RENEWABLE ENERGY

SYSTEMS

WIND ENERGY (2)

 Outline
2

Wind Turbine Components

Wind Turbine Aerodynamics

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Wind Energy System Configurations

 Wind Turbine Components
3
 Turbine Blade
4

 The blade is the most distinctive and visible component of a

wind turbine. It is also responsible for carrying out one of the
most essential tasks of the energy conversion process:
transforming the wind kinetic energy into rotational
mechanical energy.
 Blades have greatly evolved in aerodynamic design and
materials from the early windmill blades made of wood and
cloth. Modern blades are commonly made of aluminum,
fiberglass, or carbon-fiber composites that provide the
necessary strength-to-weight ratio, fatigue life, and stiffness
while minimizing the weight.
 Turbine Blade
5

 Although single- and two-bladed wind turbines have found

practical applications, the three-blade rotor is considered the
industry standard for large wind turbines. Turbines with fewer
blades operate at higher rotational speeds. This is an
advantage from the drive train point of view since they require
a gearbox with a lower gear ratio, which translates into lower
cost. In addition, fewer blades imply lower costs. However,
acoustic noise increases proportionally to the blade tip speed.
Therefore, acoustic noise is considerably higher for single-
and two-bladed turbines, which is considered an important
problem, particularly in populated areas.
 Turbine Blade
6

 Singe-blade turbines have an asymmetrical mechanical load

distribution. The turbine rotors are aerodynamically
unbalanced, which can cause mechanical vibrations.
Moreover, higher rotational speed imposes more mechanical
stress on the blade, turbine structure, and other components,
such as bearings and gearbox, leading to more design
challenges and lower life span. Rotors with more than three
blades are not common since they are more expensive (more
blades). Operating at lower rotational speeds requires a higher
gear ratio. The lagging wind turbulence of one blade can
affect the other blades since they are closer to each other.
Hence, the three-blade rotor presents the best trade-off
between mechanical stress, acoustic noise, cost, and rotational
speed for large wind turbines.
 Turbine Blade
7

 The aerodynamic operating principle of the turbine blade is

similar to the wings of an airplane. It can be explained by
Bernoulli's principle.
 Turbine Blade
8

 The curved shape of the blade creates a difference between the

wind speed above (vw1) and below (vw2) the blade, as
illustrated in the pervious figure.
 The airflow above the blade is faster than the one below (vw1 >
vw2), which, according to the Bernoulli's principle, has the
inverse effect on the pressure (pw2 >pw\).
 The pressure difference between the top and bottom of the
blade results in a net lift force Fw on the blade. The force
applied at a certain distance of a pivot (the turbine shaft)
produces torque, which creates the rotational movement of the
wind turbine.
 Turbine Blade
9

 One of the important parameters for controlling the lift force

of the blade is the angle of attack , which is defined as the
angle between the direction of the wind speed vw and the cord
line of the blade as shown in the figure.
 For a given blade, its lift force Fw can be adjusted by a. When
this angle is equal to zero, no lift force or torque will be
produced, which often occurs when the wind turbine is
stopped (parked) for maintenance or repair.
 The power of an air mass flowing at speed vw through an
area/i can be calculated by
 Turbine Blade
10

 The wind power captured by the blade and converted into

mechanical power can be calculated by

 where Cp is the power coefficient of the blade. This coefficient

has a theoretical maximum value of 0.59 according to the Betz
limit. With today's technology, the power coefficient of a
modern turbine usually ranges from 0.2 to 0.5, which is a
function of rotational speed and number of blades.
 For a three-blade turbine with a rotor diameter of 82 m and
power coefficient of Cp = 0.36, the captured power is 2 MW at a
wind speed of 12 m/s and air density of p = 1.225 kg/m3.
 Turbine Blade
11

 As can be observed from the pervious equation, there are three

possibilities for increasing the power captured by a wind
turbine: the wind speed vw, the power coefficient Cp, and the
sweep area A.
 Since wind speed cannot be controlled, the only way to
increase wind speed is to locate the turbines in regions with
higher average wind speeds.
 An example is the offshore wind farm, where the wind speed
is usually higher and steadier than that on land. The captured
power is a cubic function of the wind speed. Doubling the
average wind speed would increase the wind power by eight
times.
 Turbine Blade
12

