Introduction

Electronic devices. The discovery of the electron was a landmark in

physics and has led to a great technological advances. The present day
instant communication with the entire world is the result of the
multifarious uses of these electrons. Electronic devices. The discovery
of the electron was a landmark in physics and has led to a great
technological advances. The present day instant communication with
the entire world is the result of the multifarious uses of these
electrons.

As an electron is a light particle having a negative charge, so it can be

easily manipulated with the expenditure of a small amount of energy
i.e., it can be made to attain high speeds and its direction can be easily
changed, as desired, by means of suitable electric and magnetic fields.
In fact, an electron can be made to attain speeds nearing an
appreciable fraction of the speed of light in free space. This high
speed makes its instant action possible.

Any device whose action is based on the controlled flow of electrons

through it is called an electronic device. The branch of physics that
deals with the study of these electronic devices is called electronics.
Electronic devices are the basic building blocks of all the electronic
circuits.

The electronic devices are of two basic types :

Vacuum tubes. These include vacuum diode (consisting of two
electrodes - cathode and anode triode (with three electrodes) and
pentode (with electrodes).

Some of the important features of vacuum tubes are as follows:

1. In vacuum tubes, electrons are obtained from a heated cathode and

the flow of electrons is controlled by varying the voltage between
its different electrodes.
2. A vacuum is necessary in the interelectrode region so that the
electrons may not lose their energy on colliding with air molecules
in their path.
3. As the electrons can flow only in one direction i.e., from cathode to
anode, so vacuum tubes are also known as vacuum valves.
4. The vacuum tubes are bulky, consume high power and operate
generally at high voltages (= 100 V).
5. They have limited life and low reliability.

Solid-state electronic devices. In 1930’s, it was first realised that

some solid-state semiconductors and their junctions offer the
possibility of controlling the The number and direction of flow of
charge carriers through them. Semiconductors are the basic materials
mic used in the present solid electronic devices like junction mic
diode (a 2-electrode device), transistor (a 3-electrode device) and
integrated circuits (Ics).

Some of the important features of the semi- conductor

devices are as follows:
1. In a semiconductor device, simple excitations like light, heat or
small applied voltage can change the number of charge carriers.
2. The charge carriers flow in the solid itself, no vacuum has to be
created for the flow of charges as required in vacuum tubes.

3. It does not require any cathode heating for the production of charge
carriers. So it starts operating as soon as it is switched on.

4. Semiconductor devices are small in size, consume low power

and operate at low voltages.

Much before the discovery of semiconductor devices, a naturally

occurring crystal galena (Lead sulphide: PbS) with a metal point
contact attached to it was used as detector of radiowaves.

The use of semiconductors to develop junction diodes and transistors

has great advancement in electronics. The miniaturisation of various
electronic gadgets became possible with the use of semiconductor
devices and a continuation of this process led to the discovery of
integrated circuits.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON THE BASIS OF

THEIR ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Classification of solids on the basis of their electrical properties. On
the basis of their relative values of the son electrical conductivity (σ)
or resistivity (o = 1 / sigma) , we can broadly classify solids into three
categories:

.Solids can be classified as metals, semiconductors or insulators

based on conductivity or resistivity and energy bands in electronics.
This helps us understand the band theory and the importance of
valence and conduction bands in solids. Let us also study the types of
semiconductor.

 Metals – These are solids which have very low resistivity or very
high conductivity). Hence,
σ ~ 102 – 108 S/m
ρ ~ 10-2 – 10-8 Ωm
 Insulators – These are solids which have very high resistivity or
very low conductivity. Hence,
σ ~ 10-11 – 10-19 S/m
ρ ~ 1011 – 1019 Ωm
 Semiconductors – These are solids which have resistivity or
conductivity values between those of Metals and insulators. Hence,
σ ~ 105 – 10-6 S/m
ρ ~ 10-5 – 106 Ωm

It is important to note that these values are indicative and could go

outside the range as well. Let’s shift our focus to semiconductors.
These can be of the following types:

Classification of semiconductor
Elemental semiconductors – available naturally like Silicon (Si)
and Germanium (Ge)

Compound semiconductors – made by compounding two or

more metals together. They are sub-divided into these categories:

Inorganic; like CdS, GaAs, CdSe, etc.

Organic; like anthracene, doped phthalocyanine, etc.

Organic polymers; like polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.

Most semiconductor devices available are based on elemental and

compound inorganic semiconductors. Eventually, organic
semiconductors were used and semiconducting polymers were
developed.

Classification of semiconductor on the basis of the source

and the nature of the charge carriers
Intrinsic Semiconductor
An Intrinsic Semiconductor is the purest form of a semiconductor,
elemental, without any impurities. Naturally available elements like
silicon and germanium are best examples of an Intrinsic
Semiconductor. Let’s know them in further more detail.
The Lattice Structure of Elements
They are also called diamond-like structures. In such structures, every
atom is surrounded by four neighbouring atoms. Now, both Si and Ge
have four valence electrons and in the crystalline structure, each atom
shares one of its valence electrons with each of its four neighbours.
Also, it takes one electron from each of its neighbours. This shared
pair of electron is called a Covalent bond or a Valence bond. This is
how the Si or Ge structure looks in two-dimensions with emphasis on
the covalent bond:

Also, the above image shows the structure with all bonds intact. This
is possible only at low temperature. As the temperature increases and
more energy becomes available to the valence electrons, they break
away leading to an increase in conductivity of the element. Now, the
thermal energy ionizes only a few atoms. This ionization creates a
vacancy in the bond. When an electron, having charge –q, gets excited
due to the thermal energy, it breaks free from the bond. This leaves a
vacancy there with effective charge +q. This vacancy with an effective
positive electronic charge is a hole.The hole also behaves like a free
particle but with a positive charge. In intrinsic semiconductors, the
number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes and is called
the intrinsic carrier concentration.

Extrinsic semiconductors
Semiconductors can be broadly classified into Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Semiconductors. Intrinsic Semiconductors start conducting at
temperatures above the room temperature, developing important
electronic devices using these can pose a problem. This led to a need
for improving the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors.After some
experiments, scientists observed an increase in the conductivity of a
Semiconductor when a small amount of impurity was added to it.
These materials are Extrinsic Semiconductors or impurity
Semiconductors. Another term for these materials is ‘Doped
Semiconductor’. The impurities are dopants and the process – Doping.
An important condition to doping is that the amount of impurity added
should not change the lattice structure of the Semiconductor. To
achieve this the size of the dopant and Semiconductor atoms should be
the same.

Doping Limitations of intrinsic semiconductors. When intrinsic

semiconductors are used for developing semiconductor devices, they
have many limitations as discussed below:

1. Intrinsic semiconductors have low intrinsic charge carrier

concentration (of hole and electrons) ≈106m 3. So they have low
electrical conductivity.

2. As intrinsic charge carriers are always ther- mally generated, so

flexibility is not available to control their number.

3. For intrinsic semiconductors, n = np. They can- not have

predominant hole or electron con- duction. This puts a limit to the
usefulness of such materials.
Doping. In order to increase the conductivity of pure semiconductors
and to overcome their other limitations, a small amount, say, 1 part per
million (ppm), of impurity atoms having valency differen from 4, is
added to the pure semiconductor.

The process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity to a pure

semiconductor so as to increase its conductivity is called doping. The
impurity atoms added are called dopants and the semiconductors
doped with the impurity atoms are called extrinsic or doped
semiconductors.

Essential requirements for a doping process:

1. The semiconductor material should be of very (or Ge) wit high

purity, 99.9999% or more
2. The size of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of
the semiconductor atom. For this the atoms of third and fifth group
of the periodic table are most suitable
3. .4. The dopant atoms should not distort the crystal lattice.
4. The concentration of dopant atoms should be small, about 1 part per
million.

