetic advance
(GA) and GA% of mean was calculated. High GCV, PCV, broad sense heritability
and GA was obtained for two characters i.e. grains/ panicle and seed yield/plant for
both the location. Therefore, the results suggest tillers/ hill can be considered to be
an important yield contributing trait along with panicles/ plant, grains/ panicle,
plant height and days to maturity. Selection based on these traits would be most
effective.

Devi et al. (2016) recorded the analysis of variance revealed highly

significant differences among 27 genotypes for all the yield components and most
of the kernel quality traits except hulling%, volume expansion ratio and water
uptake indicating that enough variability is present in the studied material. The
magnitude of difference between PCV and GCV was less for the traits indicating
little influence of environment. The higher estimates of PCV and GCV were
observed for yield per plant (42.42; 42.04) and filled seeds per panicle (34.67;
33.19) indicates possibility of genetic improvement through direct selection for
these traits, while hulling%, milling%, kernel elongation ratio, day to 50%
flowering, panicle length, kernel length and kernel width showed low PCV and
GCV values indicating the need for creation of variability by hybridization or
mutation followed by selection. High heritability in broad sense and high genetic
advance as percent of mean exhibited by the traits, effective tillers (88.8; 30.2),
plant height (96.0; 35.3), flag leaf length (84.0; 32.8), filled seeds per panicle
(96.0; 68.7) test weight ( 96.0; 39.1), yield per plant (98.0; 68.7), head rice
recovery (94.0; 27.7) and length/breadth ratio (93.0 ; 20.4).

Panigrahi et al. (2016) conducted a study for genetic diversity on the basis
of nineteen quantitative characters using Euclidian distance between genotypes.
This analysis allowed the 105 genotypes of rice to be identified into ten distinct
clusters. Among the different clusters, cluster III contained maximum of 46
genotypes and cluster I, II and X contained a minimum of 1 genotype each. Cluster
I was characterized by highest mean value for number of effective tillers per hill,
spikelet fertility and grain length breadth ratio. Cluster VII had highest mean value
for harvest index. The cluster VIII was characterized by highest mean value for
flag leaf length, panicle length, number of fertile spikelet per panicle and total
number of grains per panicle.

Prasad et al. (2017) conducted experiment to evaluate 33 rice Hybrids for

yield and quality traits at Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR) Hyderabad. The
data were recorded for 15 quantitative characters to assess genetic variability.
Analysis of variance showed highly significant for all the 15 characters except flag
leaf width. The highest grain yield per plant was observed in hybrid IHRT-E-34
7t/ha. Highest of GCV and PCV were observed for number of spikelet per panicle
followed by grain yield per plant and unfilled grains percentage. High Estimate of
Heritability was observed for plant height and days to 50% flowering. High
Genetic advance as % of mean was recorded for number of spikelet per panicle,
grain yield per plant, unfilled grains and tillers per hill.

2.3 Incidence of blast in rice

One of the most important crop improvement objectives has been the
enhancement of tolerance to biotic stresses. Identification of resistance sources and
use of these in plant breeding programs has resulted in substantial gains in crop
productivity. Despite the on-going efforts, productivity in India for major crops is
far below the global averages, largely due to persisting problems of diseases.

Kuyek et al. (2000) reported that in its sexual state, the fungus
Magnaporthe oryzae feeds on the rice plant, causing severe damage. It attacks
different parts of the plant includes, the collar, which can ultimately kill the
entire leaf blade; the stem, which turns blackish and breaks easily called
node blast; the neck of the panicle, where the infected part is girdled by a
greyish brown lesion, or in severe cases, causes the panicles to fall over; or
on the branches of the panicles which exhibit brown lesions when infected.
 Couch et al. (2002) studied Rice blast, caused by a fungus
Magnaporthe oryzae, causes lesions to form on leaves, stems, peduncles,
panicles, seeds and even roots. So great is the potential threat for crop failure
from this disease, that it has been ranked among the most important crop diseases.

Talbot et al. (2003) found that infection by the rice blast fungus starts when
the three- celled conidia lands on a host leaf and anchors itself to the leaf cuticle
with spore- tip mucilage. Germination proceeds with the extension of a germ tube,
which undergoes hooking and swelling at its tip and then differentiates into
an infection structure called the aspersorium. During maturation, the
aspersorium becomes melanised, except for a well-defined pore between the
aspersorium and the rice leaf. The formation of this infection structure on
the host surface marks the onset of the disease. A penetration peg is then
driven through the host surface and the infection hyphen invades and grows
through the rice leaf.

