Adoption Literature Review

Literature Review
Intercountry Adoption and Private Domestic Adoption

National Training & Development Curriculum for Foster and Adoptive Parents
June 2018
Prepared by University of Washington
In Partnership with:
Spaulding for Children
Child Trauma Academy
The Center for Adoption Support and Education
North American Council on Adoptable Children
National Council for Adoption
Intercountry Adoption & Private Domestic Adoption
Contributors to this report:
Angelique Day, PhD, MSW & Kevin Haggarty, PhD, MSW, Co-Primary Investigators, Lead
Evaluators, University of Washington, School of Social Work
Tamarie Willis, PhD Student, Wayne State University School of Social Work
Joel Crume, PhD Student, University of Washington
Morgan Wilson, MSW Student, University of Washington
This product was funded by the Children’s Bureau, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Administration for Children and
Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, under grant #90CO1132. The contents of this document are solely the
responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Children’s Bureau.
2
Introduction
The Administration on Children, Youth & Families, Children’s Bureau funded the development
of a national training initiative to prepare foster and adoptive parents to effectively parent
children exposed to trauma and to provide these families with ongoing skill development
needed to understand and promote healthy child development. At the end of the grant period,
states, counties, tribes, territories, and private agencies will have access to a free,
comprehensive curriculum that has been thoroughly evaluated, which can be used to prepare,
train, and develop foster and adoptive parents. The National Training and Development
Curriculum for Foster/Adoptive Parents (NTDC) will be designed for families who are fostering
and/or adopting children through the public child welfare system as well as those adopting
through an intercountry or private domestic process.
The NTDC curriculum will be comprised of three components:
 Self-assessment
 Classroom-based training
 Right-time training
The curriculum will be piloted and rigorously evaluated in six to eight sites (state, county,
territory, or tribe) that will be selected based on a non-biased, multi-step process. It is
anticipated that the final curriculum will be disseminated across the United States in 2022.
To inform the development of this national training initiative, a needs assessment was
conducted. The needs assessment included interviews with stakeholders, systematic literature
reviews, information gathered from interviews with professionals in the field and a survey of
states. The systematic review of the literature represents one component of the needs
assessment. There were three literature reviews conducted for the needs assessment including
a literature review specific to relative and non-relative foster/adoptive parents, a literature
review specific to Native American foster/adoptive parents and a literature review specific to
families who adopt via the intercountry or private domestic process.
This literature review was conducted to help identify characteristics parents who adopt via the
intercountry or private domestic process need to embody in order to be successful as well as
suggested training themes for these parents. The broad systematic review searched for and
retrieved published studies, including peer reviewed journal articles, government reports, and
other sources identified in the gray literature, dated between 1970 and 2016, through web-
based searches on Google Scholar, Google, JSTOR, SpringerLink, MEDLINE, ERIC, and Social
Work Abstracts. Some of the key terms for the web-based searches included: intercountry
adoption, international adoption, adoptive parent curriculum/training, pre-service training for
adoptive parents, traits of successful international adoptive parents, success factors in
3
adoption, attachment informed adoptive parenting, and cultural competency when fostering a
child from a different race/ethnicity/culture. Following a comprehensive search, 317
documents were located. After excluding 178 documents due to duplication and a lack of
relevance, 139 documents were selected for in-depth review. After more intense examination
against the inclusion/exclusion criteria (i.e. articles included in the lit review must have been
written in English and the inter-country adoptive families discussed must have been U.S.
Citizens and residing in the United States), 63 documents were excluded leaving a final sample
of 74 studies for review. A review of these final 74 documents resulted in the identification of
10 specific characteristics and 9 training recommendations that parents who want to adopt
privately, either domestically or intercountry, need to have exposure to best prepare them for
their caretaking roles.
4
Table of Contents
Definitions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5
Training Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………………………………..….6
Developing Healthy Attachment Bonds………………………………………………………………….……..7
Ability to Maintain Attentiveness to the Parent/Child Relationship…….…………..……….….10
Working with Children with Cognitive and or Physical Disabilities………………………………..13
Advocate for the Medical and Educational Needs of the Child……………………………………..15
Providing Culturally Competent Care……………………………………………………………………….…..17
Developmental Stages………………………………………………………………………………………..….…….19
Understanding the Potential for Traumatic Cultural Effects on Children who are Adopted
Internationally………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….21
Teaching the Child about their Cultural Heritage and Cultural Socialization……………..….23
Understanding How to Help the Child Process Grief……………………………………………….…...25
Characteristics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..26
Emotionally Supportive/Nurturing……………………………………………………………………............27
Readiness for Parenting/Motivated to Adopt……………………………………………………….……..30
Stability and Patience……………………………………………………………………………………………….….33
Understanding the Importance of Maintaining Support Systems……………….………………..36
Optimistic…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….39
Acceptance of the Unknown……………………………………………………………………………….……….41
Financial Stability…………………………………………………………………………………………………………43
Healthy Family Functioning…………………………………………………………………………………….…..44
Having a Sense of Humor…………………………………………………………………………………….……….45
Faith and Religion………………………………………………………………………………………………………..46
5
What are Training Recommendations?

