ECE 1003)

Module:4. Time-varying
Electromagnetic field
• Faraday’s law – Lenz’s law
• Displacement current
• Maxwell’s equations in point and
integral forms.
• Plane waves in free space, dielectrics,
and conductors
• Power and Poynting vector
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• Stationary charges —> electrostatic fields

• steady currents —» magnetostatic fields

• time-varying current ••» electromagnetic fields (or

waves)
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Faraday’s Experiments

N S

v
I

• Michael Faraday discovered induction in

1831.
• Moving the magnet induces a current I.
• Reversing the direction reverses the current.
• Moving the loop induces a current.
• The induced current is set up by an induced
EMF.
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Faraday’s law

• Faraday discovered that the induced emf. (in volts),

in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit

• This induced electric field is nonconservative

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• Lenz's law: Emphasizes the fact that the direction of

current flow in the circuit is such that the induced
magnetic field produced by the induced current will
oppose the original magnetic field.
 Lenz’s Law
• Faraday’s law gives the direction of the induced emf
and therefore the direction of any induced current.
• Lenz’s law is a simple way to get the directions
straight, with less effort.
• Lenz’s Law:
The induced emf is directed so that any
induced current flow
will oppose the change in magnetic flux
(which causes the
induced emf).
• This is easier to use than to say ...
Decreasing magnetic flux  emf creates additional
magnetic field
Increasing flux  emf creates opposed magnetic
field
 Lenz’s Law

N B S

v
I

If we move the magnet

towards the loop
the flux of B will increase.
Lenz’s Law  the current
induced in the
 Lenz’s Law

N B S

v
I

If we move the magnet

towards the loop
the flux of B will increase.
Lenz’s Law  the current
induced in the
 Example of Faraday’s Law
Consider a coil of radius 5 cm with N = 250 turns.
A magnetic field B, passing through it,
changes in time: B(t)= 0.6 t [T] (t = time in seconds)
The total resistance of the coil is 8 W.
What is the induced current ?

B
Use Lenz’s law to determine the
direction of the induced current.

Apply Faraday’s law to find the

emf and then the current.
 Example of Faraday’s Law
B
Lenz’s law:
The change in B is
increasing the
I
upward flux through the
coil.
Induced B
So the induced current
will have
a magnetic field whose
Hence the induced current
flux
must be clockwise when
(and therefore field) are
looked at from above.
down.
Use Faraday’s law to get the magnitude of the induced emf and current.
 B

The induced EMF is e = -

dFB /dt
I
Here FB = N(BA) = NB
(pr2)
Induced B Therefore e = - N (pr2)
dB/dt
Thus Since B(t) = 0.6t, dB/dt =
e = - (250) (p 0.005
0.62)(0.6T/s)
T/s = -1.18 V
(1V=1Tm2 /s)
Current I = e / R = (-1.18V) / (8 W) = -
0.147 A
It’s better to ignore the sign and get
directions from Lenz’s law.
 Lenz’ Law, ECE 1003)

Example
• The conducting bar slides
on the two fixed conducting
rails
• The magnetic flux due to
the external magnetic field
through the enclosed area
increases with time
• The induced current must
produce a magnetic field
out of the page
• If the bar moves in the
opposite direction, the
direction of the induced
current will also be
reversed
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Circuit with EMF Source
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Motional emf

• This is one of the Maxwell's equations for time-

varying fields. It shows that the time varying E field
is not conservative (𝛻 × 𝐸 = 0).
• A motional emf is the
emf induced in a
conductor moving
through a constant
r r r
magnetic fieldF  qv  B
• The electrons in the
conductor experience
a force,
that is directed
along ℓ
 Sliding Conducting Bar

• A bar moving through a uniform field

and the equivalent circuitdFdiagram dx
ε B
 Bl  Bl v
• The induced motional emfdtis dt
• Since the resistance
I  ε R  in
Bl vthe
R circuit is R,
OR can be written as
• This type of emf is
called motional emf or
flux-cutting emf
because it is due to
motional action. It is
the kind of emf found
in electrical machines
such as motors,
generators, and
alternators.
 Rotating Loop - The Electric
Generator
Consider a loop of area A in a region of
space in which there is a uniform
magnetic field B.
Rotate the loop with an angular
The w . because
flux changes
frequency B

angle q changes with

q A
time: q = wt.
Hence:

dFB/dt = d( B · A)/dt
= d(BAcos q)/dt
=BA
d(cos(wt))/dt
Rotating Loop - The Electricity Generator

B
q A

dFB/dt = - BAw sin(wt)

• Then by Faraday’s Law this motion

causes an emf

e = - dFB /dt = BAw sin(wt)

• This is an AC (alternating current)
Problem-1
(b)
(c)
 Problem-2
The loop shown in the Figure below is inside a uniform magnetic
field B = 50 ax mWb/m2. If side DC of the loop cuts the flux lines
at the frequency of 50 Hz and the loop lies in the yz-plane at time
t = 0, find
(a) The induced emf at t = 1 ms
(b) The induced current at t = 3 ms
 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

• Reconsider Maxwell's curl equation for magnetic fields

(Ampere's circuit law) for time-varying conditions.

• For static EM fields, 𝛁 x H =

J (1)
Divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero

𝛻. 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 0 = 𝛻. 𝐽 (2)
• The continuity of current however, requires that

𝑑𝑞
𝛻. 𝐽 = − ≠0
𝑑𝑡
(3)
 Cont.
• Thus eqs. (2) and (3) are obviously
incompatible for time-varying conditions.
• We must modify eq. (2) to agree with eq. (3).
To do this, we add a term to eq. (1) so that
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑 (4)
it becomes
Again taking divergence both side of (4)
𝛻. 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 0 = 𝛻. 𝐽 + 𝛻. 𝐽𝑑 (5)
𝜕𝑞𝑣 𝜕𝛻.𝐷 𝑑𝐷
𝛻. 𝐽𝑑 =- 𝛻. 𝐽 = = = 𝛻.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝐷
𝐽𝑑 = (6)
𝜕𝑡
 Cont.
𝜕𝐷
From eq (4) 𝛻×𝐻 =𝐽+
𝜕𝑡
• This is Maxwell's equation (based on Ampere's
circuit law) for a time-varying field. The term Jd =
dD/dt is known as displacement current density and J
is the conduction current density (J = σE)
• The insertion of Jd was one of the major contributions of
Maxwell.
• Without the term Jd, electromagnetic wave propagation
(radio or TV waves, for example) would be impossible.
• At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared with
J.
• However, at radio frequencies, the two terms are
comparable.
• It was years later that Hertz succeeded in generating and
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• Based on the displacement current density, we

define the displacement current as
𝜕𝐷
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐽𝑑 .ds= . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡

• We must bear in mind that displacement

current is a result of time-varying electric
field.
• A typical example of such current is the
current through a capacitor when an
alternating voltage source is applied to its
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Why displacement current is so important ?

• So we obtain the same current for either surface

though it is conduction current in S1and displacement
current in S2.
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Problem-1. A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5

cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm has a voltage 50sin
(103t )V applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement
current assuming ε = 2ε0
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MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN DIFFERENT
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TIME-HARMONIC phasor form of FIELDS
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Problem-1
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Problem-2
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