Oerke et al. (2004) reported that one of the main limitations in production
of rice is rice blast disease caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Annual rice
losses caused by this fungus during 90’s had been estimated at 35% of the
worldwide production.

Seebold et al. (2004) reported that the fungus Pyricularia oryzae

attacks at all stages of the crop and symptoms appear on leaves and nodes

Dean et al. (2005) reported that the causal organism of blast, P. oryzae is a
haploid filamentous Ascomycete with a relatively small genome of ~40 Mb
divided into seven chromosomes.

Biloni et al. (2006) Pyricularia grisea (Cooke) Sacc. Is the causal organism
of blast, the most serious disease of rice because of its devastating nature,
widespread distribution and existence of several physiologic races It occurs in
epiphytotic conditions in all major rice-growing regions of the world, as well as in
Italy. Nowadays, no strategies in current use are based on the dynamics of airborne
conidia, the most important means of dissemination of the pathogen, and chemicals
and management practices are the only means of blast control. However, blast
forecasting may open the possibility of more rational use of fungicides and blast
simulation models might prove to be useful in predicting the potential for the
disease.

Ram et al. (2007) reported that leaf blast fungus can attack the rice plant at
any growth stage and can cause severe leaf necrosis and impede grain filling,
resulting in decreased grain number and weight. When the last node is attacked, it
causes partial to complete sterility.

Tebeest et al. (2007) found that the symptoms on leaves may vary
according to the environmental conditions, age of the plant, and level of
resistance of the host cultivars. On susceptible cultivars, lesions may initially
appear gray-green and 9 water- soaked with a dark green border which expand
rapidly to several centimetres in length often becoming light tan in colour
with necrotic borders. On resistant cultivars, lesions often remain small in size
(1-2 mm) and brown to dark brown in colour.

Nutsugah et al. (2008) reported that in West Africa, the largest area of
African production, this pathogen is the main constraint to production with
yield losses ranging from 3-77%. The fungus is able to infect plants at all stages of
growth and development in both upland and lowland rice production systems.
Lowland rice produced in temperate and subtropical climates of Asia are
highly susceptible to the pathogen, while tropical upland areas are susceptible
only under irrigation.

Prasad et al. (2011) reported that the neck blast infects the panicle causing
failure of the seeds to fill or causing the entire panicle to fall over as it is rotted.
Infection of the necks can be very destructive and directly reduces the
economic value of the produce. The lesions are often greyish brown discoloration
of the branches of the panicle and over time, the branches may break at the lesion.
Out of three symptoms, neck blast is more destructive.

Mahesh et al. (2012) Reported that under traditional system of rice

cultivation and in System of Rice Intensification (SRI) methods, the damage of
blast in terms of grain yield was recorded as 8.2 and 7.5%
respectively.Theyield losses due to 7pests and diseases are estimated to be
around 37% (IRRI, 2014) of which blast accounts to 14- 18 per cent

Scheuermann et al. (2012) Mentioned that the anamorphic P. oryzae

produces perform shaped conidia with one to two transversal septa, slightly
dirked or hyaline, linked to conidiophores by its larger bottom. Conidiophores
are spectated, simple, rarely branched, showing symposia growth and slightly
browned. The teleomorph P. oryzae has not been found in nature but it has been
produced after crossing appropriate compatible isolates in laboratory. The
teleomorph stage produces hyaline ascosporic, typically bursiform shaped with
three-septet and involved by a Unitunicate asci.

Sireesha et al. (2013) conducted Field trials under irrigated conditions

during rabi season of 2008 and 2009 on two rice varieties NLR-34242 and BPT-
5204 to compare the incidence of rice blast disease with the interaction of nitrogen
levels at different doses (0 kg, 120 kg, 160 kg, 200 kg and 240 kg per hectare). The
incidence of blast increased as the nitrogen dose increased from 0 kg to 240 kg.
However the maximum grain yield was observed in the plots treated with 120 kg
and 160 kg nitrogen per hectare.

