What is mean of impact strength ??

- The resistance of the material to fracture under impact test .

We have two stander impact sest , write them ??
1) Charpy test  supported from each end .
2) Izod test  supported from one end .
The toughness can be measure by Impact………………… test.
What is mean of Notch sensitivity ??
Impact toughness .
- Is the sensitivity to surface defects . its lower ……………………………….
The steel underwent ductile to brittle to close to room temp.  structures fracture catastrophicly
more often in witer than in summer .
- In impact test is generally measure @ room temp. but for numerous application its nessary to
know the behavior @ low & very low temp .
When impact strength measurements are made on the same steel at different temperatures, the
resulting graph, called the transition curve.
TK : transition temp :- is the point when the material behavior transform from brittle to ductile .
OR :- the half way between ductile and brittle level .
Above TK  large amount of deformation is necessary for fracture . which occurs only after
Ductile
extensive plastic deformation .  the behavior of the material is …………………….. .
Below TK  the energy necessary for fracture is much lower & specimen break without plastic
deformation .  the behavior of the material is ……………………
Brittle .
The lower (TK) value  the more suitable the material will be for @ low temp.
Increase %C  decrease fracture toughness  increase strength .
Impact test . ; where DBT : Ductile Brittle transition .
The DBT useful is determined by ………………..
As temp is lowered the impact energy drop suddenly over a relatively narrow temp range . below
the energy has a constant but small value  the mode of fracture is ……………………
Brittle .
Failure directly influence by three things , write them ??
1) The selection of the material .
2) The method of manufacturing .
3) The service life of component .
Mention the type of failure ??
1) Fracture.  A) ductile B) brittle C) fatigue .
2) buckling .
Fatigue fracture :Termed beachmarks and striations. Both of these features indicate the position
of the crack tip at some point in time and appear as concentric ridges that expand away from the
crack initiation site(s).
Ductile fracture : Beachmarks and striations will not appear on that region, evidence of plastic
deformation will be present for ductile, and absent for brittle failure evidences.
Buckling : is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural member subjected to high
compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the
ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding .
Ductile fracture is characterized by plastic deformation .
Ductile fracture takes place along planes on which shear stress is a maximum.
Failure is initiated with the formation of tiny voids (around small inclusions), then develop into
cracks .
In a tension-test specimen , fracture begins at the center of necked region as a result of growth and
coalescence(‫ )تجمع‬of cavities .

(a) early stage of necking;

(b) small voids begin to form within the necked region;
(c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack;
(d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery,
(e) the final fracture surfaces, known as cup and cone.

What is mean of inclusion ??

- include material that is trapped inside a mineral during its formation

The inclusion have influence on what ??

1) ductile fracture .
2) formation of the material .

(important) :- influence inclusion depend on factors , write them ??

1) the shape .
2) volume fraction .
3) distribution .
4) Hardness .

Volume fraction depend on :- distribution – hinders the movement of dislocation .

The grater the volume fraction of inclusion the lower will be the ductility of the material .
We have two factors affect of void formation , write them ??
1) The strength of the bond at the interface between an inclusion and the matrix.
 [ if the bond is strong, there is less tendency for void formation during plastic
deformation].
2) The hardness of inclusion .
 If the inclusion is soft, such as manganese sulfide, it will conform to the overall change
in the shape of the specimen during plastic deformation.
 If it is hard, such as a carbide or oxide, it could lead to void formation.

Brittle material occur with little or no plastic deformation . ( explain Why ??)
- because in tension fracture take place along the crystallographic plane on which the normal
tensile is maximum .
FCC  will not fail Brittle mode .
BCC & some hcp  fail by brittle mode .

Mention the factor promote )‫ (يعزز‬Brittle fracture ??

1) Low temp.
2) High rate of deformation .

In polycrystalline material under tensile the fracture surface has bright granular appearance .
(explain Why ??)
- because the change in direction of cleavage plane , as the crack propagate from one grain to
another .

Examples of fracture along a cleavage plane  splitting of rock salt and the peeling of layers of
mica.

Tensile stresses normal to the cleavage plane, caused by pulling, initiate and control the
propagate of fracture.

Another example is the behavior of brittle materials  chalk , gray cast iron , and concrete .

Brittle material in compression fracture @ angle of 45ᵒ to the direction of the applied load .
Brittle material in torsion fracture @ angle of 45ᵒ to axis of twist .

Special case for Fracture

1) If the slip plane either normal to, or parallel to, the stress axis  failure occurred in a brittle
material .

2) If the slip planes were inclined at some angle, Ф, other than 0ᵒ or 90ᵒ , plastic yielding took
place before failure .
Brittle materials are so weak in tension compared to their strength in compression.
(explain why ??)
- Because the presence of defect , in brittle material and Brittle so sensitivity to defect .
(explain Why ??)
 Because in tension the sharp tip of crack is subjected to high tensile stress , which
propagate the crack rapidly .  case what is known as ( catastrophic failure ) .
(explain Why ??)
Because brittle material has low capacity to absorb or
dissipate energy .
Trensgranular  the crack propagate through the grain .
Intergranular  the crack propagate along the grain .

To improve fatigue strength manufacturing products we have four method write them ??
1) Inducing the residual compressive stress on the surface .
2) case hardening .
3) Providing a fine surface finish .  reduce the effect of notches and other surface
imperfection.
4) selecting appropriate material .  ensuring that they are free from significant amount of
inclusion .

case hardening :- surface hardening :- treatment of steel by heat or mechanical means ,to
increase the hardiness of the outer surface while the core remain relatively soft .