 Second, the wind turbine can be designed with larger sweep

area (i.e., longer blades) to capture more power. An increase in
the blade length has a quadratic effect on the sweep area and
the captured power. This explains the trend of increasing the
rotor diameter experienced during the last decade.
 Finally, the third way of increasing the captured power is by
improving the power coefficient of the blade through a better
aerodynamic design.
 Additional blade requirements, such as lightning protection,
audible noise reduction, transportation, optimum shape and
weight, as well as manufacturability, make the blade design a
challenging task.
 Pitch Mechanism
13
 Pitch Mechanism
14

 The pitch mechanism in large wind turbines enables the

rotation of the blades on their longitudinal axis. It can change
the angle of attack of the blades with respect to the wind, by
which the aerodynamic characteristics of the blade can be
adjusted.
 This provides a degree of control over the captured power to
improve conversion efficiency or to protect the turbine.
 When the wind speed is at or below its rated value, the angle
of attack of the blades is kept at an optimal value, at which the
turbine can capture the maximum power available from the
wind.
 Pitch Mechanism
15

 When the wind speed exceeds the rated value, the pitch
mechanism is activated to regulate and limit the output power,
thus keeping the power output within the designed capability.
 For this purpose, a pitch range of around 20 to 25 degrees is
usually sufficient.
 When the wind speed increases further and reaches the limit
of the turbine, the blades are completely pitched out of the
wind (fully pitched or feathering), and no power will be
captured by the blades. The wind turbine is then shut down
and protected.
 Pitch Mechanism
16

 The pitch mechanism can be either hydraulic or electric.

Electric pitch actuators are more common nowadays since
they are simpler and require less maintenance.
 Traditionally, all blades on the rotor hub are pitched
simultaneously by one pitch mechanism. Modern wind
turbines are often designed to pitch each blade individually,
allowing an independent control of the blades and offering
more flexibility.
 The pitch system is usually placed in the rotor hub together
with a backup energy storage system for safety purposes (an
accumulator for the hydraulic type or a battery for the electric
type).
 Gearbox
17

 The rotor of a large three-blade wind turbine usually operates

in a speed range from 6-20 rpm. This is much slower than a
standard 4- or 6-pole wind generator with a rated speed of
1500 or 1000 rpm for a 50 Hz stator frequency and 1800 or
1200 rpm for a 60 Hz stator frequency. Therefore, a gearbox is
necessary to adapt the low speed of the turbine rotor to the
high speed of the generator.
 The gearbox conversion ratio (rgb), also known as the gear
ratio, is designed to match the high-speed generator with the
low-speed turbine blades. For a given rated speed of the
generator and turbine, the gearbox ratio can be determined by
 Gear ratio versus the rated turbine speed
(for s = 0.01)
18
 Gearbox
19

 The wind turbine gearboxes normally have multiple stages to

achieve the high conversion ratio needed to couple the turbine
rotor and generator. For example, with a rated turbine rotor
speed of 15 rpm and a 4-pole, 50 Hz induction generator, a
gear ratio of 100 is needed, as shown in the next figure which
is difficult to achieve by one gear stage.
 The gearbox usually generates a high level of audible noise.
The noise mainly arises from the meshing of individual teeth.
The efficiency of the gearbox normally varies between 95%
and 98%.
 The gearbox is a major contributor to the cost of the wind
turbine in terms of initial investment and maintenance.
 Two Stage Gearbox of a large wind turbine
20
 Rotor Mechanical Brake
21
 Rotor Mechanical Brake
22

 A mechanical brake is normally placed on the high-speed

shaft between the gearbox and the generator, but there are
some turbines in which the brake is mounted on the low-speed
shaft between the turbine and gearbox.
 The main advantage of placing the brake on the high-speed
shaft is that it handles much lower braking torque.
 The brake is normally used to aid the aerodynamic power
control (stall or pitch) to stop the turbine during high speed
winds or to lock the turbine into a parking mode during
maintenance.
 Rotor Mechanical Brake
23

 Hydraulic and electromechanical disc brakes are often used.