Doped Semiconductor

The property between the conductor and insulator is known as a

semiconductor; in simple words, Semiconductors possess specific
electrical properties. Semiconductors made from pure silicon or
germanium are rare. It is necessary to add controlled amounts of
impurities to semiconductors to make them usable. Conductors with
impurities change their ability to conduct electricity and act as
semiconductors. When we add impurity to an intrinsic or pure
material, the process is known as doping. The immunity which we add
in pure material is known as a dopant. There are various methods of
doping. Moreover, by reading this article you will gain more
knowledge about doped semiconductors.When we add a foreign atom
to a crystal lattice of silicon or germanium in a small amount, it
produces N-type and P-type semiconductors due to dynamic changes
 in their electrical process. The presence of dopants can change the
ability of a semiconductor to conduct electricity. Low or light doping
is defined as the addition of one dopant atom per 100 million atoms. A
high doping level occurs when there is more than one dopant atom per
ten thousand atoms. Usually, n+ stands for n-type doping, and p+
stands for p-type doping. The process of adding impurities to
semiconductors to change their properties is known as doping.
Basically, silicon and germanium are doped through the use of
trivalent and pentavalent elements.

Methods of doping
To dope the semiconductor, you need to follow the below-given
methods:
1. Add the impurity atoms in the semiconductor in the molten state.
2. Heat the semiconductor in the atmosphere, which includes dopant
atoms or molecules. This must be done to make it easy for the dopant
molecules to diffuse into the semiconductor.
3. Implant the dopant atom by Bombarding the semiconductor with the
dopant atoms or molecules.
Types of Impurities
If we talk about impurities, two types of impurities can be added to
the semiconductor. They are pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
Pentavalent impurities
The pentavalent impurity atom has five valence electrons. These five
valence electrons are named Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic
(As), Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi).
Trivalent impurities
The Trivalent impurity atom has three valence electrons. The various
examples of trivalent impurities include Boron (B), Gallium (G),
Indium(In), and Aluminum(Al).
 Difference between Pentavalent impurities and trivalent impurities.

Pentavalent impurities have five valence electrons and belong to

group 15. They form an n-type semiconductor when doped with a
semiconductor.
Group 13 impurities contain three valence electrons and are trivalent.
Doping forms a semiconductor with a lot of holes when it is doped
with a semiconductor.
Effect of Doping on N-type Material

The effect of doping on an N-type material is as follows −

 As compared to intrinsic material, N-type material has extra or free
electrons.
 In N-type material, all atoms are electrically neutral and are not
negatively charged.
 Extra electrons are free to move through the crystal structure as they
do not take part in the covalent bond process.
Compared to intrinsic silicon, N-type semiconductors contain many
times more electrons than electron-hole pairs. There is a distinct
difference in the electrical conductivity of this material at room
temperature. It contains an abundance of current carriers. In this
type of material, electrons are responsible for most of the flow of
current. Extrinsic materials, therefore, become good conductors of
electricity.
Valence Model of Extrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic Semiconductors: These are impure semiconductors that

are intentionally doped with impurities to change their electronic
properties. Extrinsic semiconductors can be further classified into two
types:

p-type semiconductors: In p-type semiconductors, impurity atoms

such as boron are introduced into the semiconductor material. These
impurities have fewer valence electrons than the semiconductor
material, which results in “holes” (absence of electrons) being created
in the valence band. These holes can conduct current like positive
charge carriers, which gives the material its p-type designation.
n-type semiconductors: In n-type semiconductors, impurity atoms
such as phosphorus are introduced into the semiconductor material.
These impurities have more valence electrons than the semiconductor
material, which creates excess electrons in the conduction band.
These excess electrons can conduct current like negative charge
carriers, which gives the material its n-type designation.

Electro
Hole
Ban n
Mobilit Thermal
Semiconducto d Mobilit
Type y Conductivit
r Gap y
(cm²/Vs y (W/mK)
(eV) (cm²/Vs
)
)

Intrinsi
Silicon (Si) 1.12 1500 450 150
c

Germanium Intrinsi
0.67 3900 1900 60
(Ge) c

Gallium
Intrinsi
Arsenide 1.43 8500 400 46
c
(GaAs)

Boron-doped
p-type 1.12 1500 1800 150
Silicon (p-Si)

Phosphorus- n-type 1.12 1500 4500 150

doped Silicon
(n-Si)
 Electro
Hole
Ban n
Mobilit Thermal
Semiconducto d Mobilit
Type y Conductivit
r Gap y
(cm²/Vs y (W/mK)
(eV) (cm²/Vs
)
)

Aluminum-
doped Gallium
p-type 1.43 8500 200 46
Arsenide (p-
GaAs)

Silicon-doped
Gallium
n-type 1.43 8500
Arsenide (n-
GaAs)

N type Semiconductor An extrinsic semiconductor doped with

electron donor atoms is called an n-type semiconductor because most
charge carriers in the crystal are negative electrons. Since silicon is a
tetravalent element, the normal crystal structure contains 4 covalent
bonds from four valence electrons. The most common dopants in
silicon are group III and V elements. Group V elements (pentavalent)
have five valence electrons, allowing them to act as donors. That
means adding these pentavalent impurities such as arsenic, antimony,
or phosphorus contributes to free electrons, greatly increasing the
conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor. For example, a silicon
crystal doped with boron (group III) creates a p-type semiconductor,
whereas a crystal doped with phosphorus (group V) results in an n-
type semiconductor. The conduction electrons are completely
dominated by the number of donor electrons. Therefore:

The total number of conduction electrons is approximately

equal to the number of donor sites, n≈ND.
The charge neutrality of semiconductor material is maintained because
excited donor sites balance the conduction electrons. The net result is
that the number of conduction electrons increases while the number of
holes is reduced. The imbalance of the carrier concentration in the
respective bands is expressed by the different absolute number of
electrons and holes. Electrons are majority carriers, while holes are
minority carriers in n-type material.

Energy Bands in solid

In a particular element, the magnitude of the neighboring atoms’

influence depends on the spacing and the electron’s location within the
group of atoms. Accordingly, when other atoms are close, the single
atoms’ discrete electron energy levels change into energy bands. An
energy band is an energy range with many allowed adjacent energy
levels, very closely spaced. Figure 1 shows the energy bands as a
function of the spacing between atoms for tetravalent crystals (Group
4A of the Periodic Table: nonmetal diamond, the semiconductors
silicon and germanium, and the metals tin and lead). Diamond, silicon,

and germanium are technologically important.

.Figure 1. Energy bands of tetravalent crystals.

The valence band comprises the highest energy electrons in the solid,
and the conduction band is the lowest empty belt where electrons can
remain. These bands are the permissible bands. The energy band
between the permissible bands is the band gap or forbidden band,
where the electrons cannot exist. Energies within the band gap are not
accessible for electron occupancy. The energy of the band gap is the
difference between the valence and the conduction bands.The energy
bands below the valence band (not shown) are all filled and do not
contribute to the material’s electrical characteristics. The electrical
properties of a solid strongly depend on the number of electrons in the
valence band.

In figure 1, the circles with a negative sign are the actual valence
electrons of one atom in a filled energy state. The empty circles
represent the available energy states for the electrons. The filled
valence band and empty conduction band assume a perfect crystal
lattice and a temperature of 0 K (-273°C) – the ground or lowest-
energy state.When the lattice spacing decreases from its initial value, a
single band appears as a combination of the valence and conduction
bands. Reducing the spacing, the band divides into different valence
and conduction bands with a bandgap in between.

Since no more than two interacting atoms can have the same energy
level, new levels take shape with infinitesimally different magnitudes.
This group of energy levels in a polyatomic material – the energy band
– represents an energy level in a single atom. Each band contains as
many discrete levels of energy as there are atoms in the crystal. Pauli’s
exclusion principle limits the number of electrons in a certain NL
atomic energy level in a single atom. Likewise, the principle limits the
maximum number of electrons contained in a lattice’s energy band.
Figure 2 compares atomic energy levels with energy bands in a lattice
via the electron energy band structure’s usual representation for solid
materials.

The alkali metals (hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,

cesium, and francium) have a valence of one. For example, a 3s-
atomic level in sodium (Z = 11) can accommodate two electrons, but it
has only one. A lattice of N atoms of sodium can hold 2N electrons
within the 3s energy band, but there are only N electrons; in this case,
we say that the band is half-filled. Figure 3 shows a half-filled energy

band.

.Figure 3. Half-filled energy band.

The alkali earth metals (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium,

barium, and radium) have two valence electrons per atom. This
number of electrons is enough to fill the first energy band with two
electrons at each level. However, there is an overlapping of bands
because the lower levels of the second band require less energy than
the first band’s upper levels, such that some electrons jump to levels of
the second band.