• Training recommendations describe meaningful sets of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are
important to the role of an adoptive parent within each topical/thematic area.
• Each training recommendation has a specific result or output.
What are Characteristics?

• Characteristics – qualities or personal attributes that are critical to successful adoptive
parenting. These traits would be difficult to teach and tend to be inherent or achieved through
life experience.
Examples:
• Has a sense of humor
• Exhibits optimism
• Flexible
• Caring
6
Training Recommendations for Parents who Adopt

Children via the Intercountry or Private Domestic Process
Adoptive parents are consistent, empathetic, sensitive,
and emotionally available to their child. Adoptive
parents do not take their child's behaviors personally
and work to become child-centered through the
Developing healthy attachment creation of rituals and routines. For a secure
bonds attachment to form, a sensitive and responsive
(n=36) caregiver must be available on a consistent basis. Lack of
consistency in behavior or emotional responses by the
parents can foster an insecure attachment between
parent(s) and child.
Barth, R. P., Crea, T. M., John, K., Thoburn, J., & Quinton, D. (2005). Beyond attachment
theory and therapy: Towards sensitive and evidence‐based interventions with foster and
adoptive families in distress. Child & Family Social Work, 10(4), 257-268.
Borchers, D., & Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care. (2003).
Families and adoption: The pediatrician’s role in supporting
communication. Pediatrics, 112(6), 1437-1441.
Brodzinsky, D. M., & Pinderhughes, E. (2005). Parenting and child development in adoptive
families. Handbook of parenting, 1, 279-311.
Cantwell, N. (2014). The best interests of the child in intercountry adoption. UNICEF Office of
Research-Innocenti. Retrieved from https://www.unicef-
irc.org/publications/pdf/unicef%20best%20interest%20document_web_re-supply.pdf
Carroll, A. B. (2015). Breaking Forever Families. Ohio St. LJ, 76, 259.
Carstens, C., & Julia, M. (2000). Ethnoracial awareness in intercountry adoption: US
experiences. International Social Work, 43(1), 61-73.
Coulter, C. M. (2015). Needs of Families Post-International Adoption. Master of Social Work
Clinical Research Papers. Paper 433. http://sophia.stkate.edu/msw_papers/433
Deacon, S. A. (1997). Intercountry adoption and the family life cycle. American Journal of
Family Therapy, 25(3), 245-260.
Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2013). Predictors of psychological adjustment in early placed
adopted children with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents. Journal of Family
Psychology, 27(3), 431.
Grotevant, H. D., Dunbar, N., Kohler, J. K., & Esau, A. M. L. (2000). Adoptive identity: How
contexts within and beyond the family shape developmental pathways. Family
Relations, 49(4), 379-387.
Gunnar, M. R., Bruce, J., & Grotevant, H. D. (2000). International adoption of institutionally
reared children: Research and policy. Development and psychopathology, 12(4), 677-693.
7
Hawkins, A., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Groothues, C., Sonuga-Barke, E., Colvert, E., & Rutter, M.
(2007). The experience of adoption (1) A study of intercountry and domestic adoption from
the child's point of view. Adoption & Fostering Journal, 31(4), 5-16.
Hall, B. (1992). Adoption and the stages of development: What parents can expect at
different ages. Retrieved from:
https://www.pactadopt.org/app/servlet/documentapp.DisplayDocument?DocID=310
Hook, J. M., Hook, J. N., Captari, L. E., Aten, J. D., Davis, D. E., & Van Tongeren, D., R. (2017).
Replanted: Offering support for adoptive and foster care families. Journal of Psychology and
Christianity, 36(3), 222-229. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.proxy.lib.wayne.edu/docview/1979449916?accountid=14925
Howe, D. (1995). Adoption and attachment. Adoption & Fostering, 19(4), 7-15.
Howe, D., & Fearnley, S. (2003). Disorders of attachment in adopted and fostered children:
Recognition and treatment. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 8(3), 369-387.
Hughes, D. A. (1999). Adopting children with attachment problems. Child Welfare, 78(5), 541.
Ishizawa, H., Kenney, C. T., Kubo, K., & Stevens, G. (2006). Constructing interracial families
through intercountry adoption. Social Science Quarterly, 87(5), 1207-1224.
Johnston, K. E., Swim, J. K., Saltsman, B. M., Deater‐Deckard, K., & Petrill, S. A. (2007).
Mothers’ racial, ethnic, and cultural socialization of transracially adopted Asian
children. Family Relations, 56(4), 390-402.
Kertes, D. A., Gunnar, M. R., Madsen, N. J., & Long, J. D. (2008). Early deprivation and home
basal cortisol levels: A study of internationally adopted children. Development and
psychopathology, 20(2), 473-491.
Loehlin, J. C., Horn, J. M., & Willerman, L. (1981). Personality resemblance in adoptive
families. Behavior genetics, 11(4), 309-330.
Miller, L. C. (2009). Adoption and foster family care. Developmental-behavioral pediatrics.
Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier, 134.
Monique van Londen, W., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Attachment, cognitive,
and motor development in adopted children: Short-term outcomes after international
adoption. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(10), 1249-1258.
Mountjoy, T. P., & Vanlandingham, E. N. (2015). Effects of attachments styles of foster and
adoptive parents on the relational interactions of their foster and adoptive children.
Retrieved from
http://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1175&context=etd
Moyer, A. M., & Goldberg, A. E. (2017). ‘We were not planning on this, but …’: Adoptive
parents' reactions and adaptations to unmet expectations. Child & Family Social
Work, 22(S1), 12-21. doi:10.1111/cfs.12219
Nickman, S. L., Rosenfeld, A. A., Fine, P., MacIntyre, J. C., Pilowsky, D. J., Howe, R. A., ... &
Sveda, S. A. (2005). Children in adoptive families: Overview and update. Journal of the
American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(10), 987-995.
8
Niemann, & Weiss. (2011). Factors affecting attachment in international adoptees at 6

