LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

6.1 Limits
Let f be a function defined on all points in a neighbourhood N of a point
c except possibly at the point c itself.
Definition 6.1.1. The function f is said to tend to a limit l as x tends to (or
approaches) c if for each ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − l | < ε, whenever | x − c| < δ.

We write lim f ( x ) = l.
x →c

Definition 6.1.2. The function f is said to tend to +∞ as x tends to c, if for

each k > 0 (however large) there exists a δ > 0 such that

f ( x ) > k, whenever | x − c| < δ.

It is said to tend to −∞ as x tends to c if for each k > 0 (however large)

there exists a δ > 0 such that

f ( x ) < −k, whenever | x − c| < δ.

Definition 6.1.3. The function f is said to tend to a limit l as x tends to ∞

if for each ε > 0 there exists a m > 0, such that

| f ( x ) − l | < ε, whenever x > m.

Definition 6.1.4. The function f is said to tend to +∞ as x tends to ∞ if for

each k > 0 (however large) there exists a m > 0, such that

f ( x ) > k, whenever x > m.

Example 6.1.5. Show that lim (2x + 5) = 9.

x →2

1
 Solution.
Suppose ε > 0 is given, we have to show how δ > 0 can be chosen
such that |(2x + 5) − 9| < ε, whenever | x − 2| < δ. Clearly,

|(2x + 5) − 9| = |2x − 4| = 2| x − 2| < ε.

So that | x − 2| < 2ε = δ. So for any x satisfying | x − 2| < δ, we have

|(2x + 5) − 9| < ε.

1
Example 6.1.6. Prove that lim x sin = 0.
x →0 x

Solution.
Now
1 1
x sin = | x | · sin ≤ | x |.
x x
Thus choosing a δ = ε, we see that

1 1
x sin < ε, when 0 < | x | < δ ⇒ lim x sin = 0.
x x →0 x

1
Example 6.1.7. Show that lim = ∞.
x →3 ( x − 3 )4

Solution.
Let G be any positive number, however large. Now | f ( x )| = f ( x )
and so
1 4 1 1
> G, when ( x − 3 ) < or 0 < | x − 3 | < .
( x − 3)4 G G1/4
1
Choosing δ = G1/4
, we get the required result.

6.2 Left and right hand limits

When defining the limit of a function f as x tends to c, we consider the
values of f ( x ) when x is very close to c. The values of x may be greater

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of less that c. If we restrict x to values less than c, we say that x tends to
c from below or from the left and write x → c− . The limit of f with this
restriction is called the left hand limit. Similarly, if we restrict x to values
greater than c, we say that x tends to c from the right and write x → c+ . In
this case, the limit of f we obtain is the right hand limit.

Definition 6.2.1. A function f is said to tend to a limit l as x tends to c from

the left if for each ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − l | < ε, whenever c − δ < x < c.

We write lim f ( x ) = l.
x →c−

Definition 6.2.2. A function f is defined to tend to a limit l as x tends to c

from the right if for each ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − l | < ε, whenever c < x < c + δ.

We write lim f ( x ) = l.
x →c+

It should be noted that lim f ( x ) exists if and only if both the left and
x →c
right hand limits exists and are equal.

Example 6.2.3. Find the right hand and the left hand limits of the function
defined as follows: (
| x −4|
, x 6= 4,
f ( x ) = x −4
0, x = 4.

Solution.
Now, when x > 4, | x − 4| = x − 4. Therefore,

| x − 4|
lim f ( x ) = lim
x →4+ x →4+ x − 4
x−4
= lim = lim 1 = 1.
x →4 x − 4
+ x →4+

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 Again, when x < 4, | x − 4| = −( x − 4). Thus

| x − 4|
lim f ( x ) = lim
x →4− x →4− x−4
−( x − 4)
= lim = lim −1 = −1.
x →4− x−4 x →4+

Notice that limx→4+ f ( x ) 6= limx→4− f ( x ). In this case, we say that

limx→4 f ( x ) does not exist.

1
Example 6.2.4. Evaluate lim .
x →0+ 1 + e−1/x

Solution.

As x → x + , we feel that 1/x increases indefinitely, e1/x increases

indefinitely. e−1/x tends to 0, 1 + e−1/x tends to 1; thus the required
limit may be 1.
We need to show that for a given ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

1
− 1 < ε, whenever 0 < x < δ.
1 + e−1/x

Now

1 −e−1/x 1
− 1/x
− 1 = − 1/x
−1 = < ε.
1+e 1+e 1 + e1/x

1
Thus choosing δ = log(1/ε−1)
, we see that if 0 < ε < 1,

1
− 1 < ε, whenever 0 < x < δ.
1 + e−1/x

Again when ε ≥ 1,

1 1
− 1/x
− 1 < ε ⇒ e1/x > − 1
1+e ε

which is true for all values of x, so that any δ > 0 would work.