This overlapping of the uppermost bands is the typical situation for

most metals or conductors. For example, magnesium (Z = 12) with a
1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² configuration has all the atomic shells filled. But the
first excited level, 3p, overlaps 3s, and the uppermost electrons of the
3s band overlap with the lower energy states of the 3p band. Some 3s
electrons move to low 3p-levels until reaching an equilibrium energy
level for both bands. Figure 4 shows the overlapping of energy bands
in magnesium
Figure 4. Overlapping of energy bands in magnesium.

Generally, we may conclude that the lower energy bands are filled, but
the valence band may or may not be filled.An electron in an atom
occupies one of a series of allowed orbital patterns, with expressly
permitted energies.

Although electrons in an atom can occupy only particular energy

levels, in a lattice, the other nearby atoms modify the precise energy
levels of the electrons of an individual atom. Consequently, the energy
levels change and electrons can move within specific energy bands.

The valence orbitals are only the ground-state orbitals for the valence
electrons. There are many other vacant crystalline orbitals of higher
energy, where the allowed energy levels also fall in bands.

An excited crystal will boost an electron from a valence orbital to an

upper excited orbital.

There is an energy difference between the highest valence energy level

and the lowest excited orbital energy level – the energy gap

Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Low impurity content Higher impurity content

No intentional impurities Donor and acceptor impurities.

Few available charge carriers Abundant charge carriers

Poor conductivity Enhanced conductivity

Single type (pure) N-type and P-type (doped)

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Electrons (N-type) and holes

Electrons and holes
(P-type)

Low carrier density High carrier density

Moderate to low temperature

High-temperature sensitivity
sensitivity

Relies on light for carrier

Enhanced carrier generation
generation

Essential for active electronic

Limited role in complex circuits
devices

Better thermal stability Varied thermal stability

More efficient energy

Less efficient energy consumption
consumption

Examples: Solar panels, Examples: Transistors, diodes,

photodetectors, sensors, amplifiers, light emitting
thermoelectric generators diodes

Holes. The vacancy or absence of an electron in the bond of a

covalently bonded crystal is called a hole. In terms of band theory,
whenever an electron is removed from the completely filled valence
band of a semiconductor, a vacancy is left behind in the valence band.
This vacancy serves as a positive charge carrier and is called a hole.
A hole Is not a physical entity. A hole is a con- venient way of
describing charge motion, though the motion can be described entirely
in terms of electrons.

Characteristics of Holes:

1. A hole is just vacancy created by the removal of an electron from a

covalent bond of semiconductor.
2. . It has the same mass as the (removed) electron.

3.It is associated with a positive charge of magnitude e

4.The energy of a hole is higher, the farther below it is from the top of
the valence band.

Mobility of Charge Carrier:This is a property of conductor,

defined as the ratio of drift velocity to applied electric field in a
conductor. Drift velocity of charge carriers in a conductor depend
upon two factors, one is the intensity of applied electric field across
the conductor and other is one property of the conductor called
Mobility of Charge Carrier. In other words, for applied same electric
field, on different metallic conductors there will be different drift
velocities of electrons. These drift velocities of electrons depend upon
a typical property of conductor called mobility of charge carrier.

In metal, the band occupied by the valance electrons may not be

completely filled and hence there are no forbidden levels at higher
energies. Because of that, there is always one or more free electrons
available for many atoms which can freely move inside the metal. In
metal that detached free electrons are not at all associated with their
parent atoms and they move freely in the metal crystal by losing their
individuality.In other words no one electron can be said associated
with any particular atom instead each free electron moves atom to
atom in random manner. That means the metal can be visualized as a
three-dimensional array of tightly bounded ions along with swarm of
electrons move freely inside it. This conception is bitterly described as
there is as such an electron gas inside a metal. According to the
electron gas theory, electrons are in the metal in continuous motion,
and the direction of the motion continuously being changed with each
collision with heavy ions. The mean distance between two successive
collisions is known as mean free path. As the directions of the motion
of electrons inside the metal are completely randomized, there will be
no resultant drifts of electrons in any particular direction in a given
time hence the average current of the metal is zero in absence of any
externally applied electric field.Now let us assume that one electric
field of Ε volt/metre is applied across the piece of metal. Due to
influence of this electric field the free electrons will be accelerated.
But due to collisions with much heavier ions, the velocity of electrons
cannot be increased infinitely. At each collision the electron losses its
kinetic energy and then regains its acceleration due to presence of
external electric field. In this way the electrons reach to their finite
steady Drift velocity after certain time of applied electric field. Let us
assume this drift velocity is v metre/sec. It is needless to say the
magnitude of this drift velocity of electrons is directly proportional to
the intensity of the applied electric field Ε.

The Mobility of a charge carrier like free electron, ions and holes is
defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity developed per unit
strength of the electric field applied across the conductor. Therefore,
mobility (u) = vd/E, where Vd is the drift velocity and E is the electric
field intensity. The SI unit of Mobility is m² /volt second.

We know that vd=(eV/ml)t. The magnitude of the drift velocity of any

charge carrier having mass m and charge q is given by (qV/ml)t.
Putting the value of vd in the Mobility formula, we get
μ=((Vq/ml)t)/E, where t is the relaxation time of the charge carrier, V
is the potential difference across conductors, and l is the length of the
conductor.

Μ= (qV/ml)/E

⟹ μ=(q.E.l.t)/mlE = qt/m.
We know that for an electron, q = e, where e = charge of the electron.

Therefore, mobility, μ= e.t/m, where m is the mass of the electron.

The mobility of an electron in the conduction band of a semiconductor

is greater than the mobility of a hole in the valence band. The electrons
in the conduction band are almost free. They get easily accelerated by
an electric field. But the electrons in the valence band are bound
between the atoms of a semiconductor. They are less accelerated by an
electric ed) field and so acquire drift velocity smaller than that of ole
electrons in the conduction band. The mobility of electrons in the
valence band is less than the mobility of electrons in the conduction
band. As the motion of an electron in the valence band is equivalent to
the motion of a hole in the opposite direction, hence the 2) mobility of
hole in the valence band is smaller than the mobility of an electron in
conduction band.

Zener Diode

Zener Diode is one of the most important semiconductor diodes used

in our daily life. It is a specific diode that works in reverse bias
conditions. It allows current to flow from anode to cathode and it also
works in the reverse direction. Let’s learn about Zener Diodes their
function, and their construction, in detail in this article.A heavily
doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias conditions is
called a Zener Diode. They are special semiconductor devices that
allow the current to flow in both forward and backward directions. For
the Zener diode, the voltage drop across the diode is always constant
irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener diodes are used as a
voltage regulator.A Zener diode can be considered as a highly doped
p-n junction diode which is made such that it works in reverse bias
condition.A Zener diode which is also called a Breakdown diode
works in reverse bias conditions. An electrical breakdown occurring in
the reverse-biased condition of the PN junction diode is called the
Zener effect. In this condition when the electric field increases to a
high value it enables the tunnelling of electrons from the valence band
to the conduction band of a semiconductor, which suddenly increases
the reverse current.A theoretical physicist working at Bell Labs was
the first man to describe the electrical properties of Zener Diode. His
name was Clarence Melvin Zener, he was the first to tell about this
special diode that works on reverse bias conditions so the diode is
named after him Zener Diode. He first postulated the breakdown effect
in a paper published in 1934.Zener diode that is also known as a
breakdown diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that has
been specially designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the
potential reaches the Zener voltage which is also known as Knee
voltage and the voltage across the terminal of the Zener diode is
reversed, at that point time, the junction breaks down and the current
starts flowing in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the
Zener effect.The figure given below is the circuit diagram of the Zener
diode. The Zener diode has applications in various electronic devices
and it works in reverse biasing conditions. In reverse biasing, the P-
type material of the diode is connected with the negative terminal of
the power supply, and the n-type material is connected with the
positive terminal of the power supply. The diode consists of a very
thin depletion region as it is made up of heavily doped semiconductor
material.
A Zener diode can be packed in many ways. Some Zener diodes are
used where high levels of power dissipation are required. The Zener
diode which is the most commonly used is contained within a small
glass encapsulation having a band around one end marking the
cathode side of the diode.There are two tags at the end of the bar in the
circuit symbol of the Zener diode, one in the upward direction and the
other in the lower direction, as shown in the figure given below. In this
way, we can easily distinguish between the Zener diode and other
diodes.High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it
more conductive and thus the Zener diodes can easily conduct
electricity compared to other p-n junction diodes. These impurities
reduce the depletion layer of the Zener diode and make it very thin.
Thus, this diode also works even if the voltage applied is very small.