months post adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 205-212.
North American Council on Adoptable Children. (2017). Retrieved from
https://www.nacac.org/resource/nine-qualities/
Pace, C. S., Di Folco, S., Guerriero, V., Santona, A., & Terrone, G. (2015). Adoptive parenting
and attachment: association of the internal working models between adoptive mothers and
their late-adopted children during adolescence. Frontiers in psychology, 6.
Palacios, J., Román, M., Moreno, C., & León, E. (2009). Family context for emotional recovery
in internationally adopted children. International Social Work, 52(5), 609-620.
Pugliese, M., Cohen, N. J., Farnia, F., & Lojkasek, M. (2010). The emerging attachment
relationship between adopted Chinese infants and their mothers. Children and Youth Services
Review, 32(12), 1719-1728.
Roberson, K. C. (2006). Attachment and caregiving behavioral systems in intercountry
adoption: A literature review. Children and Youth Services Review, 28(7), 727-740.
Soon Huh, N., & Reid, W. J. (2000). Intercountry, transracial adoption and ethnic identity: A
Korean example. International Social Work, 43(1), 75-87.
Stams, G. J. J., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2002). Maternal sensitivity, infant
attachment, and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment in middle childhood:
The case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental
psychology, 38(5), 806.
Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Juffer, F. (2007). Plasticity of growth
in height, weight, and head circumference: meta-analytic evidence of massive catch-up after
international adoption. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 28(4), 334-343.
Viana, A. G., & Welsh, J. A. (2010). Correlates and predictors of parenting stress among
internationally adopting mothers: A longitudinal investigation. International Journal of
Behavioral Development, 34(4), 363-373.
Wimmer, J. S., Elizabeth Vonk, M., & Reeves, P. M. (2010). Adoptive mothers’ perceptions of
reactive attachment disorder therapy and its impact on family functioning. Clinical Social
Work Journal, 38(1), 120-131. doi:10.1007/s10615-009-0245-x
9
Adoptive parents do not hold back and wait for the
relationship to develop; they are proactive in
Ability to maintain attentiveness to the fostering healthy dynamics and try to anticipate and
parent/child relationship interrupt negative behavior patterns. They utilize
(n=31) positive reinforcement to help in building intimacy
and trust between them and the child.
Barth, R. P., Crea, T. M., John, K., Thoburn, J., & Quinton, D. (2005). Beyond attachment theory
and therapy: Towards sensitive and evidence‐based interventions with foster and adoptive
families in distress. Child & Family Social Work, 10(4), 257-268.
Bemotavicz, F. D. (1995). A competency model for foster and adoptive parents (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Southern Maine).
Borchers, D., & Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care. (2003). Families
and adoption: The pediatrician’s role in supporting communication. Pediatrics, 112(6), 1437-
1441.
Christenson, B., & McMurtry, J. (2007). A comparative evaluation of preservice training of
kinship and nonkinship foster/adoptive families. Child welfare, 86(2), 125.
Deacon, S. A. (1997). Intercountry adoption and the family life cycle. American Journal of Family
Therapy, 25(3), 245-260.
Duncan, W. C. (2004). Marital Status and Adoption Values. Journal of Law & Family Studies, 6, 1.
Gibbs, D., Barth, R. P., & Houts, R. (2005). Family characteristics and dynamics among families
receiving postadoption services. Families in Society, 86(4), 520-532. doi:10.1606/1044-
3894.3457
contexts within and beyond the family shape developmental pathways. Family Relations, 49(4),
379-387.
Gunnar, M. R., & Van Dulmen, M. H. (2007). Behavior problems in post institutionalized
internationally adopted children. Development and psychopathology, 19(1), 129-148.
10
Hawkins, A., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Groothues, C., Sonuga-Barke, E., Colvert, E. & Rutter, M.
(2007). The experience of adoption (1) A study of intercountry and domestic adoption from the
child's point of view. Adoption & Fostering Journal, 31(4), 5-16.
Hutchinson, C. (2013). Characteristics of successful adoptive parents. Retrieved from
http://www.families4children.com/adopt_success.cfm
Jacobs, E., Miller, L. C., & Tirella, L. G. (2010). Developmental and behavioral performance of
internationally adopted preschoolers: A pilot study. Child Psychiatry & Human
Development, 41(1), 15-29.
Johnston, K. E., Swim, J. K., Saltsman, B. M., Deater‐Deckard, K., & Petrill, S. A. (2007). Mothers’
racial, ethnic, and cultural socialization of transracially adopted Asian children. Family
Relations, 56(4), 390-402.
Lindemann, L. C., & Saunders, V. A. (1970). Special Characteristics of Adopted Children and
Adoptive Parents as Seen in a Psychiatric Practice. MCV/Q, Medical College of Virginia
Quarterly, 6(4), 177-181.
Mountjoy, T. P., & Vanlandingham, E. N. (2015). Effects of attachment styles of foster and
adoptive parents on the relational interactions of their foster and adoptive children. Retrieved
from
HTTP://SCHOLARWORKS.LIB.CSUSB.EDU/CGI/VIEWCONTENT.CGI?ARTICLE=1175&CONTEXT=ET
D.
Narad, C., & Mason, P. W. (2004). International adoptions: Myths and realities. Pediatric
nursing, 30(6), 483.
Niemann, & Weiss. (2011). Factors affecting attachment in international adoptees at 6 months
post adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 205-212.
North American Council on Adoptable Children. (2017). Retrieved from
Pace, C. S., Di Folco, S., Guerriero, V., Santona, A., & Terrone, G. (2015). Adoptive parenting and
attachment: association of the internal working models between adoptive mothers and their
late-adopted children during adolescence. Frontiers in psychology, 6.
Palacios, J., Román, M., Moreno, C., & León, E. (2009). Family context for emotional recovery in
internationally adopted children. International Social Work, 52(5), 609-620.
Review, 32(12), 1719-1728.
Rushton, A., Grant, M., Feast, J., & Simmonds, J. (2013). The British Chinese Adoption Study:
Orphanage care, adoption and mid‐life outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 54(11), 1215-1222.
11
Stams, G. J. J., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2002). Maternal sensitivity, infant attachment,
and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment in middle childhood: The case of
adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental psychology, 38(5),
806.
Thomas, K. A., & Tessler, R. C. (2007). Bicultural socialization among adoptive families: Where
there is a will, there is a way. Journal of Family Issues, 28(9), 1189-1219.
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
12
Adoptive parents should have an