The combination of a hard surface and a soft interior(core) is greatly valued in modern
engineering . (explain Why ??)
- because it can withstand very high stress & fatigue , and low cost & superior flexibility in
manufacturing .

In case hardening the diffuses into the surface of steel depend on two factor write them ?
1) Placed at high temp for several hours.
2) In carbonaceous environment.

Type The techniques of case hardening this can occurs ??

Type The techniques of carburizing have been develop to increase efficiency and reduce cost ??
1) The pack method .
2) Mechanical men .

The pack method  involves packing into a steel box the parts to be hardened along
with a compound of charcoal or coke to which carbonates have been added  done at
very high temp  925 – 955 ᵒC
Mechanical means  the surface of steel parts include peening  which is the
hammering of the heated surface  as by :- iron pellets shot onto the surface or by air
blasting  and cold-working, which consists of rolling, hammering, or drawing at
temperatures that do not affect the composition of the steel.

Why we don’t subjected case hardening to all crystal structure ??

- Because hardened metal is usually more Brittle than softer metal .

Case hardening can providing apart that will not fracture . (explain Why ??)
- because of the soft core that can be absorb stress without cracking .

(a) Ductile material in tension .

(b)Buckling of ductile material .
(c) Brittle material in compression .
(d)Ductile material in compression.

Stain aging :- phenomenon in which carbon atoms in steel segregate to dislocation , thereby
pinning them & increasing the steel’s resistance to dislocation movement & so increase strength
& ductile is decrease .

Strain aging can be accelerate & occur in just few hours at high temp.  in low carbon steel ( 145
– 343 ) ᵒC
Example of accelerate strain aging  Blue brittleness  so named that because occur in the blue
– heat stage .
Mention the causes of blue brittleness ??
1) Marked decrease in ductility & toughness
2) increase in strength .
3) Lowering of plasticity in contraction & elongation with a simultaneous increase of strength .
Stain aging caused mainly by what ??
 the interaction of nitrogen atoms with dislocation .
 The phenomena of strain hardening is utilized in practice to increase the strength of metal
by performing cold deformation such as rolling .

The movement of one dislocation through a lattice  will give one increment of plastic
deformation .

The movement of extremely large numbers of dislocations would be necessary to give a visible of
plastic deformation .

the number of dislocations that would need to be present to account for large amount of plastic
deformation  would be so greater .

the number of dislocations present in a fully annealed metal is comparatively small and additional
dislocations are generated during plastic deformation.

The dislocation density (N) can be considered as (‫ )يتم حسابها عن طريق‬: the number of dislocations
that intersect a unit area of 1 .
generation of dislocations is the Frank-Read source.
1) This suppose a length of dislocation line firmly anchored at each end.
2) The application of a shear force will cause the dislocation line to bow .
3) Continuing applying the force, movement and growth will continue and a kidney-shaped loop will develop .
4) The two sections of the loop advancing towards one another , are of opposing sign and will cancel
out when they meet forming a complete loop and a new dislocation line between A and B.
5) Allowing process to be repeated with continuing applying the force .

Frank-read sources and dislocation generation have

observed experimentally by means of
transmission electron microscopy .

Hardened or strengthening by three method write

them ??
1) Strain hardening .
2) Solution hardening .
3) Dispersion hardening .
More plastic deformation  more dislocation generation  farther force required to continue
deforming  metal become strength . ( explain Why ??)

1) Multiplication of the # of dislocation .

2) Dislocation may interfere ( ‫ )تداخالت‬with one another movement .
3) Presence of grain boundaries  dislocation cannot move freely ; through the hole of
crystalline material .
A continued movement of the dislocations, that is, further plastic deformation, can occur only if
the applied stress is raised so that the dislocations can move across the (grain boundaries).
After severe cold working, the array of dislocations within the metal will be in highly tangled state
 but there will be some areas that are almost dislocation free , while other areas will have a
very high dislocation density  then  there will be a high degree of structure disorder , in these
areas with high N .  finally new crystal grain boundaries .

strain hardening is utilized in practice for the strengthening of metals by performing cold
deformation operations , such as cold rolling or drawing .

result of these deformation  increase strength of ductility metal .

If continue cold working beyond the point where maximum hardness is a achieved , cracks
will develop within the material and failure will occur. (explain Why ??)
 The start of failure may be due to a number of dislocation on the same slip plane , being
forced together @ a major barrier ( grain boundaries )  by large applied stress forming
voids or internal crack .

Residual stress :- Internal stress distribution locked into the material ; these stress are present
even after all external loading is removed .

the residual stress result from what ????

1) material obtaining equilibrium , after it has undergo plastic deformation .
2) temp gradients within the body as cooling cycle , thermal cycle .

when external stress is removed ( after elastic region ) the material will still be in a state as
some internal stress.

Removal of the external force should allow for the recovery of all elastic strain, but for
any individual crystal complete recovery ;
 will be hindered by the surrounded rigid crystals
 and there will be some locked in elastic strain [residual stress].

Mention Effects of Residual Stresses ??

1) Lower fatigue life & fracture strength .
2) compressive residual stress increase fatigue life of component ( C.R desirable).
3) Surface with tensile residual stress will sustain lower than that which are free from residual
stress . ( T.R undesirable ) .

Shoot penning :- cold working process use to produce compressive residual stress layer &
modify mechanical properties of metal .

Mention the operations to Reduction of residual stress ??

1) Stress – relief annealing .
2) Relaxation of residual stress .
3) Further deformation .