Afolabi et al. (2014) rice was blast, caused by the fungus. The effects of
nitrogen applications on leaf blast development and yield of rice were studied
under swath system of production. WITA-4 and Jasmine rice varieties were
planted and four levels (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha) of urea fertilizer were imposed.
Nitrogen and rice varieties treatments were arranged in a split plot design with N
levels as main plots and varieties as subplots, with three replications. The results
obtained indicate that Jasmine variety was not infected by the blast pathogen
whereas WITA-4 variety was susceptible to the disease.

Chuwa et al. (2014) Pyricularia oryzae Cavara, [(synonym P. grilse Sack

(teleomorph: Magnaporthe grisea (Hebert) Barr)] causal agent of rice blast
disease, is a major problem facing rice growers worldwide. In Tanzania, rice blast
is considered as the most serious disease, resulting in severe yield losses
especially, when susceptible rice varieties are grown. Results showed that rice
blast disease affected rice plants at all stages of growth and resulted in reduction in
number of tillers per plant, grain weight, number of seeds per panicle and grain
yield. Most of the rice varieties were susceptible to P. oryzae at seedling, early
tillering and heading stages (reproductive stages).

Kumar et al. (2014) conducted a large-scale screen for new rice blast
resistance sources in 4246 geographically diverse rice accessions originating from
13 major rice-growing countries. The accessions were selected from a total
collection of over 120,000 accessions based on their annotated rice blast resistance
information in the International Rice Gene bank. A two-step resistance screening
protocol was used involving natural infection in a rice uniform blast nursery and
subsequent artificial infections with five single rice blast isolates.

Ashkani et al. (2015) reported that rice blast disease, caused by

P.oryzae is considered to be a major threats to rice production worldwide and
it has recently emerged as a model organism for the investigation of plant
diseases caused by fungi, largely because of its economic importance,
but also owing to the experimental tractability of the fungus.

Chuwa et al. (2015) conducted an experiment in the screen-house using

tenrice varieties viz; Jaribu 220, Super, Klamath, Shingo ya Mwali, Mwarabu,
Mbawambili, Kihogo, IR 64, TXD 306 and TXD 85. Results showed that rice blast
disease affected rice plants at all stages of growth and resulted in reduction in
number of tillers per plant, grain weight, number of seeds per panicle and grain
yield. Most of the rice varieties were susceptible to P. oryzae at seedling, early
tillering and heading stages (reproductive stages). During the early growth stages
symptoms were mainly found on leaves. Leaf blast disease severity reached
maximum at tillering stage, then the disease symptoms disappeared gradually.

Hasan et al. (2015) stated that blast disease is distributed in about 85

countries in all continents in both lowland and upland conditions and it is
considered the most destructive pathogen of rice worldwide and accounts for
50% of the yield losses.
 Pandey et al. (2016) investigated the apparent infection rates of leaf blast
on twelve cultivars of rice were investigated in upland agricultural conditions in
Rewa, Madhya Pradesh in India during year 2011 and 2012. The experiments were
conducted in a Randomized complete Block Design (RCBD) with three
replications. Blast disease incidence and rate of infection were observed every
seven days starting from the first visible symptoms on leaves of the plant. The
apparent infection rate shows significant variations during both the seasons in all
the tested cultivars. The highly susceptible traditional cultivar Gurmatia, Dehula
and Indrajal shows high degree of incidence, apparent infection rates and
severities. The leaf blast infections were also observed, even though not
significantly higher in all improved cultivars.

Hossain et al. (2017) recorded incidence and severity of blast disease of

rice in ten agro ecological zones (AEZs) of Bangladesh during Boro (November to
May; irrigated ecosystem) and Transplanted Aman (July to December; rain fed
ecosystem) seasons. Disease incidence and severity was higher in irrigated
ecosystem (Boro season) (21.19%) than in rain fed ecosystem (Transplanted Aman
season) (11.98%) regardless of locations (AEZs). It was as high as 68.7% in Jhalak
hybrid rice variety followed by high yielding rice cultivar BRRI dhan 47 (58.2%),
BRRI dhan 29 (39.8%), BRRI dhan 28 (20.3%) during. Boro and in BRRI dhan 34
(59.8%) during T. Aman season. Maximum yield loss was noted in AEZ 9 for both
the seasons.