understanding of the possibility of cognitive
Working with children with cognitive
and physical disabilities that might affect
and or physical disabilities
adoptive children and are knowledgeable
(n=25)
about how to best work with them.
Barcons, N., Abrines, N., Brun, C., Sartini, C., Fumadó, V., & Marre, D. (2014). Attachment
and adaptive skills in children of international adoption. Child & family social work, 19(1),
89-98.
Coulter, C. M. (2015). Needs of Families Post-International Adoption.
Dickens, J. (2002). The paradox of inter‐country adoption: analyzing Romania’s experience
as a sending country. International Journal of Social Welfare, 11(1), 76-83.
Ellis, R. (2011). Achieving Successful Adoptions: Voices of Prospective and Current Adoptive
Parents from the Wendy’s
Wonderful Kids Evaluation, Child Trends, Washington, D.C. Retrieved from
https://dciw4f53l7k9i.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Parent_Brief.pdf
Hawkins, A., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Groothues, C., Sonuga-Barke, E., Colvert, E., . . . Rutter,
M. (2007). The experience of adoption (1) A study of intercountry and domestic adoption
from the child's point of view. Adoption & Fostering Journal, 31(4), 5-16.
Jacobs, E., Miller, L. C., & Tirella, L. G. (2010). Developmental and behavioral performance
of internationally adopted preschoolers: A pilot study. Child Psychiatry & Human
Johnson, D. E. (2000). Long-term medical issues in international adoptees. Pediatric Annals,
29(4), 234-241.
Johnson, D., Miller, L., Iverson, S., Thomas, W., Franchino, B., Dole, K., Hostetter, M. (1992).
The Health of Children Adopted From Romania. JAMA, 268(24), 3446-3451.
Kertes, D., Gunnar, M., Madsen, N., & Long, J. (2008). Early deprivation and home basal
cortisol levels: A study of internationally adopted children. Development and
Psychopathology, 20(2), 473-491.
Kim, W. (1995). International adoption: A case review of Korean children. Child Psychiatry
and Human Development, 25(3), 141-154.
13
Work, 22(S1), 12-21. doi:10.1111/cfs.12219
nursing, 30(6), 483.
O'Dell, McCall, & Groark C. J. (2015). Supporting families throughout the international
special needs adoption process. Children and Youth Services Review, 59, 161-170.
Rycus, J. S., Freundlich, M., Hughes, R. C., Keefer, B., & Oakes, E. J. (2006). Confronting
barriers to adoption success. Family Court Review, 44(2), 210-230.
Thomas, K. A., & Tessler, R. C. (2007). Bicultural socialization among adoptive families:
Where there is a will, there is a way. Journal of Family Issues, 28(9), 1189-1219.
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
Van Ijzendoorn, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., & Juffer, F. (2007). Plasticity of growth in
height, weight, and head circumference: Meta-analytic evidence of massive catch-up after
international adoption. Journal Of Developmental And Behavioral Pediatrics,28(4), 334-
343.
Wimmer, J. S., Elizabeth Vonk, M., & Reeves, P. M. (2010). Adoptive mothers’ perceptions
of reactive attachment disorder therapy and its impact on family functioning. Clinical Social
14
Adoptive parents recognize the varied