In no biassing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons

accumulate in the valence band of the p-type semiconductor material
and thus no current flow occurs through the diode.

In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to the supplied

voltage, the diode conducts electricity in the direction of reverse bias.
When the Zener voltage equals the supplied voltage the depletion
layer vanishes completely.Zener Diode Working in Reverse Biased

In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal

diode but in the reverse-bias condition, a small leak current flows
through the diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage it
reaches a point where the reverse voltage equals the breakdown
voltage. The breakdown voltage is represented as Vz and in this
condition the current start flowing in the diode. After the breakdown
voltage the current increase drastically unit it reaches a stable value.

In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for Zener

Diode which are,

Avalanche Breakdown
The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary
diode and Zener Diode at high reverse voltage. For a high value of
reverse voltage, the free electron in the PN junction diode gains
energy and acquires high velocity and these high-velocity electrons
collide with other atoms and knock electrons from that atoms. This
collision continues and new electrons are available for conducting
current thus the current increase rapidly in the diode.This phenomenon
of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche breakdown.
This phenomenon damages the diode permanently whereas the Zener
diode is a specific diode that is made to operate in this reverse voltage
area. If the reverse voltage is greater than 6V the avalanche breakdown
happens in the Zener diode.

Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In

these diodes, if the reverse bias voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage,
the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient enough to pull electrons
from the valance band. These electrons then gain energy from the
electric field and break free from the atom. Thus, for these diodes in
the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the voltage causes a
sudden increase in the current.

Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown

There is a clear difference between Avalanche Breakdown and Zener

Breakdown which can easily be understood by the table discussed
below,

Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

Avalanche breakdown occurs Zener breakdown happens when

when the high voltage increase electrons from the valance band
the free electron in the gain energy and reaches the
semiconductor and a sudden conduction band which then
increase in current is seen. conducts electricity.
Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

Zener breakdown is seen in the

Avalanche breakdown is seen in
diodes having breakdown
the diodes having breakdown
voltage in the range of 5 to 8
voltage greater than 8 volts.
volts.

Avalanche breakdown is
Zener breakdown is observed in
observed in diodes that are
diodes that are highly doped.
lightly doped.

In the Avalanche breakdown, the

VI characteristics curve is not as
sharp as the VI characteristics Zener Breakdown has a sharp VI
curve in theZener characteristics curve.
breakdown.

For breakdown increase in For Zener breakdown increase in

temperature increases the temperature decreases the
breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage
VI Characteristics of Zener Diode
The graph given underneath shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener
diode. VI Characteristics of Zener Diode
The graph given underneath shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener
diode.

V-I characteristics of a Zener Diode can be studied under

the following two headings,

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the forward
characteristics of any normal diode. It is clearly evident from the
above diagram in the first quadrant that the VI forward characteristics
are similar to other P-N junction diodes.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through
the Zener diode. This current is because of the electrons which are
thermally generated in the Zener diode. As we keep increasing the
reverse voltage at any particular value of reverse voltage the reverse
current increases suddenly at the breakdown point this voltage is
called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.

Applications of Zener Diode

Zener diode is a very useful diode. Due to its ability to allow current
to flow in reverse bias conditions, it is used widely for various
purposes. Some of the common uses of Zener Diode are discussed
below,

Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

Zener diode is utilized as a Shunt voltage controller for managing
voltage across little loads. The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes
will be steady for a wide scope of current. The Zener diode is
associated with corresponding to the heap to make it switch
predisposition and when the Zener diode surpasses knee voltage, the
voltage across the heap will become consistent.

Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection

At the point when the info voltage is higher than the Zener breakage
voltage, the voltage across the resistor drops bringing about a short-
out. This can be kept away from by utilizing the Zener diode.

Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits

Zener diode is utilized for adjusting AC waveform cutting circuits by
restricting the pieces of it is possible that one or both the half patterns
of an AC waveform.

Zener Diode Specifications

Zener Diode is one other most commonly used diode and some of the
specifications of Zener diode are,
Zener Voltage: The voltage at which Zener breakdown occurs in the
Zener diode is called as Zener Voltage. It is denoted by Vz generally
it ranges from 2.4 volts to 200 volts.
Current Iz (max): The maximum current that the diode can achieve
at the Zener Voltage is called max current. It ranges from 200μA to
200 A
Current Iz (min): The minimum current required for the diode to
break down is called min current.
Power Rating: The maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate is
the power rating of that diode. Power is calculated by taking the
product of the breakdown voltage and the value of current at that
time.
Temperature Stability: Temperature stability of the Zener diode is
greatest at 5V.
Voltage Tolerance: Voltage Tolerance for any Zener diode is
normally ±5%
Zener Resistance (Rz): The resistance exhibited by the Zener diode is
called Zener Resistance.
Photodiode
A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that
consumes light energy to generate electric current. It is also
sometimes referred as photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light detector.

Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias

condition. Reverse bias means that the p-side of the photodiode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery Photodiode is very
sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the photodiode it
easily converts light into electric current. Solar cell is also known as
large area photodiode because it converts solar energy or light energy
into electric energy. However, solar cell works only at bright light.

The construction and working of photodiode is almost similar to the

normal pn junction diode . PIN (p-type, intrinsic and n-type) structure
is mostly used for constructing the photodiode instead of p-n (p-type
and n-type) junction structure because PIN structure provide fast
response time. PIN photodiodes are mostly used in high-speed
applications.

In a normal p-n junction diode, Voltage is used as the Energy source

to generate electric current whereas in photodiodes, both voltage and
light are used as energy source to generate electric current.

Photodiode
The symbol of photodiode is similar to the normal p-n junction diode
except that it contains arrows striking the diode. The arrows striking
the diode represent light or photons.

A normal p-n junction diode allows a small amount of electric current

under reverse bias condition. To increase the electric current under
reverse bias condition, we need to generate more minority carriers.

The external reverse voltage applied to the p-n junction diode will
supply energy to the minority carriers but not increase the population
of minority carriers.

However, a small number of minority carriers are generated due to

external reverse bias voltage. The minority carriers generated at n-side
or p-side will recombine in the same material before they cross the
junction. As a result, no electric current flows due to these charge
carriers. For example, the minority carriers generated in the p-type
material experience a repulsive force from the external voltage and try
to move towards n-side. However, before crossing the junction, the
free electrons recombine with the holes within the same material. As a
result, no electric current flows.To overcome this problem, we need to
apply external energy directly to the depletion region to generate more
charge carriers. Special type of diode called photodiode is designed to
generate more number of charge carriers in depletion region. In
photodiodes, we use light or photons as the external energy to generate
charge carriers in depletion region.

Types of photodiodes

The working operation of all types of photodiodes is same. Different

types of photodiodes are developed based on specific application. For
example, PIN photodiodes are developed to increase the response
speed. PIN photodiodes are used where high response speed is needed
The different types of photodiodes are:

 PN junction photodiode
 PIN photodiode
 Avalanche photodiode

Among all the three photodiodes, PN junction and PIN photodiodes

are most widely used.

Pn junction photodiode : PN junction photodiodes are the first

form of photodiodes. They are the most widely used photodiodes
before the development of PIN photodiodes. PN junction photodiode
is also simply referred as photodiode. Nowadays, PN junction

photodiodes are not widely used.

When external light energy is supplied to the p-n junction photodiode,
the valence electrons in the depletion region gains energy.

If the light energy applied to the photodiode is greater the band-gap of

semiconductor material, the valence electrons gain enough energy and
break bonding with the parent atom. The valence electron which
breaks bonding with the parent atom will become free electron. Free
electrons moves freely from one place to another place by carrying the
electric current.When the valence electron leave the valence shell an
empty space is created in the valence shell at which valence electron
left. This empty space in the valence shell is called a hole. Thus, both
free electrons and holes are generated as pairs. The mechanism of
generating electron-hole pair by using light energy is known as the
inner photoelectric effect.The minority carriers in the depletion region
experience force due to the depletion region electric field and the
external electric field. For example, free electrons in the depletion
region experience repulsive and attractive force from the negative and
positive ions present at the edge of depletion region at p-side and n-
side. As a result, free electrons move towards the n region. When the

free electrons reaches n region, they are attracted towards the positive
terminals of the battery. In the similar way, holes move in opposite
direction.
The strong depletion region electric field and the external electric field
increase the drift velocity of the free electrons. Because of this high
drift velocity, the minority carriers (free electrons and holes) generated
in the depletion region will cross the p-n junction before they
recombine with atoms. As a result, the minority carrier current
increases.