Fetene et al. (2019) reported the rice blast disease, caused by a fungus
Pyricularia oryzae (Cavara), is a worldwide problem in rice and is dangerous
because of its yield loss potential ranging up to 100% under favourable conditions.
Blast development is favoured by thick stands and high nitrogen rates which
increase canopy thickness. With this in mind it indicated that some fertilizer
application may have a negative or positive response of plants toward the disease.
High rate of nitrogen fertilization has been found to increase the severity of the rice
blast disease to a great extent as compared to the low nitrogen rate.

Rijal et al. (2019) reported rice (Oryza sativa) is native to Asia and grown
worldwide. Rice feeds more than 50 % of the world population Rice is
predominant staple food for 17 countries in Asia and provides 20 % of world's
dietary energy supply. So, among cereal it considered as most significant crop.
Both biotic and a-biotic factors adversely affect crop and yield. Among them, 70 to
80 % of annual rice yield is lost due to blast disease. Higher statically data of blast
disease is threat to growing population on food security.

Singh et al. (2019) studies that rice blast caused by Pyricularia oryzae,
Cav. is one of the major diseases of rice and cause approximately 45-50 % yield
losses. Seven treatments including control with three replications were taken up by
using RBD. The highest per cent disease intensity of 69.40 per cent was observed
in Control (Spray of normal water) treatment. Significantly highest grain yield was
recorded in tebuconazole + trifloxystrobin 75 % (WG).

2.4 Incidence of stem borer in rice

Muhammad (2012) conducted experiment with Treatments comprised the

crop sown on 3 different dates at the fortnightly intervals starting from the last
week of June till the end of July to note the rate of stem borer’s infestation. The
data on the incidences of insect pests and yield performances of rice varieties were
studied. Rice yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas, was the most important
insect pest of rice, attacking all stages of the crop causing substantial losses in
early, medium and late-sown crops, and degree of stem borer infestation depended
upon the planting time.

Chavan et al. (2013) conducted investigations on rice yellow stem borer,

Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) infestation in relation to crop growth stages and
weather parameters was carried out at NARP Farm, Navsari Agricultural
University, Navsari (Gujarat). The maximum infestation (15.47% DH) was
observed in first week of September (36th std. week and 45 DAT), whereas
minimum infestation (0.64%) was noticed in second week of October (41th std.
week and 84 DAT). The maximum, 19.23 per cent white earhead (WEH) damage
was recorded during third week of October (90 DAT).
 Kakde et al. (2014) conducted an experiment on the influence of different
planting methods on succession of rice yellow stem borer was carried out in rice
field. This experiment was carried out with conventional (Transplanting) and SRI
method of paddy cultivation. Under conventional method, yellow stem borer
infestation appeared peak during first week of September (5.58% DH) and 1st
week of October (5.79% WEH). In SRI method, the peak incidence was observed
during first week of September (4.19% DH) and at last week of September (4.93%
WEH).

Nirala et al. (2015) conducted during kharif season 2013-14 using midland
SRI and midland normal transplanted rice ecosystem. The results of experiments
revealed that the maximum per cent incidence of dead heart observed during 36
SMW and 37 SMW in month of September with 18.48 and 10.25 per cent/hill,
respectively in midland normal transplanted rice ecosystem (MNT) and midland
SRI rice ecosystem (MSR). The maximum per cent incidence of white ear head
observed during 42 SMW and 43 SMW of October with 24.21 and 23.15 per
cent/hill, respectively in MNT and MSR..

Vennila et al. (2015) studies that pest forewarning provides lead time for
managing impending pest attacks, and optimizes selection of pest control options
for minimizing crop loss and reducing cost of plant protection. Light trap catches
of rice yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) recorded using light
trap deployed at IGKVV rice research farm of Raipur were used in conjunction
with the weather data of the location for development of weather based prediction
through iterative approach between range of each weather variable, and population
levels. incertulas categorized as to low, medium and high severity

Baskaran et al. (2017) studies seasonal abundance of rice stem-borer and

leaf-folder in wet land rice during kharif 2016 at ICAR-National Institute of Biotic
Stress Management, Raipur by erecting yellow stem-borer sex pheromone and
light traps. Three species of stem-borer including yellow stem-borer, Scirpophaga
incertulas, stripped stem-borer, Chilo suppressalis and white stem-borer,
Scirpophaga innotata were found attacking rice, among them, Sc. incertulas
dominated. First catch of female of yellow stem-borer in light trap appeared during
1st week of August 2016 (31st MSW) which caused 1.1% dead heart, there after
reached the first peak catch during 3rd week of August 2016 (33rd MSW) and
second peak during 4th week of August 2016 (35th MSW) which caused the dead
heart of 3.60 and 3.83%, respectively.