medical and educational needs of the child
Advocate for the medical and or educational
and actively advocate for the appropriate and
needs of the child
necessary services to help ensure a more
(n=24)
secure and successful placement outcome.
Barcons, N., Abrines, N., Brun, C., Sartini, C., Fumadó, V., & Marre, D. (2014). Attachment and
adaptive skills in children of international adoption. Child & family social work, 19(1), 89-98.
Borchers, D. (2003). cc. Pediatrics, 112(6 Pt 1), 1437-41.
Coulter, C. M. (2015). Needs of Families Post-International Adoption.
Parents from the Wendy’s
Wonderful Kids Evaluation, Child Trends, Washington, D.C. Retrieved from
https://dciw4f53l7k9i.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Parent_Brief.pdf
Hook, J. M., Hook, J. N., Captari, L. E., Aten, J. D., Davis, D. E., & Van Tongeren, D.,R. (2017).
Kertes, D., Gunnar, M., Madsen, N., & Long, J. (2008). Early deprivation and home basal
cortisol levels: A study of internationally adopted children. Development and
Psychopathology, 20(2), 473-491.
Kim, W. (1995). International adoption: A case review of Korean children. Child Psychiatry
15
Mountjoy, T. P., & Vanlandingham, E. N. (2015). Mountjoy, T. P., & Vanlandingham, E. N.

(2015). Effects of attachment styles of foster and adoptive parents on the relational
interactions of their foster and adoptive children.
nursing, 30(6), 483.
O'Dell, McCall, & Groark C. J. (2015). Supporting families throughout the international special
needs adoption process. Children and Youth Services Review, 59, 161-170.
Paulsen, C., & Merighi, J. R. (2009). Adoption preparedness, cultural engagement, and
parental satisfaction in intercountry adoption. Adoption Quarterly, 12(1), 1-18.
Van Ijzendoorn, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., & Juffer, F. (2007). Plasticity of growth in
height, weight, and head circumference: Meta-analytic evidence of massive catch-up after
international adoption. Journal Of Developmental And Behavioral Pediatrics,28(4), 334-343.
Wilkening, J. L. (2011). Intercountry adoption act ten years later: The need for post-adoption
requirements. Ohio St. LJ,72, 1043.
Wimmer, J. S., Elizabeth Vonk, M., & Reeves, P. M. (2010). Adoptive mothers’ perceptions of
reactive attachment disorder therapy and its impact on family functioning. Clinical Social
16
Adoptive parents do not assume their own childhood

experiences are the same as their child’s and they take time
to consciously examine their own beliefs about the child’s
race and culture. Adoptive parents are aware how race and
Providing culturally culture can influence their relationship with their child and
competent care how they interact (i.e. celebration of different holidays,
(n=23) choices of foods eaten in the home, and the level of
exposure the child has to other cultural traditions associated
with their racial/ethnic identity). Aware of the roles race,
ethnicity, and culture play in the life of the child. Respect for
the child’s race, background, and culture of birth.
Basow, S. A., Lilley, E., Bookwala, J., & McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A. (2008). Identity development
and psychological well-being in Korean-born adoptees in the US. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 78(4), 473.
Belanger, K., Copeland, S., & Cheung, M. (2008). The role of faith in adoption: Achieving
positive adoption outcomes for African American children. Child Welfare, 87(2), 99.
Bemotavicz, F. D. (1995). A competency model for foster and adoptive parents. Doctoral
dissertation, University of Southern Maine. Retrieved from
http://muskie.usm.maine.edu/helpkids/rcpdfs/fostadopt.pdf
17
Kim, W. J. (1995). International adoption: A case review of Korean children. Child Psychiatry
Lee, R. M., Grotevant, H. D., Hellerstedt, W. L., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Cultural socialization
in families with internationally adopted children. Journal of family psychology, 20(4), 571.
Reinoso, M., & Forns, M. (2010). Stress, coping and personal strengths and difficulties in
internationally adopted children in Spain. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(12), 1807-
1813.
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
Vonk, M. E. (2001). Cultural competence for transracial adoptive parents. Social Work, 46(3),
246-255.
Vonk, M. E., & Angaran, R. (2003). Training for transracial adoptive parents by public and
private adoption agencies. Adoption Quarterly, 6(3), 53-62.
Yoon, D. P. (2004). Intercountry adoption: The importance of ethnic socialization and
subjective well-being for Korean-born adopted children. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural
Diversity in Social Work, 13(2), 71-89.
18
Adoptive parents have a working knowledge of the