When no light is applied to the reverse bias photodiode, it carries a

small reverse current due to external voltage. This small electric
current under the absence of light is called dark current. It is denoted
by I λ.photodiode, reverse current is independent of reverse bias
voltage. Reverse current is mostly depends on the light
intensity.photodiodes, most of the electric current is carried by the
charge carriers generated in the depletion region because the charge
carriers in depletion region has high drift velocity and low
recombination rate whereas the charge carriers in n-side or p-side has
low drift velocity and high recombination rate. The electric current
generated in the photodiode due to the application of light is called
photocurrent. The total current through the photodiode is the sum of
the dark current and the photocurrent. The dark current must be
reduced to increase the sensitivity of the device. The electric current
flowing through a photodiode is directly proportional to the incident
number of photons.

PIN photodiode.

PIN photodiodes are developed from the PN junction photodiodes.

The operation of PIN photodiode is similar to the PN junction
photodiode except that the PIN photodiode is manufactured differently
to improve its performance.The PIN photodiode is developed to
increase the minority carrier current and response speed.PIN
photodiodes generate more electric current than the PN junction
photodiodes with the same amount of light energy.

A PN junction photodiode is made of two layers namely p-type and n-

type semiconductor whereas PIN photodiode is made of three layers
namely p-type, n-type and intrinsic semiconductor.
In PIN photodiode, an addition layer called intrinsic semiconductor is
placed between the p-type and n-type semiconductor to increase the
minority carrier current.

P-type semiconductor

If trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, a p-

type semiconductor is formed.

In p-type semiconductors, the number of free electrons in the

conduction band is lesser than the number of holes in the valence
band. Therefore, holes are the majority charge carriers and free
electrons are the minority charge carriers. In p-type semiconductors,
holes carry most of the electric current.

N-type semiconductor

If pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, an

n-type semiconductor is formed.

In n-type semiconductors, the number of free electrons in the

conduction band is greater than the number of holes in the valence
band. Therefore, free electrons are the majority charge carriers and
holes are the minority charge carriers. In n-type semiconductors, free
electrons carry most of the electric current.
Intrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure form of semiconductors. In

intrinsic semiconductor, the number of free electrons in the conduction
band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. Therefore,
intrinsic semiconductor has no charge carriers to conduct electric
current.

However, at room temperature a small number of charge carriers are

generated. These small number of charge carriers will carry electric
current.

PIN photodiode operation

A PIN photodiode is made of p region and n region separated by a

highly resistive intrinsic layer. The intrinsic layer is placed between
the p region and n region to increase the width of depletion region.

The p-type and n-type semiconductors are heavily doped. Therefore,

the p region and n region of the PIN photodiode has large number of
charge carriers to carry electric current. However, these charge carriers
will not carry electric current under reverse bias condition.

On the other hand, intrinsic semiconductor is an undoped

semiconductor material. Therefore, the intrinsic region does not have
charge carriers to conduct electric current.

Under reverse bias condition, the majority charge carriers in n region

and p region moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of
depletion region becomes very wide. Therefore, majority carriers will
not carry electric current under reverse bias condition.

However, the minority carriers will carry electric current because they
experience repulsive force from the external electric field.
In PIN photodiode, the charge carriers generated in the depletion
region carry most of the electric current. The charge carriers generated
in the p region or n region carry only a small electric current.

When light or photon energy is applied to the PIN diode, most part of
the energy is observed by the intrinsic or depletion region because of
the wide depletion width. As a result, a large number of electron-hole
pairs are generated.

Free electrons generated in the intrinsic region move towards n-side

whereas holes generated in the intrinsic region move towards p-side.
The free electrons and holes moved from one region to another region
carry electric current.

When free electrons and holes reach n region and p region, they are
attracted to towards the positive and negative terminals of the battery.

The Light Emitting Diode :

Light Emitting Diodes or simply LED´s, are among the most widely
used of all the different types of semiconductor diodes available today
and are commonly used in TV’s and colour displays.The light emitting
diode is the most visible type of semiconductor diode. They emit a
fairly narrow bandwidth of either visible light at different coloured
wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type
light when a forward current is passed through them.The “Light
Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically
just a specialised type of diode as they have very similar electrical
characteristics to a PN junction diode. This means that an LED will
pass current in its forward direction but block the flow of current in
the reverse direction Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin
layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor material and depending on
the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, when
forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a particular
spectral wavelength.When the diode is forward biased, electrons from
the semiconductors conduction band recombine with holes from the
valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which
emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Then we can say that
when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are
semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light
energy.The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different
from that of a normal signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is
surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical
shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both vibration and
shockSurprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much
light so the epoxy resin body is constructed in such a way that the
photons of light emitted by the junction are reflected away from the
surrounding substrate base to which the diode is attached and are
focused upwards through the domed top of the LED, which itself acts
like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted
light appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.However, not all
LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy
shell. Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped
construction that has a flat surface on top or their body is shaped into a
bar or arrow. Generally, all LED’s are manufactured with two legs
protruding from the bottom of the body.

Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – )
terminal identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body or by the
cathode lead being shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead is
longer than the cathode (k).Unlike normal incandescent lamps and
bulbs which generate large amounts of heat when illuminated, the light
emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of light which leads to
high efficiencies than the normal “light bulb” because most of the
generated energy radiates away within the visible spectrum. Because
LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be extremely small and durable
and provide much longer lamp life than normal light sources.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal
diodes which are made for detection or power rectification, and which
are made from either Germanium or Silicon semiconductor materials,
Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor
compounds such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide
(GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC)
or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different
ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of colour.Different LED
compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum
and therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of
the semiconductor material used will determine the overall wavelength
of the photon light emissions and therefore the resulting colour of the
light emittedLight Emitting Diode Colours

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

 GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is determined by the

wavelength of the light emitted, which in turn is determined by the
actual semiconductor compound used in forming the PN junction
during manufacture Therefore the colour of the light emitted by an
LED is NOT determined by the colouring of the LED’s plastic body
although these are slightly coloured to both enhance the light output
and to indicate its colour when its not being illuminated by an
electrical supply.Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of
colours with the most common being RED, AMBER, YELLOW and
GREEN and are thus widely used as visual indicators and as moving
light displays.
Recently developed blue and white coloured LEDs are also available
but these tend to be much more expensive than the normal standard
colours due to the production costs of mixing together two or more
complementary colours at an exact ratio within the semiconductor
compound and also by injecting nitrogen atoms into the crystal
structure during the doping process.
From the table above we can see that the main P-type dopant used in
the manufacture of Light Emitting Diodes is Gallium (Ga, atomic
number 31) and that the main N-type dopant used is Arsenic (As,
atomic number 33) giving the resulting compound of Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs) crystalline structure.
The problem with using Gallium Arsenide on Its own as the
semiconductor compound is that it radiates large amounts of low
brightness infra-red radiation (850nm-940nm approx.) from its
junction when a forward current is flowing through it.
The amount of infra-red light it produces is okay for television remote
controls but not very useful if we want to use the LED as an
indicating light. But by adding Phosphorus (P, atomic number 15), as
a third dopant the overall wavelength of the emitted radiation is
reduced to below 680nm giving visible red light to the human eye.
Further refinements in the doping process of the PN junction have
resulted in a range of colours spanning the spectrum of visible light as
we have seen above as well as infra-red and ultra-violet wavelengths.
By mixing together a variety of semiconductor, metal and gas
compounds the following list of LEDs can be produced.
Types of Light Emitting Diode:

 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red

 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-
brightness red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
 Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green
and blue
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are

current-dependent devices with its forward voltage drop VF,
depending on the semiconductor compound (its light colour) and on
the forward biased LED current. Most common LED’s require a
forward operating voltage of between approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts
with a forward current rating of about 10 to 30 mA, with 12 to 20 mA
being the most common range.Both the forward operating voltage and
forward current vary depending on the semiconductor material used
but the point where conduction begins and light is produced is about
1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED.The exact
voltage drop will of course depend on the manufacturer because of the
different dopant materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop
across the LED at a particular current value, for example 20mA, will
also depend on the initial conduction VF point. As an LED is
effectively a diode, its forward current to voltage characteristics curves
can be plotted for each diode colour as shown below.
 Junction Transistor
A junction transistor has three doped regions – emitter, base, and
collector. These regions form two p-n junctions between them.
Depending on the number of n and p-type semiconductors in the

transistor, they are of two types:

 n-p-n transistor: A p-type semiconductor (base) separates two

segments of the n-type semiconductor (emitter and collector)

 p-n-p transistor: An n-type semiconductor (base) separates two

segments of the p-type semiconductor (emitter and collector.