Longkumer et al. (2017) studied the yellow stem borer with a record of
lowest Dead Heart damage. The maximum dead heart percent was recorded in
plots treated with EMFPE @ 2500 ml/ha(3.92% DH).The pooled mean data further
indicated that (Acephate 50% +Imidacloprid 1.8) 51.8 SP@750 g a.i. ha-1 proved
to be the most effective insecticidal treatments in reducing white ear head (WEH)
incidence with a record of 1.61% WEH as against 2.23% in untreated control.

Mondal et al. (2017) reported the yellow stem borer (YSB) (walker) is one
of the most serious insect pests infesting field rice crop. The relative abundance of
different natural enemies in relation to the interaction with the environmental
factors and also in relation to the incidence of YSB was studied in view of the
three growth stages of kharif rice at Murshidabad, West Bengal, India, during
2016. The incidence of natural enemies was found to vary in relation to the YSB
incidence.

Adiroubane et al. (2006) reported about the rice stem borer infestation
during two year study period along with weather parameters. Results showed high
pest incidence during months of March (Navarai – Rabi, 2005).

Patel et al. (2017) investigated eight paddy varieties (PR-113, HKR-47,

NDR-359, Sarju-52, PS-4, PS-5, PS-15 and PS-21) transplanted on 11th july 2016
during Kharif season to studies the seasonal incidence of rice stem borer,
Scirpophaga incertulas on different varieties of paddy. Dead heart started from 32 th
standard week and continued upto 38 th standard week, while white ear head was
recorded on 35th standard week and it reached peak in 45th standard week. The
white ear head percent was ranged from 27% to 44.9%. Varietal reaction did not
play a prominent role for the high or low stem borer incidence.
 Rana et al. (2017) conducted investigation to study the effect of weather
parameters on the infestation of yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas Walker
in basmati rice. Results revealed that the peak period of pooled maximum dead
hearts (9.46%) of both cropping seasons was recorded in 35 th standard week.
Thereafter, infestation declined gradually, but again increased at reproductive stage
of crop and the pooled maximum white ears (8.48%) infestation was recorded
during both the seasons at 40th standard week.

Sharanappa et al. (2017) investigated efficacy of certain insecticides

against Rice stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas. Was conducted during July, 2015
at Agricultural research farm, SHIATS, Allahabad. The occurrence of stem borer
commenced from 34th standard week (4th week of August, 2015) with an average
infestation per-cent 0.89 on 10 randomly selected hills per plot. The Stem borer
infestation increased and gradually reached peak level of 8.92 % infestation at 40 th
standard week (1st week of October, 2015). Thereafter, declined trend was
observed due to fall of maximum and minimum temperatures as optimum weather
condition are decreasing.

Sulagitti et al. (2017) conducted to study the seasonal abundance of major

insect pests of rice, during kharif, 2014-15. Incidence of yellow stem borer was
started from last of July with its peak during second week of October and showed a
positive significant correlation with evening and average humidity and a positive
non-significant correlation with morning humidity and rainfall. BPH appeared in
rice crop during first week of August and reached at highest level during 2nd week
of October. Later on the population decreased as the crop reached the harvesting
stage.

Nag et al. (2018) conducted field experiment during kharif season 2016 at
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur. Yellow stem borer is major insect
pest always causing damage to the rice crop resulting in considerable yield losses.
The study aimed to find out the effect of these environmental factors on the
severity of insect pest. These finding may give reliable methods to identify
environmental condition that are conducive for the development of a particular
insect pest..

Pallavi et al. (2018) studied seasonal incidence, crop loss estimation and
management of yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (walker) on paddy,
studies were conducted during 2015 at ZAHRS, College of Agriculture,
Shivamogga. The highest incidence of dead heart and white ear was noticed during
third week of April and third week of May. Maximum temperature had significant
positive correlation whereas minimum temperature, sunshine hours and afternoon
relative humidity had non-significant positive correlation and in Kharif, the
incidence was high during second and third week of September.

