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1 Earthworks

Raft foundations have a large, flat base that spreads the building load over a large area of the ground. They are used when the soil has low bearing capacity. The sketch shows a building with columns connected by beams sitting on a solid concrete slab that rests directly on compacted soil or fill.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
58 views8 pages

1 Earthworks

Raft foundations have a large, flat base that spreads the building load over a large area of the ground. They are used when the soil has low bearing capacity. The sketch shows a building with columns connected by beams sitting on a solid concrete slab that rests directly on compacted soil or fill.

Uploaded by

jaliceejay
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Earthworks

10 MYM

1.1 List the two categories of foundations and describe how they will transfer the loads of the
structure to the soil. (5)
Shallow foundation- Transfer the loads of the structure to the soil at a point near to the
ground floor of the building. Less than 1.5m deep. 
Deep foundation- Transfer the load of the structure to the soil some distance below the
ground floor of the building. Deeper than 3.0m.

1.2 Briefly describe gravity retaining walls. (6)


They are also called mass retaining walls and rely on their own mass and the friction on the
underside of the wall to overcome the tendency to slide or overturn. 
Constructed from engineering bricks, natural stone or reinforced concrete.

1.3 Construction plant is divided into three categories. List the machineries that fall into the
different categories? (11)
Page 23 half mark each

1.4 What factors influence the compactive effort of a roller? (8)


Static weight
The number of vibrating drums
Frequency and amplitude of vibration
Roller speed
The ratio between frame and drum weight
Drum diameter
Driven or non driven drum
The number of passes
10 MYS

1.1 List three factors that determine the choice and design of foundations for structures. (3)
Total load of the building
Nature and bearing capacity of the soil
Settlement of the soil

1.3 List reasons why excavated trenches collapse.


Materials too close to the sides Excavation plant and equipment too close to the edge
Unstable subsoil material Variations in the nature of the soil
Unstable nature of the soil  Changes in the moisture content of the soil
The subsoil is unable to support its own weight

1.4 What factors influence the compactive effort of a roller? (8)


Static weight The number of vibrating drums
Roller speed Frequency and amplitude of vibrations
Drum diameter The ratio between frame and drum weight
The number of passes  Driven or non-driven drum

1.5 What four factors must be considered when selecting excavation plant? (4)
Site conditions Activities that need to be carried out
Volume of work Economics of hiring equipment

1.6 Compaction plant is designed to compact filling material and surface finishes.
Describe a Static Weight Roller to your friend.
Rely on dead weight of the machine to carry out compaction.
Usually diesel powered and driven by a seated operator.
They distribute dead weight loads to the ground through:
a) two large diameter steel wheels at the rear and
b) one large steel drum in the front.
Many carry water tanks that can be filled with water to add to the dead weight.
Some are equipped with a steel tooth at the rear of the vehicle
for ripping up hard surfaces like roads.
11 MYM

1.1 How will you explain the difference between :

1.1.1 Bearing capacity and bearing pressure

Bearing capacity: Is the safe load per unit area that the ground can carry,
measured in kN/m2

Bearing pressure: Is the pressure produced on the ground by the applied loads
Measured in kN/m2

1.1.2 Self weight loads and imposed loads

Self weight loads: Are all the permanent components of a structure,


eg foundations, walls, beams and slabs

Imposed loads: Are non-permanent components of a structure,


eg , people, furniture and vehicles.

1.1.3 Settlement and differential settlement.

Settlement: Refers to ground movement and can be caused by deformation


of the soil due to loads imposed on it

Differential settlement: Is when a structure settles unevenly


due to load distribution or poor soil conditions
11 MYS

1.1 You requested you fellow workers to temporary support the sides of an excavation.
What was the purpose of the supports? (5)

To prevent the sides from collapsing.


Prevent the inflow of loose materials.
Prevent damage to the adjoining property.
Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trench.
Keep the workers in the trench safe from collapsing.

1.2 How will you determine the nature and bearing capacity of the soil? (6)

Trial holes or trial pits


Bore holes
Local knowledge
CBR
In situ field test
Laboratory testing

SKETCHES TO LEARN FOR TESTS

Page : 6 Fig. 1.2 TYPICAL STRIP FOUNDATION

Page : 6 Fig. 1.4 SOLID SLAB RAFT FOUNDATION

Page : 7 Fig. 1.5 TYPICAL PAD FOUNDATION

Page : 6 Fig. 1.6 TYPICAL PILE FOUNDATION

Page : 68 Fig. 1.7 BOX CAISSON

Page : 14 Fig. 1.12 TIMBERING IN HARD, LOOSE AND DRY SOILS

Page : 17 Fig. 1.14 PERIMETER TRENCH EXCAVATION


(TIMBER SUPPORTING)

Page : 18 Fig. 1.15 RAKING STRUTS (TIMBER SUPPORTING)


10 YEM

1.1 You were requested by your friends to explain to them what you understand by
earthworks in modern engineering. (6)

A geotechnical engineer will interpret earthworks as dealing with soils in general. 