This segment is on one side of the transistor. It has a

Emitter moderate size and is heavily doped causing it to supply a
large number of carriers for the flow of current.

This segment is at the centre of the transistor. It is thin and

Base
lightly doped.

Collector This segment is also on one side of the transistor. It is larger

 than the emitter and is moderately doped. Hence, it collects
most of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter.

As can be seen in both the figures above, all three segments have
different thickness and doping levels. The schematic symbols of both

The arrowhead shows the direction of the conventional current in the

transistor. Let’s understand the three segments in detail:

Also, in the case of a junction transistor, the depletion regions are

formed at the emitter-base junction and the base-collector junction. To
understand the action of the transistor, it is important to consider the
nature of depletion regions formed at these junctions.It is also
important to note here that junction transistor was invented to produce
an enlarged copy of a signal – an amplifier. Eventually, it became
equally popular as a switch.

The Amplifying Capabilities of a Junction Transistor

1. A junction transistor works as an amplifier when,
2. The emitter-base junction is forward biased and
3. The base-collector junction is reverse biased.

The circuit diagram for the same is as shown below:

As can be seen above, the base is the common terminal for two power
supplies whose other terminals are connected to the emitter and
collector

Some Terminologies

 The voltage between emitter and base = VEB

 The voltage between collector and base = VCB
 VEE = Power supply connected between the emitter and base
 VCC = Power supply connected between the collector and base

Let us now study the path of the current carriers in the junction
transistor where –

 The emitter-base junction is forward biased and

 The Base-collector junction is reverse biased
The emitter is heavily doped and has a large concentration of the
majority carriers. These majority carriers enter the base in large
numbers. Since the base is very thin and lightly doped, it has very few
majority carriers. Let’s look at the path of current in a p-n-p transistor:

p-n-p Transistor
The emitter has a large concentration of holes. The base, being an n-
type semiconductor will have electrons as its majority charge carriers.
When the majority carriers (holes) enter the base from the emitter,
they swamp the majority charge carriers of the base (electrons). The
base-collector junction is reverse biased.

Hence, these holes appear as minority carriers at the junction. Hence,

they can easily enter the collector (which is a p-type semiconductor).
The holes in the base can either:

 Move towards the base terminal to combine with the electrons

entering from outside or
 Cross the junction and enter the collector.

Since the base is very thin, most of the holes find themselves near the
base-collector junction (reverse biased). Hence, they cross over to the
collector rather than move to the base terminal The forward bias leads
to a large current entering the emitter-base junction. However, most of
it diverts to the adjacent base-collector junction. Hence, the current
coming out of the base is a small fraction of that entering the junction.
The total current in a forward biased diode is Ih + Ie … where Ih is
the hole current and Ie is the electron current.

The emitter current IE = Ih + Ie. However, the base current IB << Ih +

Ie. This is because a big part of IE goes to the collector instead of the
base terminal. Now, current enters the emitter from outside. Applying
Kirchhoff’s law:

IE = IC + IB

Where IC is the current emerging from the collector terminal. Also,

IC is nearly equal to IE since IB is very small.
n-p-n Transistor
In an n-p-n transistor, current enters from the base to the emitter. The
description of the paths followed by the majority and minority charge
carriers is similar to that of the p-n-p transistor. However, the current
paths are exactly the opposite.

In an n-p-n transistor, electrons are the majority charge carriers,

supplied by the n-type emitter region. They cross the thin p-type base
region and are able to reach the collector to give the collector current,
IC.

solar cells : the process by which light energy in photons is

converted into electric current when the photons strike a suitable
semiconductor device. The theoretical studies are of practical use
because they predict the fundamental limits of a solar cell, and give
guidance on the phenomena that contribute to losses and solar cell
efficiency.
 Band diagram of a
solar cell, corresponding to very low current (horizontal Fermi level ),
very low voltage (metal valence bands at same height), and therefore
very low illumination

Working
 Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi-
conducting materials.
 Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms
as they are excited. Due to their special structure and the materials
in solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single
direction. The electronic structure of the materials is very
important for the process to work, and often silicon incorporating
small amounts of boron or phosphorus is used in different layers.
 An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount
of direct current (DC) electricity.

Photogeneration of charge carriers

When a photon hits a piece of semiconductor, one of three things can
happen:

The photon can pass straight through the semiconductor — this

(generally) happens for lower energy photons.

The photon can reflect off the surface.

The photon can be absorbed by the semiconductor if the photon

energy is higher than the band gap value. This generates an electron-
hole pair and sometimes heat depending on the band structure.

Band diagram of a silicon solar cell, corresponding to very low

current (horizontal Fermi level), very low voltage (metal valence
bands at same height), and therefore very low illumination
When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the
crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band. The energy
given to the electron by the photon “excites” it into the conduction
band where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. The
network of covalent bonds that the electron was previously a part of
now has one fewer electron. This is known as a hole, and it has
positive charge. The presence of a missing covalent bond allows the
bonded electrons of neighboring atoms to move into the "hole",
leaving another hole behind, thus propagating holes throughout the
lattice in the oppositee direction to the movement of the negatively
electrons. It can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor
create electron-hole pairs.

A photon only needs to have energy greater than that of the band gap
in order to excite an electron from the valence band into the
conduction band. However, the solar frequency spectrum
approximates a black body spectrum at about 5,800 K,[1] and as such,
much of the solar radiation reaching the Earth is composed of photons
with energies greater than the band gap of silicon (1.12eV), which is
near to the ideal value for a terrestrial solar cell (1.4eV). These higher
energy photons will be absorbed by a silicon solar cell, but the
difference in energy between these photons and the silicon band gap
is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations — called phonons) rather
than into usable electrical energy.

Charge carrier separation

There are two causes of charge carrier motion and separation in a
solar cell:

 Drift of carriers, driven by the electric field, with electrons being

pushed one way and holes the other way
 Diffusion of carriers from zones of higher carrier concentration to
zones of lower carrier concentration (following a gradient of
chemical potential).

These two “forces” may work one against the other at any given point
in the cell. For instance, an electron moving through the junction from
the p region to the n region (as in the diagram at the beginning of this
article) is being pushed by the electric field against the concentration
gradient. The same goes for a hole moving in the opposite direction.

It is easiest to understand how a current is generated when

considering electron-hole pairs that are created in the depletion zone,
which is where there is a strong electric field. The electron is pushed
by this field toward the n side and the hole toward the p side. (This is
opposite to the direction of current in a forward-biased diode, such as
a light-emitting diode in operation.) When the pair is created outside
the space charge zone, where the electric field is smaller, diffusion
also acts to move the carriers, but the junction still plays a role by
sweeping any electrons that reach it from the p side to the n side, and
by sweeping any holes that reach it from the n side to the p side,
thereby creating a concentration gradient outside the space charge
zone.

In thick solar cells there is very little electric field in the active region
outside the space charge zone, so the dominant mode of charge carrier
separation is diffusion. In these cells the diffusion length of minority
carriers (the length that photo-generated carriers can travel before
they recombine) must be large compared to the cell thickness. In thin
film cells (such as amorphous silicon), the diffusion length of
minority carriers is usually very short due to the existence of defects,
and the dominant charge separation is therefore drift, driven by the
electrostatic field of the junction, which extends to the whole
thickness of the cell.