developmental stages that all children go through and are
sensitive to the fact that there are additional factors that
must be accounted for that can affect child development of
Understanding the
adopted children. Some of these factors include experiences
developmental stages
associated with separation, abandonment, grief, loss,
(n=21)
building trust, expressing anger, and identity
development. Understand that these may affect
developmental stages of growth and will differ significantly
from one child to the next.
Relations, 49(4), 379-387.
Hall, B. (1992). Adoption and the stages of development: What parents can expect at different
ages. Retrieved from:
https://www.pactadopt.org/app/servlet/documentapp.DisplayDocument?DocID=310
Johnson, D. E. (2000). Long-term medical issues in international adoptees. Pediatric
Annals, 29(4), 234-241.
Johnson, D. E., Miller, L. C., Iverson, S., Thomas, W., Franchino, B., Dole, K., ... & Hostetter, M.
K. (1992). The health of children adopted from Romania. Jama, 268(24), 3446-3451
19
Niemann, & Weiss. (2011). Factors affecting attachment in international adoptees at 6 months
post adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 205-212.
Review, 32(12), 1719-1728.
attachment, and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment in middle childhood: The
case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental
Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Juffer, F. (2007). Plasticity of growth in
height, weight, and head circumference: meta-analytic evidence of massive catch-up after
20
Adoptive parents realize that transracial adoption

exposes the child in public (i.e., lack of physical
similarity between them and the rest of the
Understanding the potential for family) and assess how they will handle this
traumatic cultural effects on adopted attention. Understanding that the more a child
children (n=18) knows about adoption at an early age, the better
equipped they are to handle the issues that arise.
Adoptive parents are able to assess how racism
and cultural prejudices might affect their child
nursing, 30(6), 483.
1813.
21

22
Adoptive parents have knowledge of the history of the

culture from which their child originated and engages their
child in learning about his or her culture of birth. They are
Teaching child about their proactive in working to develop relationships with other
cultural heritage and cultural persons in the community who come from racial and
socialization cultural backgrounds similar to that of their child. Adoptive
(n=18) parents are aware of the child’s needs to develop pride in
their racial identities as well as coping skills to deal with
racism.
nursing, 30(6), 483.
23
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
246-255.
24
Recognize that very young children may not fully

understand concepts like adoption or loss, but that does
not mean they cannot feel grief. Can help the child cope
Understand how to help the child
by expressing empathy, reassuring the child, and taking
process grief and loss
proactive efforts, including seeking out supports outside
(n=5)
the family unit, to assist the child in processing grief and
loss.
Smith, S. L., & Howard, J. A. (1994). The impact of previous sexual abuse on children's
adjustment in adoptive placement. Social Work, 39(5), 491-501.
1813.
Psychiatry, 54(11), 1215-1222.
25
Characteristics of Successful Parents who Adopt Children

via the Intercountry or Private Domestic Process
Work to create an emotionally supportive environment

that gives their child a safe space to verbalize and
process emotions, including the positive ones. Able to
Emotionally supportive/nurturing provide child a supportive space to share and act as a
(n=42) calming guide to listen and empathize. Listening more
than you speak and empowering the child to find
solutions for his/her own problems/challenges.
Barcons, N., Abrines, N., Brun, C., Sartini, C., Fumadó, V., & Marre, D. (2014). Attachment and
adaptive skills in children of international adoption. Child & family social work, 19(1), 89-98.
26
Duncan, W. C. (2004). Marital Status and Adoption Values. Journal of Law & Family
Studies, 6, 1.
3894.3457
Relations, 49(4), 379-387.
Hays, A., Horstman, H., Colaner, C., & Nelson, L. (2016). “She chose us to be your
parents”. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 33(7), 917-937.
Quarterly, 6(4), 177-181.
Retrieved from
Niemann, S., & Weiss, S. (2012). Factors affecting attachment in international adoptees at
6months post adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 205-212.
27
North American Council on Adoptable Children. (2017). Nine qualities of successful foster and
adoptive parent. Retrieved from https://www.nacac.org/resource/nine-qualities/
Review, 32(12), 1719-1728.
1813.
Psychiatry, 54(11), 1215-1222.
Suwalsky, J. T., Hendricks, C., & Bornstein, M. H. (2008). Families by adoption and birth: II.
Mother-infant cognitive interactions. Adoption Quarterly, 11(2), 126-151.
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Juffer, F. (2007). Plasticity of growth
in height, weight, and head circumference: meta-analytic evidence of massive catch-up after
246-255.
28
The prospective adoptive parent has done research to