 To minimize the wear and tear on the brake and reduce the
stress on drive train during the braking process, most large
wind turbines use the aerodynamic power control to reduce
the turbine speed to a certain level or zero, and then the
mechanical brake to stop or lock the wind turbine. However,
the mechanical brake should be able to bring the turbine rotor
to a complete stop at any wind speeds, as required by some
standards such as IEC61400-1.
 Wind Turbine Generator
24

 The conversion of rotational mechanical energy to electric

energy is performed by the generator.
 Different generator types have been used in wind energy
systems over the years. These include the squirrel cage
induction generator (SCIG), doubly fed induction generator
(DFIG), and synchronous generator (SG) (wound rotor and
permanent magnet) with power ratings from a few kilowatts to
several megawatts. The SCIG is simple and rugged in
construction. It is relatively inexpensive and requires
minimum maintenance.
 Wind Turbine Generator
25

 Traditional direct grid-connected wind energy systems are still

available in today's market. All these turbines use SCIGs and
operate at a fixed speed. Two-speed SCIGs are also
commercially available, in which a tapped stator winding can
be adapted to change the pole pairs to allow two-speed
operation.
 The SCIGs are also employed in variable-speed wind energy
systems. To date, the largest SCIG wind energy systems are
around 3.5 MW in offshore wind farms.
 The DFIG is the current workhorse of the wind energy
industry. The stator of the generator is connected to the grid
directly, while the rotor is interfaced with the grid through a
power converter system with reduced power capacity.
 Wind Turbine Generator
26

 The DFIG typically operates about 30% above and below

synchronous speed, sufficient for most wind speed conditions.
 It also enables generator-side active power control and grid-
side reactive power control.
 The reduced-capacity converter is less expensive and requires
less space, which makes the DFIG WECS popular in today's
market.
 The synchronous generator is very well suited for direct-drive
wind turbines.
 Wind Turbine Generator
27

 Wound rotor synchronous generators (WRSGs) and

permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) are used
in wind energy systems with a maximum power rating up to
7.5 MW.
 Permanent magnet generators have higher efficiency and
power density as compared to wound rotor generators. Recent
trends indicate a move toward direct drive turbines with
PMSG. Although most SG-based turbines are direct driven,
some manufacturers have developed SG turbines with gearbox
drive trains.
 Yaw Drive
28

 The main function of the yaw drive is to maximize the

captured wind energy by keeping the turbine facing into the
wind. It usually consists of more than one electric motor drive,
yaw gear, gear rim, and bearing.
 Yaw Drive
29

 The yaw drive uses a planetary gear to lower the rotating

speed of the yaw gear. All the motors are commanded by the
same signals and lock after turning the wind turbine into the
desired position. The yaw system typically needs to generate
torque from 10,000 to 70,000 Nm to turn the nacelle.
 In older wind turbines, the yaw control is also used for power
regulation. For example, to limit the power captured by the
turbine during high wind gusts, the turbine can be horizontally
turned out of the wind. However, this technology is no longer
in use since the power regulation by means of yaw control is
very limited for three reasons.
 Yaw Drive
30

 First, the large moment of inertia of the nacelle and turbine

rotor along the yaw axis reduces the speed of response of the
yaw system.
 Second, the cosine relationship between the component of the
wind speed perpendicular to the rotor disc and the yaw angle
makes the power capture insensitive to the yaw angle. For
example, 15 degrees of yaw change only brings power
reduction of a few percent.
 Third, yaw control imposes mechanical stress on different
parts of the turbine, causing vibrations that could reduce the
life span of the turbine.
 Tower and Foundation
31