Reuolin et al. (2018) A preliminary data to ascertain the damage by stem

borer at different age of rice crop and efficiency of its natural egg parasitoids at
different stage of crop. The study was carried during August 2016 to May 2017 in
the variety CO 51 at different age viz., 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 DAP. The results
revealed maximum dead heart damage (10.47%) at 60 DAP and minimum (3.98%)
at 45 DAP. Four different egg parasitoids were recorded viz., Telenomus sp.,
Tetrastichus schoenobii, Trichogramma japonicum, Trichomalopsis sp. The stem
borer damage was minimum in the crops while the egg parasitoids were higher.

Solanki et al. (2018) conducted field experiment were carried out during
Kharif 2014 indicated the beginning of rice stem borer infestation was recorded in
the 2nd week of August and the maximum number of larvae or pupae per dead
heart/white ear head was recorded to the extent 2.8 in the 1 st week of October when
the temperature ranged between 32.6-18.70C & RH 99-74%. Correlation
coefficient values for rice stem borer incidence and weather parameters showed
that minimum relative humidity had positive influence on rice stem borer
population.

Shyamrao et al. (2019) conducted investigation on submergence rice

variety Swarna sub-1 to study the effect of environmental factors on the incidence
of yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) during Kharif season of
2016 and 2017 at Agricultural Research Farm, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. The infestation of yellow stem borer was
noticed in the field from 2nd week of July to 4th week of October during both
Kharif season of 2016 and 2017. The maximum dead hearts (DH) and white ear
head (WEH) were recorded in 40th Standard meteorological week (SMW) (8.48%
DH) and 44th Standard meteorological week (SMW) (8.10% WEH)

2.5 Path analysis

Path coefficient analysis measures the direct and indirect contributions of

independent variables on dependent variable. Though, the correlation coefficients
depict the nature of association among the characters, it is the path analysis that
splits the correlation coefficients into direct and indirect effects thus specifying the
Relative contribution of each character. It further reveals the different ways in
which character influence the dependent variable.

Ambili and Radhakrishnan (2011) reported highest positive direct effect of

plant height on grain yield. This was followed by number of productive tillers per
plant, straw yield, harvest index and total number of tillers per plant. The highest
negative direct effect on yield was obtained for days to flowering. So it can
beconcluded that yield of rice can be improved by selecting medium tall genotypes
having more number of productive tillers per plant, higher straw yield and an
optimum duration.

Ekka et al. (2011) studied the direct and indirect effects of different
characters on head rice recovery percentage are presented in Supplementary
Table2. The highest positive direct effect of paddy breadth was followed by, paddy
length, brown rice length, number of filled grains per panicle, days to 50%
flowering, leaf length and spikelet sterility percentage. Paddy breadth and kernel
breadth exhibited negative correlation with head rice recovery percentage

Selvaraj et al. (2011) reported that the test weight exhibited maximum
positive direct effect on grain yield per plant followed by filled grains per panicle,
plant height, panicle length, number of tillers per plant and days to 50 % flowering
and they contributed primarily to yield.
 Babu et al. (2012) reported that panicle length had the highest positive
direct effect on grain yield. Grain yield linearly correlated with panicle length, the
number of panicle per plant, and the number of filled grains per panicle.

Kiani et al. (2012) path coefficient analysis reported about that grain yield
associated with number of panicles per plant and the total number of grains per
panicle with the direct effects of 0.765 and 0.718, respectively. Information
obtained in this study revealed that traits the number of panicles per plant and total
number of grains per panicle could be used as selection criteria for grain yield
improvement in rice.

Lingaiah et al. (2014) studies path analysis indicated that panicle length,
effective tillers per plant and test weight exhibited direct positive effect on yield
indicating the importance of these traits during selections for improvement of yield
in rice.

Naseem et al. (2014) reported that the number of productive tillers per
plant, number of spikelets per panicle, number of grains per panicle and days to
maturity had positive direct effect on grain yield per plant. The genotypic
correlation between number of grains per panicle and grain yield per plant was
positive. This positive association between the characters shows that direct
selection of plants can be done on phenotypic basis upon this trait.