learn about the adoptive process before they begin; they
have collectively decided that adoption would be in the
Readiness for parenting/ best interest for their family unit. The parents believe they
motivated to adopt are emotionally mature, can make a long-term
(n=38) commitment, and can offer stability in various aspects of
life for the child (physical, mental, emotional, financial,
and educational).
Davies, M. (2011). Intercountry adoption, children's rights and the politics of
rescue. Adoption & Fostering, 35(4), 50-62.
Duncan, W. C. (2004). Marital Status and Adoption Values. Journal of Law & Family Studies, 6,
1.
Parents from the Wendy’s Wonderful Kids Evaluation, Child Trends, Washington, D.C.
Retrieved from https://dciw4f53l7k9i.cloudfront.net/wp-
content/uploads/2012/10/Parent_Brief.pdf
Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2009). Transracial adoption by lesbian, gay, and heterosexual
couples: Who completes transracial adoptions and with what results? Adoption
Quarterly, 12(3-4), 187-204.
3894.3457
29
Howe, D. (1995). Adoption and attachment. Adoption & Fostering, 19(4), 7-15.
Quarterly, 6(4), 177-181.
Retrieved from
6months post adoption. Children and youth services review, 34(1), 205-212.
North American Council on Adoptable Children. (2017). Nine qualities of successful foster and
adoptive parent. Retrieved from https://www.nacac.org/resource/nine-qualities/
Paulsen, C., & Merighi, J. R. (2009). Adoption preparedness, cultural engagement, and
parental satisfaction in intercountry adoption. Adoption Quarterly, 12(1), 1-18.
Prochaska, J. O., Prochaska, J. M., Paiva, A. L., Padula, J. A., Montgomery, J. E., Hageman, L., &
Bergart, A. M. (2005). Assessing emotional readiness for adoption using the transtheoretical
model. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(2), 135-152.
doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.07.001
30
Review, 32(12), 1719-1728.
1813.
Psychiatry, 54(11), 1215-1222.
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
Wilkening, J. L. (2011). Intercountry adoption act ten years later: The need for post-adoption
requirements. Ohio St. LJ, 72, 1043.
31
Strive to maintain a degree of predictability and

consistency in a child’s physical and social
environment. Adoptive parents see their role as
helping the child achieve success in small,
Stability and patience incremental steps, beginning with measurable, daily
(n=33) tasks. They do not dwell on past mistakes or worry
about the future to pressure themselves or their
child. They teach the child the importance of
celebrating small successes.
and adaptive skills in children of international adoption. Child & family social work, 19(1),
89-98.
Cantwell, N. (2014). The best interests of the child in intercountry adoption. UNICEF Office
of Research-Innocenti. Retrieved from https://www.unicef-
Feeney, J. A., Passmore, N. L., & Peterson, C. C. (2007). Adoption, attachment, and
relationship concerns: A study of adult adoptees. Personal Relationships, 14(1), 129-147.
Hook, J. M., Hook, J. N., Captari, L. E., Aten, J. D., Davis, D. E., & Van Tongeren, D.,R. (2017).
Hughes, D. A. (1999). Adopting children with attachment problems. Child Welfare, 78(5),
541.
32

Loehlin, J. C., Horn, J. M., & Willerman, L. (1981). Personality resemblance in adoptive
families. Behavior genetics, 11(4), 309-330.
nursing, 30(6), 483.
6months post adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 205-212.
North American Council on Adoptable Children. (2017). Nine qualities of successful foster
and adoptive parent. Retrieved from https://www.nacac.org/resource/nine-qualities/
Palacios, J., Román, M., Moreno, C., & León, E. (2009). Family context for emotional
recovery in internationally adopted children. International Social Work, 52(5), 609-620.
1813.
Psychiatry, 54(11), 1215-1222.
33
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
Wimmer, J. S., Elizabeth Vonk, M., & Reeves, P. M. (2010). Adoptive mothers’ perceptions
of reactive attachment disorder therapy and its impact on family functioning. Clinical Social
34
Adoptive parents see the family as a system working

together in the best interest of everyone. They view the
Understands the importance child’s total environment as a working system that has
of maintaining support great influence on the child. Adoptive parents work with
systems schools, the neighborhood, friends, and community
(n=31) supports to strengthen the child’s adjustment to their new
life. Adoptive parents also lean on these relationships for
their own self-care.
Cantwell, N. (2014). The best interests of the child in intercountry adoption. UNICEF Office
of Research-Innocenti. Retrieved from https://www.unicef-
Studies, 6, 1.
35
Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2009). Transracial adoption by lesbian, gay, and heterosexual
couples: Who completes transracial adoptions and with what results? Adoption
Quarterly, 12(3-4), 187-204.
Gibbs, D., Barth, R. P., & Houts, R. (2005). Family characteristics and dynamics among
families receiving postadoption services. Families in Society, 86(4), 520-532.
doi:10.1606/1044-3894.3457
Relations, 49(4), 379-387.
Lee, R. M., Grotevant, H. D., Hellerstedt, W. L., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Cultural
socialization in families with internationally adopted children. Journal of family
Retrieved from
http://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1175&context=etd.
Work, 22(S1), 12-21. doi:10.1111/cfs.12219
Prochaska, J. O., Prochaska, J. M., Paiva, A. L., Padula, J. A., Montgomery, J. E., Hageman, L.,
& Bergart, A. M. (2005). Assessing emotional readiness for adoption using the
36
transtheoretical model. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(2), 135-152.

doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.07.001
Wilkening, J. L. (2011). Intercountry adoption act ten years later: The need for post-
adoption requirements. Ohio St. LJ, 72, 1043.
37
Have the ability to adjust their expectations and see the

best in difficult situations. They understand that
mistakes will happen; they forgive themselves and their
child when mistakes happen and are able to make
Optimistic adjustments and allowances around rules, expectations,
(n=25) and decision-making to maximize positive outcomes.
They have realistic and flexible expectations of
themselves and their child and acknowledge and
appreciate small steps towards goal achievement.
Heimsoth, D., & Laser, J. A. (2008). Transracial adoption: Expatriate parents living in China
with their adopted Chinese children. International Social Work, 51(5), 651-668.
38

Quarterly, 6(4), 177-181.
North American Council on Adoptable Children. (2017). Title of document. Retrieved from
Prochaska, J. O., Prochaska, J. M., Paiva, A. L., Padula, J. A., Montgomery, J. E., Hageman, L.,
& Bergart, A. M. (2005). Assessing emotional readiness for adoption using the
transtheoretical model. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(2), 135-152.
doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.07.001
1813.
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
39
Adoptive parents are welcoming of new challenges

and new relationships. They understands that there
are no guarantees about the future of this action but
Acceptance of the unknown are still motivated to move forward. They do not view
(n=14) challenges as insurmountable and are able to adjust,
accommodate, and accept changes. They are willing
to make changes in their own expectations and can
be flexible as needed.
and adaptive skills in children of international adoption. Child & family social work, 19(1), 89-
98.
Beckett, C., Bredenkamp, D., Castle, J., Groothues, C., & English and Romanian Adoptees
(ERA) study team. (1999). The role of social workers in intercountry adoption: an analysis of
the experience of adopters from Romania. Adoption & Fostering, 23(4), 15-25.
Work, 22(S1), 12-21. doi:10.1111/cfs.12219
40
doi:10.1177/0192513X07301115
41
Adoptive parents who are working and maintaining

stable employment. They are able to take on the
Financial stability
financial responsibilities of caring for an adopted
child without the need for outside monetary
(n=11)
resources.
Dickens, J. (2002). The paradox of inter‐country adoption: analyzing Romania’s experience as
a sending country. International Journal of Social Welfare, 11(1), 76-83.
Studies, 6, 1.
Psychiatry, 54(11), 1215-1222.
42
Successful family structures (which can include single

parents, married parents, same sex couples, and/or
Healthy family and marriage other cohabitating partners) engage in regular and
functioning frequent communication, practice emotional
(n=8) regulation, have family cohesion, take time for leisure
activities, and demonstrate collective resilience when
faced with adversity.
Duncan, W. C. (2004). Marital Status and Adoption Values. Journal of Law & Family Studies, 6,
1.
Hook, J. M., Hook, J. N., Captari, L. E., Aten, J. D., Davis, D. E., & Van Tongeren, D.R. (2017).
Quarterly, 6(4), 177-181.
Psychiatry, 54(11), 1215-1222.
43
Adoptive parents have the ability to laugh at

themselves and not take everything seriously. Adoptive
Have a sense of humor parents are able to use humor to manage stress that
(n=3) can result from adoptive parenting. Humor can be used
to vent feelings and deescalate tense situations.
44
Faith/having a sense of spirituality creates an outlet to

remain connected to supportive family, friends, and
Faith/religion religious organizations within the community. Having
(n=3) faith/sense of spirituality is associated with having an
increased ability to create and sustain hope, as well as with
having a more positive view for the future.
45

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Literature Review

Intercountry Adoption and Private Domestic Adoption

Contributors to this report:

What are Training Recommendations?

What are Characteristics?

Training Recommendations for Parents who Adopt

Niemann, & Weiss. (2011). Factors affecting attachment in international adoptees at 6

Adoptive parents should have an

Adoptive parents recognize the varied

Mountjoy, T. P., & Vanlandingham, E. N. (2015). Mountjoy, T. P., & Vanlandingham, E. N.

Adoptive parents do not assume their own childhood

Adoptive parents have a working knowledge of the

Adoptive parents realize that transracial adoption

Roberson, K. C. (2006). Attachment and caregiving behavioral systems in intercountry

Adoptive parents have knowledge of the history of the

Recognize that very young children may not fully

Characteristics of Successful Parents who Adopt Children

Work to create an emotionally supportive environment

The prospective adoptive parent has done research to

Strive to maintain a degree of predictability and

Hutchinson, C. (2013). Characteristics of successful adoptive parents. Retrieved from

Adoptive parents see the family as a system working

transtheoretical model. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(2), 135-152.

Have the ability to adjust their expectations and see the

Christianity, 36(3), 222-229. Retrieved from

Adoptive parents are welcoming of new challenges

Adoptive parents who are working and maintaining

Successful family structures (which can include single

Adoptive parents have the ability to laugh at

Faith/having a sense of spirituality creates an outlet to

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