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 Thus for any ε > 0 we are able to find a δ > 0 such that

1
− 1 < ε, whenever 0 < x < δ.
1 + e−1/x

Therefore
1
lim = 1.
x →0+ 1 + e−1/x

Theorem 6.2.5. If lim f ( x ) exists, then it must be unique.

x →c

Proof. Let if possible, f ( x ) tend to limits l1 and l2 . Hence for any

ε > 0, it is possible to choose a δ > 0 such that
ε
| f ( x ) − l1 | < , when 0 < | x − c| < δ
2
ε
| f ( x ) − l2 | < , when 0 < | x − c| < δ.
2
Now

| l1 − l2 | = | l1 − f ( x ) + f ( x ) − l2 |
≤ |l1 − f ( x )| + | f ( x ) − l2 | < ε,

when 0 < | x − c| < δ, that is, |l1 − l2 | is less than any positive number
ε. Thus l1 = l2 .

Theorem 6.2.6. If f and g are two functions defined on some neighbourhood of

c such that
lim f ( x ) = l, lim g( x ) = m,
x →c x →c
then
(i) lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = lim f ( x ) + lim g( x ) = l + m.
x →c x →c x →c

(ii) lim ( f ( x ) − g( x )) = lim f ( x ) − lim g( x ) = l − m.

x →c x →c x →c

(iii) lim ( f g)( x ) = lim f ( x ) · lim g( x ) = lm.

x →c x →c x →c

(iv) lim ( f /g)( x ) = lim f ( x )/ lim g( x ) = l/m if m 6= 0.

x →c x →c x →c

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 Proof. (i) Since lim f ( x ) = l and lim g( x ) = m, therefore for any
x →c x →c
ε > 0, there exists positive numbers δ1 , δ2 such that
ε
| f ( x ) − l | < , when 0 < | x − c| < δ1 and
2
ε
| g( x ) − m| < , when 0 < | x − c| < δ2 .
2
If δ = min(δ1 , δ2 ) then for | x − c| < δ, | f ( x ) − l | < 2ε , | g( x ) −
m| < 2ε and therefore

|( f ( x ) + g( x )) − (l + m)| = | f ( x ) − l + g( x ) − m|
≤ | f ( x ) − l | + | g( x ) − m| < ε.

Thus |( f ( x ) + g( x )) − (l + m)| < ε whenever | x − c| < δ which

implies that
lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = l + m.
x →c

6.3 Continuous functions

Let f be a function defined on an interval [ a, b]. We shall now consider the
behaviour of f at the points within the interval [ a, b].
Definition 6.3.1. A function f is said to be continuous at a point c, a < c <
b if lim f ( x ) = f (c). In other words the function is continuous at a point c,
x →c
if for each ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that | f ( x ) − f (c)| < ε whenever
| x − c| < δ.
A function f is said to be continuous from the left at c if lim f ( x ) =
x →c−
f (c). Also f is continuous from the right if lim f ( x ) = f (c).
x →c+
Clearly a function is continuous at the point c if and only if the function
is continuous from the left as well as from right. A function which is not
continuous is said to be discontinuous.
Definition 6.3.2. A function f defined on a closed interval [ a, b] is said to
be continuous at the end point a if it is continuous from the right at a, that
is, lim f ( x ) = f ( a). Similarly, a function is said to be continuous at the
x → a+
end point b if it continuous at b from the left, that is, lim f ( x ) = f (b).
x →b−

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 Thus a function is continuous at a point c if

(i) lim f ( x ) exists and

x →c

(ii) limit equals the value of the function at x = c.

A function is said to be continuous in an interval [ a, b] if it is continuous at

every point of the interval.

6.4 Types of discontinuities

(i) A function f is said to have a removable discontinuity at the point c
if lim f ( x ) = f (c) exists but is not equal to the value of f (c), which
x →c
may or may not exist. Such a discontinuity can be removed by as-
signing a suitable value to the function at x = c.

(ii) f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind at x = c if lim f ( x )

x →c−
and lim f ( x ) both exist but are not equal.
x →c+

(iii) f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the left at x = c
if lim f ( x ) exist but is not equal to f (c). Discontinuity of the first
x →c−
kind from the right is similarly defined.

(iv) f is said to have discontinuity of the second kind at x = c if neither

lim f ( x ) nor lim f ( x ) exists.
x →c− x →c+

(v) f is said to have discontinuity of the second kind from the left at x =
c if lim f ( x ) does not exist. Similarly, we can define discontinuity
x →c−
of the second kind from the right.