Rai et al. (2014) evaluated 40 genotypes of rice in Randomized Block

Design. The data was recorded for 13 quantitative characters to study, correlation
and path coefficient. Correlation and path-coefficient analysis, concluded that,
biological yield per plant and harvest index exhibited maximum positive direct
effect on grain yield seems to be primary yield contributing characters and could
be relied upon for selection of genotypes to improve genetic yield potential of rice.

Islam et al. (2015) studies path coefficient analysis, it revealed that days to
maturity, days to 50% flowering, plant height, number of filled grain per panicle
and grain length had direct positive effect on yield, indicating these are the main
contributors to yield. Eventually, it was recommended that, for obtaining increased
rice yield, a genotype should possess more number of filled grains per panicle.
 Sarwar et al. (2015) reported plant height employed positive direct effect
on yield per plant as well as positive indirect effect via filled grains per panicle,
days to 50% flowering and thousand grain weights. It also showed negative
indirect effect of total tillers per plant, effective tillers per plant, panicle length,
unfilled grains per panicle and days to maturity. Reference also found positive
direct effect of plant height on yield per plant. But Reference found negative direct
effect of plant height on yield per plant.

Sarawgi et al. (2016) reported that the leaf length, leaf width, days to 50%
flowering, effective tiller, plant height, panicle length and days to maturity had
positive direct effect on grain yield per plant.

Kumar et al. (2016) studied character association and path-coefficient

analysis on forty three rice genotypes for grain quality traits on grain yield.
Results of path-coefficient analysis revealed linear elongation ratio had the highest
positive direct effect on grain yield followed by breadth wise expansion ratio, gel
consistency, kernel L/B ratio and alkali spreading value.

Gour et al. (2017) reported about path coefficient analysis, the correlation
coefficient is partitioned into direct and indirect effects. Biological yield per plant
showed highest positive direct effect on grain yield per plant followed by harvest
index, panicle weight per plant, filled spikelet /plant, panicle length/plant and days
to maturity.

Kumar et al. (2018) studies path analysis which identified biological yield
per plant followed by harvest-index as most important direct yield contributing
traits and biological yield per plant followed by 1000-grain weight and panicle
length exhibited high order of positive indirect effect as most important indirect
components which merit due consideration at time of devising selection strategy
aimed at developing high yielding varieties in rice.

Singh et al. (2018) identified biological yield per plant followed by harvest
index as most important direct as well as indirect yield. Contributing traits or
components which merit due consideration at time of devising selection strategy
aimed at developing high yielding varieties in rice.
2.6 Studies on correlation coefficient analysis

Correlation coefficient is a statistical measure which is used to find out the

degree (strength) and direction of relationship between two or more variables. In
Plant breeding, correlation coefficient analysis measures the mutual relationship
between various characters and determines the component characters on which
selection can be based for genetic improvement in yield. Correlation studies
provide better understanding of yield components which helps the plant breeder
during selection (Robinson et al. 1951; Johnson et al. 1955). Grain yield is a
complex quantitative character which is controlled polygenetically. Therefore,
selection on the basis of grain yield alone is usually not effective. However,
selection based on its components and secondary characters could be more
efficient and reliable (Govindaraji et al. 2011).

Ramakrishnan et al. (2006) studied in the present were days to flowering

had positive correlation with plant height, flag leaf area, kernel length, L/B ratio
and grain weight. Similar findings were reported by Kennedy and Rangasamy and
also it had negative correlation with pollen fertility, panicle exertion, panicles per
plant and spikelet fertility.

Babu et al. (2012) conducted were result the estimates of genotypic

coefficients were higher than phenotypic correlation coefficients for most of the
characters under study which indicated strong. Number of filled grains per panicle
had positive and significant correlation with number of chaffy grains per panicle
and negative and significant correlation with grain yield per plant.