Once the minority carrier enters the drift region, it is ‘swept’ across
the junction and, at the other side of the junction, becomes a majority
carrier. This reverse current is a generation current, fed both thermally
and (if present) by the absorption of light. On the other hand, majority
carriers are driven into the drift region by diffusion (resulting from the
concentration gradient), which leads to the forward current; only the
majority carriers with the highest energies (in the so-called Boltzmann
tail; cf. Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics) can fully cross the drift region.
Therefore, the carrier distribution in the whole device is governed by
a dynamic equilibrium between reverse current and forward current.

Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to
create a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on
discrete ideal electrical components whose behavior is well defined.
An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel
with a diode;

The schematic symbol of a solar cell

The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to
create a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on
discrete ideal electrical components whose behavior is well defined.
An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel
with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance
and a series resistance component are added to the model The
resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the right. Also
shown, on the left, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for
use in circuit diagrams. There are several electrical models that
translate the solar cell's behaviour. The most used one is presented
below, but others novel models have been proposed, like the d1MxP
Materials used in the fabrication of solar cells
The semiconductor with band gap close to 1.5 ev are ideal materials
for this purpose. Solar cells are made with semiconductors like
Si (E=1.1 eV), GaAs (E=1.43 eV).
CdTe (E₁ = 1.45 eV),
CuInSe₂ (E=1004 eV), etc.
The important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell
fabrication are:
 Band gap (from 1.0 eV to 1.8 eV).
 High optical absorption (-104cm)
 Electrical conductivity.
 Availability of the raw material.
 (D) Cost factor.
 The advantages of solar cells are:
1. polltion free
2. Long lasting, and
3. maintenance free.
They can be used anywhere as a self-generating source of electricity.
But solar cells have high cost of installation and low efficiency.
Uses of solar cells:
1. We can use solar cells to charge storage batteries in day time and
use the batteries for power Urm during nights.
2. Solar cells, or better called photocells, are used in light meters in
photography.
3. Some wrist watches and hand calculators are powered by solar
cells.
4. Spacecrafts make use of arrays of solar cells or solar panels to
provide electrical energy.
Transistor as an amplifier and oscillator
Waves can be defined as a disturbance that spreads through a medium
from one point to another. Let us go through study material notes on
waves.
Common Emitter Amplifier
Transistor amplifiers boost AC input signals that alternate between
positive and negative values. The transistor must then be able to
function between these two maximum or peak values, so some
method of presenting the amplifier’s circuit layout is required. Biasing
is a technique for accomplishing this.

Biasing is essential in amplifier design because it establishes the

correct operating point of the transistor amplifier when it is ready to
accept signals, reducing output signal distortion.Also, drawing a static
or DC load line over an amplifier’s output characteristics curves
allows us to observe all of the transistor’s possible operating points,
from fully “ON” to totally “OFF,” as well as the amplifier’s idle
operating point or Q-point.Any small signal amplifier’s goal is to
amplify all of the input signal with the least amount of distortion
possible in the output signal; in other words, the output signal must be
an exact duplicate of the input signal, only bigger (amplified).
The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

The voltage divider biassing used in the single stage common emitter
amplifier circuit depicted above is known as “Voltage Divider
Biasing.” Two resistors are used as a potential divider network across
the supply, with their centre point giving the requisite base bias
voltage to the transistor in this form of biassing configuration. In the
construction of bipolar transistor amplifier circuits, voltage divider
biassing is often used.
By keeping the Base bias at a constant stable voltage level, this
approach of biassing the transistor considerably decreases the impacts
of fluctuating Beta, , allowing for the best stability.The potential
divider network built by the two resistors R1, R2 and the power
supply voltage determines the quiescent Base voltage (), as seen with
current flowing through both resistors.The overall resistance RT will
then equal , resulting in a current of . The voltage generated at the
junction of resistors and maintains the Base voltage () at a value
lower than the supply voltage.The supply voltage is divided in
proportion to the resistance by the potential divider network in the
common emitter amplifier circuit. Using the basic voltage divider
formula below, you can simply compute the bias reference voltage.
Transistor Bias Voltage
When the transistor is fully “ON” (saturation), , the same supply
voltage, , also controls the maximum Collector current, . The
Collector current, , and the DC current gain Beta, of the transistor
are used to calculate the Base current .
Beta Value

The forward current gain of a transistor in the common emitter

configuration is defined by its Beta value, which is sometimes
referred to as hFE on datasheets. The electrical parameter beta is
integrated into the transistor during the manufacturing process.
Because Beta ( hFE) is a fixed ratio of the two currents, IC and IB , it
has no units. This means that a little change in the Base current will
result in a big change in the Collector current Common Emitter
transistors, like other transistors, have a variety of characteristics such
as gain, resistance and impedance.
Common Emitter voltage gain: The ratio of the change in the input
voltage to the change in the amplifier output voltage is known as
common emitter voltage gain. Consider Vout and Vin as VL and VB ,
respectively.
Common Emitter Amplifier Applications
 When a transistor is used to amplify a signal, it is called a Common
Emitter Amplifier. The following are the most prevalent uses:
 Common Emitter amplifier’s current gain is higher than its voltage
gain. As a result, they’re used as current amplifiers.
 Used in radio frequency circuits.
 In circuits with reduced noise and amplification values.
Transistor as an Oscillator
An oscillator is an electrical circuit that generates a periodic,
oscillating signal, most commonly a square or sine wave. It
essentially converts direct current from a power source to alternating
current. When we utilise a transistor in a circuit, it produces
undamped oscillations at the circuit’s output terminals. With the help
of a circuit schematic, we can show you how to use a transistor as an
oscillator.
Oscillator circuit
Below is a diagram of a transistor oscillator circuit. There are three
sections to this circuit:
Tank Circuit: This circuit generates oscillations that the transistor
amplifies, resulting in enhanced output on the collector side.
Amplifier Circuit: This circuit works by amplifying the tiny
sinusoidal oscillations in the base-emitter circuit and producing
amplified output.
Feedback Circuit: Since we require some energy at the tank circuit
to magnify the oscillations for the amplifier, this is a crucial
component of the circuit. We used Mutual induction to feed the
energy from the collector circuit back to the base circuit for this
purpose. With the help of this circuit, we were able to feed energy
back from the output to the input.
As we all know, when the flux in one coil rises, the flux in the other
coil decreases, resulting in phase variation when the coil is fed to the
other side. When we look at the output voltage of a common emitter
amplifier, we see that it is always in the opposite phase of the input,
indicating that one phase variation occurs from the input to the other
side and the other occurs from the output to the input side via
feedback circuit. As a result, in this case, the feedback oscillations
will be perfectly in step with the nature of oscillations As we all know,
when the flux In one coil rises, the flux in the other coil decreases,
resulting in phase variation when the coil is fed to the other side.
When we look at the output voltage of a common emitter amplifier,
we see that it is always in the opposite phase of the input, indicating
that one phase variation occurs from the input to the other side and the
other occurs from the output to the input side via feedback circuit. As
a result, in this case, the feedback oscillations will be perfectly in step
with the nature of oscillations.
Working of Transistor Oscillator circuit:
The transistor is utilised as a common emitter circuit in oscillator
circuit design, with the emitter connected to both the base and
collector terminals. A tank circuit has been connected between the
input terminals, i.e. between the emitter and the base. The tank circuit
is an electric circuit that produces oscillations by connecting an
inductor (L) and a capacitor © in parallel. The base current fluctuates
due to voltage and charge oscillations in the tank circuit, and the
forward biassing of the base current varies as a result of this variation.
As a result, the collector current begins to fluctuate on a regular basis
To put it another way, the LC oscillations are sinusoidal in nature, and
as a result, both the collector current and the base current vary
sinusoidally. If the collector current varies sinusoidally, as shown in
the picture, the output voltage obtained can be expressed as ICRL and
regarded a sinusoidal output. When we plot the output voltage Vout
against time, the curve we get is sinusoidal in form. Now, we need
some energy in the tank circuit for continuous oscillations, but there is
no battery or dc source available in this circuit.
We do this by using a soft iron rod to connect the mutual inductor L2
and L1 in the collector and base circuits. This soft iron rod will
connect inductor L2 to inductor L1 , and a portion of the energy in
the collector circuit will be transferred to the base side of the circuit
due to mutual induction. As a result, the oscillation in the tank circuit
is sustained and magnified on a constant basis.
Types of oscillators
The most in-demand component in the electronics sector is
oscillators. In general, we separated it into two groups:
Feedback Oscillators: Feedback oscillators are oscillators that
return a fraction of the output signal to the input with no net phase
shift, causing the output signal to be augmented. It is made up of a
gain amplifier (either an op-amp or a discrete transistor) and a phase
shift and attenuation positive feedback circuit. To maintain sustained
oscillations, the loop gain is set to 1.0 when oscillations begin.
Relaxation Oscillators: A relaxation oscillator generates a
waveform that is usually a square wave or another non-sinusoidal
waveform using an RC timing circuit. This oscillator makes use of a
Schmitt trigger or another device that uses a resistor to shift the state
of the capacitor from charging to discharging.
Electronic Transistors are small electronic devices that regulate
current flow in a circuit. Because it can be changed to operate as a
switch, Oscillator, and other electronic components, the transistor is a
very significant electronic component used in circuits. A transistor can
also be used as an amplifier. It’s employed when a circuit’s input
signal isn’t strong enough.
In the Collector circuit of the Common Emitter Amplifier, there is a
resistor. The voltage output of the amplifier is generated by the
current passing through this resistor. The value of this resistor is
adjusted so that the output voltage is half way along the transistor’s
load line at the amplifier’s quiescent operating point, Q-point.
Logic Gates
Logic gates can be called as a type of amplifier circuits which are
used in digital circuits to generate voltage signals corresponding to
binary conditions True(high) and False(low) which can be also
represented by o’s(false) and 1’s(true). Logic gates are based on
Boolean algebra and they usually consist of two inputs and single
output and the output will change according to the gate that is being
used. These gates do not amplify the signals and they are mostly seen
in integrated circuits (IC).