A structural engineer and building contractor will interpret earthworks
with reference to foundations. 
A road engineer will look at general earthworks in relation to road layerworks. 

1.2 With an aid of a sketch discuss what type of foundation will be used where the soil has a
low bearing capacity. (5)

Raft foundation is used.


Raft foundations have a larger surface area over which to spread the load. 
Diagram page 6. 

1.3 What is the most versatile earth moving plant available on a construction site and give
reasons to substantiate your answer. (6)

Front end loaders and graders are most versatile machines. 


Front end loaders are similar to that of the tractor shovel 
in that it uses its speed and momentum to force the bucket into the soil. 
Bucket capacities vary according to the machine specification. 
They are often fitted with teeth instead of a straight cutting edge 
to enable excavating activities in harder soil. 
10 YES

1.1 After the boundary pegs are placed how you will go about clearing and leveling the site.
(9)
The site has to be cleared of vegetation, bushes, trees, topsoil, 
and any other unwanted features. 
The removal of tree and bushes can either be done manually or mechanically. 
Construction plant like bulldozers  and front end loaders are used for this purpose.
All unusable material is removed from the site by truck. 
The removal of existing buildings is best left to demolition experts. 
The removal of large tree can be just as dangerous and 
it is best to call in experts from the municipal or state forestry department. 

1.3 For the construction of deep basement, what basic earthworks methods can one use? (4)

Perimeter trench
Raking struts
Cofferdams
Diaphragm walls
11 YEM

1.1 What are the different ways one can interpret earthworks in modern engineering
depending on the process they are involved in? (6)
A geotechnical engineer will interpret earthworks as dealing with soils in general. 
A structural engineer and building contractor will interpret earthworks with reference to
foundations. 
A road engineer will look at general earthworks in relation to road layerworks. 

1.2 Briefly describe the three types of caissons used in constructing foundations. (9)
Box caissons: are open at the top and closed at the bottom.
They are designed to be sunk on to a prepared foundation below water level where erosion cannot
undermine them.
Box caissons are most suited for compacted inerodable gravel or rock, but can also be used on uneven
rock surfaces if all the loose material is removed and replaced by a blanket of sound crushed rock. 
Open caissons, as the name suggests, are open at the top and bottom, and sunk through excavation of
the soil inside the caisson.
Soil suitable for this method of construction includes soft clays, silts, sands and gravels. 
On reaching the required foundation level, open caissons are sealed by depositing a layer of concrete
underwater in the bottom of the wells .
The wells are then pumped dry and more concrete is placed, after which the caisson can be filled
with clean sand or concrete.
Pneumatic caissons have a working chamber in which air is maintained above atmospheric pressure
to prevent ingress of water into the excavation.
Pneumatic caissons are used in preference to open well caissons in situations where excavations in
unstable soil conditions will result in the possible settlement of adjacent structures. They are also
used in variable ground or through ground with obstructions, where an open caisson would tilt or
refuse further sinking. 
Excavations inside pneumatic caissons can take place under relatively dry conditions and, once the
necessary level is reached, the sealing concrete is placed. 

1.3 While excavating on site the contractor experiences loose soil conditions, you will need to
provide him with a drawing showing a section how to support the sides of the trench. (8)
Page 15
11 YES

1.1 With an aid of a sketch describe raft foundations. (8)

Used where the soil has a low bearing capacity or


undergoes differential settlement and where light to medium loads are supported.
Raft foundations are also used for building basements.
Raft foundations generally have a larger surface area over which to spread the load. 

Diagram page 6. 

1.2 Normally a contactor or a qualified engineer does the design of timbering. What factors
determine the type and amount of timbering needed? (6)

The nature of soil


The depth of excavation
The pressure of ground water
The proximity of buildings
Weather conditions
The duration of the operations 

1.3 A backactor excavating plant is the most common plant. Explain? (6)

Contractors use it for excavating basements, trenches and pits.


The power unit is mounted on tracks 
and the bucket size and capacity can vary.
To discharge excavated material, the bucket is raised into a tucked position until the boom is
positioned over the vehicle
and material is emptied through the open front end.
The vehicle is normally parked alongside the excavation. 

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