Haider et al. (2012) studied the genotypic and phenotypic correlation

coefficients among all traits were estimated. Results clearly indicate that grains per
panicle (0.733**), spikelet fertility (0.709**), thousand grain weight (0.476**),
root length (0.465**), root to shoot length ratio (0.242*), drought response index
(0.642**) has significant and positive relation with yield per plant; while leaf
drying (-0.599**) is significant and negatively correlated with yield per plant
under drought stress condition
 Kiani (2012) studied the correlation between all pairs of traits has been
presented in. Correlation coefficients of studied traits showed that there was
significant correlation between grain yield with the total grains per panicle and
number of filled grains per panicle, Panicle length had a strong and significant
positive association with grain length (r=0.608**). The correlation of 100-grain
weight exhibited positive and significant correlation with grain width (r=0.762**).
Also, there was significant correlation between total grains per plant with number
of filled grains per panicle (r=0.882**)

Gopikannan et al. (2013) studied in the single plant yield showed positive
and significant correlation with seven traits viz., number of productive tillers per
plant (0.92), panicle length (0.74), spikelet fertility percentage (0.79), number of
filled grains per panicle (0.86), praline content (0.69), total chlorophyll content
(0.55) and chlorophyll stability index (0.60).

Lakshmi et al. (2014) studied in the present study, days to 50 per cent
flowering exhibited a positive and significant association with days to maturity,
number of effective tillers per plant, plant height and panicle length. Days to
maturity had registered a positive and significant association with plant height,
panicle length and grain yield per plant. However, non-significant associations
were observed with number of grains per panicle, 1000-grain weight, kernel
length, kernel breadth and L/B ratio.

Sarker et al. (2014) conducted the result of correlation coefficient at

phenotypic and genotypic levels indicated that grains yield plant had non-
significant positive association with days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, total
no. of tillers, effective of number of tillers /hill, number of filled grains/ panicle,
number of unfilled grains panicle-1and weight of 1000 seeds Days to 50%
flowering had significant positive correlation with 1000 seed weight and yield
plant but non-significant positive correlation with days to maturity, plant height,
total number of effective tillers/ hill, number of effective tillers/ hill, number of
filled grains panicle-1 and number of unfilled grains panicle.
 Arshad et al. (2015) studied the genotypic correlation coefficient were
higher as compared to phenotypic in most of the characters indicating high
reliability of the results. Days to maturity of the hybrids had positive and
significant correlations with days to flower initiation and flower completion.

Hossain et al. (2015) studied the correlation coefficient of grain yield per
hill was found to be highly significant and positive for number of root hair, days to
flowering and plant height at both genotypic and phenotypic level and negatively
significant for Number of secondary branches per panicle at both level. Significant
positive correlation of grain yield per hill with number of root hair, days to
flowering and plant height imply that selection for these characters would lead to
simultaneous improvement of grain yield in rice.

Moosavi et al. (2015) studies were result of correlation analysis reveals that
grain yield exhibits the highest significantly positive correlation with panicle
number (r = 0.55**)

Nirmaladevi et al. (2015) conducted the Correlation estimates showed the

possibility of improvement of a character through selection for other character. The
character hulling percent showed significant and positive correlation with milling
percent (r = 0.602) and head rice recovery (r = 0.150). In the present study the
positive significant correlation of hulling % with milling % and head rice recovery
indicated that the genotypes with higher hulling percent also showed higher
estimates for milled rice and head rice.

Nayak et al. (2016) studied the correlation between the different component
characters of yield, among themselves and with the yield to ease the selection
strategy for improvement in yield. The present findings revealed that the grain
yield per plant was significant and positively correlated with the days to 50 per
cent flowering, plant height, effective tillers per plant, panicle length and test
weight

Gour et al. (2017) studied for all the traits have higher genotypic
correlation coefficients than corresponding phenotypic correlation coefficients
indicating a low influence of environmental factors and relative stability of the
genotypes. In the present study, among the eleven component characters studied,
six exhibited significant positive association with seed yield per plant.

Osundare et al. (2017) conducted the phenotypic and genotypic correlation

coefficient for the ten characters studied in six upland rice varieties in the two
years are presented in. Genotypic correlation for the two years showed that, plant
height had positive and significant correlation with number of days to flowering
and number of days to maturity, but was positively and significantly correlated
with number of panicles per plant and 1000grain weight only while plant height
had negative and significant correlation with number of tillers, number of grains
per panicle, panicle weight and grain yield.

Kumar et al. (2018) studied the estimates of simple correlation

coefficients (phenotypic and genotypic) computed between twelve characters
under study are presented. In general, genotypic correlations were higher than
phenotypic ones in magnitude for all the characters. The characters which showed
negative correlation at genotypic level also showed negative correlation at
phenotypic level. In general, genotypic correlations were higher than phenotypic
ones in magnitude for all the characters.