Logic diagram
To represent a logic circuit graphically we design logic diagrams. This
displays the connection between each individual logic gate with the
wiring connection, represented using a specific graphical symbol for
each individual logic gate.
Logic Gates Types
The connection between the input and the output differs with a certain
type of logic circuit. Basically, there are seven types of logic gates:
AND gate: NAND gate OR gate NOR gate NOT gate XOR gate and
XNOR gate. There are two types of symbols which is commonly used
to represent logic gates. They are traditional symbols (the symbol
widely used in education and industry purposes) and
IEC(International ElectroTechnical Commission) symbol.
Logic AND Gate
The AND gate has two or more inputs connections attached to it. Its
logic works when all the inputs are True(high) then the output is High
(True), otherwise all the outputs are False(low).

Logic AND Gate

Logic OR Gate
OR gate have a minimum of two inputs, and it can be more. If any of
the input signals are True(high) the output is True. The output is only
getting False(low) when all the inputs are False(low).

Logic OR Gate

NOT gate (Inverter)

NOT gate consists of only one input and one output and the output is
the negation/inverse of the input. This gate is also called the inverter.

Logic NOT inverter

Logic NAND Gate

This is known as Not AND gate. It has the same parameters as the
AND gate but the output is inverted. Usually a NAND gate has two or
more inputs attached to it and has only one output. If all the inputs are
TRUE (high) the output is FALSE (low) otherwise the output is
TRUE (high) all the time.
 Logic NAND Gate
Logic NAND Gate

Logic NOR Gate

This is known as Not OR gate. It has the same parameters as the OR

gate, but the output is inverted. Usually NOR gate has two or more
inputs attached to it and has only one output. If any input is TRUE
(high) the output is FALSE (low) otherwise the output is TRUE
(high) all the time.

Logic NOR Gate

Logic XOR Gate

XOR gate is also known as EXclusive OR gate. This also looks like
an OR gate but when the both inputs have the same values (TRUE,
TRUE or FALSE, FALSE) the output is FALSE (low). When the both
inputs have different values (TRUE and FALSE) the output is TRUE
(high). This gate has only two inputs.

Logic XOR Gate

Logic XNOR Gate

XOR gate is also known as EXclusive NOR gate. It has the same
parameters as the XOR gate, but the output is inverted. When the both
inputs have the same values (TRUE, TRUE or FALSE, FALSE) the
output is TRUE (high). When the both inputs have different values
(TRUE and FALSE) the output is FALSE (low). This gate has only
two inputs.

Logic XNOR gate

Buffer.:Buffers have only one input and one output. Buffer acts like
the negation of the NOT gate. This passes the input signal without
changing the input in anyways. The purpose of the buffer is to
increase the propagation delay of the logic circuit.
Logic gate truth tables
Truth table is a table which is used to help show the Boolean
expression of a logic gate. Therefore, it helps to understand the
behavior of logic gates. Truth table helps us see the connection
between its inputs and outputs by showing how the inputs of a logic
gate connected to its resultant outputs.
In the Truth table, the left columns denote the inputs for the gates and
right columns denote the outputs. Table consists of all the different
possible input combinations and all the possible outputs related to
that.
As an example, let’s consider a logic circuit having two variable
inputs. Since there are two variable inputs, we can get four different
combinations for those inputs {(HIGH, HIGH), (HIGH, LOW),
(LOW, HIGH), (LOW, LOW)}. For those four combinations there are
four outputs. When we write Boolean expressions and work with
logic truth tables we use 1’s and 0’s instead of HIGH and LOW
respectively.
Then, the tour different possible combinations of the two inputs can
be given as follows:

1st Combination – “LOW” – “LOW” or (0, 0)

2nd Combination – “LOW” – “HIGH” or (0, 1)

3rd Combination – “HIGH” – “LOW” or (1, 0 )

4th Combination – “HIGH” – “HIGH” or (1, 1 )

According to above, when a logic circuit has 3 inputs there should be

eight different combinations. We can conclude that the number of
combinations increases with the increase of the number of inputs in
power of 2. If the number of inputs is n there will be two to the power
n (2n) number of combinations.

AND Gate Truth table

The truth table for the 2-input AND gate is as follows. Let’s label A,
B as inputs and the Q is the output.
Logic AND Truth table

OR Gate Truth table

The truth table for the 2-input OR gate is as follows.. Let’s label A, B
as inputs and the Q is the output.

OR Gate truth table

NOT Gate Truth table (Inverter)

Following is the truth table for NOT gate. Let’s label A as input and
the Q is the output.

NOT gate truth table

NAND Gate Truth table

The truth table for the 2-input NAND gate is as follows.. Let’s label
A, B as inputs and the Q is the output.

NAND
gate truth table

NOR Gate Truth table

The truth table for the 2-input NOR gate is as follows. Let’s label A,
B as inputs and the Q is the output.
NOR gate truth table

XOR Gate Truth table

The truth table for 2-input XOR gate is as follows. Let’s label A, B as
inputs and the Q is the output. Usually we express the Exclusive-OR
or Exclusive-NOR function by using a character with a plus sign
inside a circle

X
OR Gate truth table
XNOR Gate Truth table

The truth table for the 2-input XNOR gate is as follows. Let’s label A,
B as inputs and the Q is the output.

X
NOR gate truth table

Pull-up and Pull-down Resistors

Pull-up and pull-down resistors can be seen in many of the electronic

circuits. Those resistors are used to correctly bias the input signals of
digital gates to prevent the inputs from random floating. With the help
of the pull up and pull-down resistors microcontrollers can easily
establish communication with their hardware devices. To achieve
“HIGH” or “LOW” states we have to implement pull up and pull-
down resistors into the logic circuit, if there is no connection to the
GPIO pins we get a floating impedance state.

Logic circuits

Usually logic circuits use voltage to represent the Boolean values

(TRUE, FALSE). Logic circuits consist of inputs and outputs. Those
outputs may partially depend on their inputs. Connection to one
circuit to the other one is shown using arrows in the logic circuit
diagram.

Logic circuits behave as a function or a method in a programming

input analogous to the method/function parameters and the outputs are
analogous to method/function returned values. Usually we can divide
logic circuits into two categories. They are as follows

 Combinational circuits: This behaves like a simple function in

programming.
 State circuitry: This behaves more like an object method in
programming.

Logic IC

IC which is also known as an integrated circuit is a digital circuit

based on semiconductors. There are many types of ICs used in
various applications. Logic ICs are the ones we use to implement
certain functionalities, by keeping together in various combinations.
We can find around 600 types of logic ICs in the market. There are
two types of Logic ICs;

 TTL ICs – This stands for transistor-transistor logic IC, made

from BJTs and runs on 5v power.
 CMOS ICs – This stands for complementary metal oxide
semiconductor IC, made from MOSFETs and can be used
with various voltages.