 The main function of the tower is to support the nacelle and

the turbine rotor, and provide the rotor with the necessary
elevation to reach better wind conditions. Most towers for
wind turbines are made of steel. Concrete towers or towers
with a concrete base and steel upper sections are sometimes
used as well. The height of the tower increases with the
turbine power rating and rotor diameter. In addition, the tower
must be at least 25 to 30 m high to avoid turbulence caused by
trees and buildings. Small wind turbines have towers as high
as a few blade rotor diameters. However, the towers of
medium and large turbines are approximately equal to the
turbine rotor diameter.
 Tower and Foundation
32

 The tower also houses the power cables connecting the

generator or power converters to the transformer located at the
base of the tower. In some cases, the transformer is also
included in the nacelle and the cables connect the transformer
to the wind farm substation.
 In large multi-megawatt turbines, the power converters may
be located at the base of tower to reduce the weight and size
of the nacelle. The stairs to the nacelle for maintenance are
often attached along the inner wall of the tower in large wind
turbines. The wind-turbine foundation is also a major
component in a wind energy system.
 Tower and Foundation
33

 The types of foundations commonly used for on-land wind

turbines include slab, multipile, and monopile types.
 Foundations for offshore wind turbines are particularly
challenging since they are located at variable water depths and
in different soil types.
 They have to withstand harsh conditions as well. This explains
the wide variety of foundations developed over the years for
offshore turbines, some more proven than others.
Foundations for offshore wind turbines
34
 Wind Sensors (Anemometers)
35

 The pitch/stall and yaw control systems require wind speed

and direction measurements, respectively. The pitch/stall
control needs the wind speed to determine the angle of attack
of the blade for optimal operation. The yaw control requires
the wind direction to face the turbine into the wind for
maximum wind power capture.
 In addition, in variable speed turbines, the wind speed is
needed to determine the generator speed for maximum power
extraction. Most large wind turbines are equipped with
sensors, also referred to as anemometers, for wind data
collection and processing. The wind speed sensor is usually
made of a three-cup vertical-axis micro-turbine driving an
optoelectronic rotational speed transducer.
 Wind Sensors (Anemometers)
36

 Ultrasonic anemometers are also used in

practical wind turbines. They measure the wind
speed by emitting and receiving acoustic signals
through the air and monitoring the transmission
time. Several emitters and receptors are
disposed in such a way that a three-dimensional
measurement can be made. The transmission
time is affected by both wind speed and
direction. With a given physical distribution of
the sensors, the wind speed and direction can be
computed from the propagation times. The
ultrasonic anemometers are more accurate and
reliable than the mechanical ones with moving
parts. However, they are more expensive.
 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics
37

 The aerodynamic design of the turbine blade has a significant

influence on the amount of energy captured from the wind.
 The design should consider the means to limit the power and
rotating speed of the turbine rotor for wind speeds above the
rated value in order to keep the forces on the mechanical
components (blade, gearbox, shaft, etc.) and the output power
of the generator within the safety margins.
 This becomes critical for larger turbines as they would have
narrower safety margins due to cost and size constraints.
Power Characteristic of a Wind Turbine
38

 The power characteristics of a wind turbine are defined by the

power curve, which relates the mechanical power of the
turbine to the wind speed. The power curve is a wind turbine's
certificate of performance that is guaranteed by the
manufacturer.
 The International Energy Association (IEA) has developed
recommendations for the definition of the power curve. The
recommendations have been continuously improved and
adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC). The standard, IEC61400-12, is generally accepted as a
basis for defining and measuring the power curve.
 Wind Turbine Power Curve
39

 A typical power curve is characterized by three wind speeds:

cut-in wind speed, rated wind speed, and cut-out wind speed,
where PM is the mechanical power generated by the turbine
and vw is the wind speed. The cut-in wind speed, as the name
suggests, is the wind speed at which the turbine starts to
operate and deliver power. The blade should be able to capture
enough power to compensate for the turbine power losses. The
rated wind speed is the speed at which the system produces
nominal power, which is also the rated output power of the
generator. The cut-out wind speed is the highest wind speed at
which the turbine is allowed to operate before it is shut down.
For wind speeds above the cut-out speed, the turbine must be
stopped, preventing damage from excessive wind.
 Turbine Mechanical Power
versus Wind Speed Curve
40