Roles of local Government Associations in Governance at Grassroots Development in Nigeria

Introduction

Local government is the foundation for sustainable rural development in Nigeria. The idea
behind bringing governance closer to people in the grassroots for participation in governance,
service delivery is to enhance socio-economic development. Transparency and accountability in
Nigerian local government is a mirage, most local government officials display provocative
wealth gotten through criminal institutionalized stealing and corrupt practices (Onah, 2010).
Local government elected officials in Nigeria lack vision of good governance because they are
not responsive to the needs of rural people, the competent people who supposed to participate
in local governance are scared away from grass root politics and this has not portend good
governance (Ahmed, 2007). National Associations are essential players that provide requisite
demand driven support to all local authorities, whether large or small, rural or urban. Local
government associations provide a platform for the sharing of knowledge and experiences; joint
exploration of solutions to challenges; advocacy and lobbying with a unified voice for the
recognition of the aspirations of the local citizens; and pursuing innovative practices to improve
performance and achieve developmental goals.
Local Government is the smallest tier of any government that is saddled with the tasks of
providing goods and services to natives at the grass root. Nevertheless, most Nigerians
constantly question the usefulness of this tier of government due to its failure to
effectively/efficiently meet the needs of natives. For instance, in most Nigerian Local
Government offices, files are still stored manually and services rendered using the traditional
means due to high illiteracy rate, non-availability of relevant modern technologies. Social and
economic. This people-centered vision of development involves the full utilization of all
available material resources and the full participation of the various people in the community for
their own development. The necessity for the full participation of the people derive from the
experience which shows that there is a greater chance of success of institutions-provide for
popular participation local leadership and decentralization of authority, (World Bank 1975;90-
98). Governance in Nigeria is based on a three-tier political structure, namely, Federal states and
Local Governments. The local government structure is known to have the weakest capacity to
initiate and manage rural development programmes due largely to inadequate human resources.
Consequently available local government resources for rural development are inefficiently
utilized for the purposes intended thus leaving the people in the local communities in a state of
perpetual poverty and underdevelopment. Most communities lack the basic amenities to function
at the minimal human level. Functional schools, health care centers, good roads, clean drinkable
water, small-scale industries, etc. are not available in most communities.

However, what we have witnessed is the abysmal failure of the Local Government system. It is
on record that at no time in the history of the country has there been the current level of funding
accruing to the Local Governments from the Federation Account, yet the hope for rapid and
sustained development has been a mirage as successive Councils have grossly under-performed
in almost all the areas of their mandate. The fundamental nature of these issues and other critical
considerations, which hamper best practices and efficient utilization of available resources in
governance of local government lead to the association of local government of Nigeria
(ALGON) the need to make a move towards development of governance at grassroots in an
agreement that there is need for Nigeria as a country to take our destiny in our hands and move
the nation forward.

The Concept of Local Government

Conceptualizing the term “local government” has been cumbersome; this is because there is no
one generally acceptable definition of local government among the scholars and practitioners.
However, Kyenge (2013) posits that the concept of local government has been accorded
numerous definitions by various scholars, however it preaches devolution of powers and
responsibility to lower tiers or units of government. It’s important at this juncture to note the
definitions of some of these scholars in the subject matter.

The concept of local government, as observed by Dumadu (2008), involves a philosophical

commitment to democratic participation in the governing process at the grassroots level. This
implies legal and administrative decentralization of authority, power and personnel by a higher
level of government to a community with a will of its own and performing specific functions as
within the wider national framework. To Lawal (2000) local government as that tier of
government closest to the people that is vested with certain powers to exercise control over the
affairs of the people in its domain. In the word of Usman (2010) in Onuigbo and Eme, (2015)
sees the local government as a system of public administration at a local level, charged with the
responsibility of bringing the people at the grassroots closer to the government.

According to 1976 Local Government Reforms, local government could be defined as:

Government at local level exercise through representative council established by law to exercise
specific powers within defined areas. These powers should give the council substantial control
over local affairs as well as the staff and institutional and financial powers to initiate and direct
the provision of services and to determine and implement projects so as to compliment the
activities of the state and federal government in their areas and to ensure, through devolution of
functions to their councils and through the active participation of the people and traditional
institutions, but that local initiative and response to local needs and condition are maximized”,
(FRN, 1976).

The concept Development

Attempts by scholars to define the concept of development have generated a lot of
controversies among authors in the field of social sciences. Some looked at it from a narrow
perspective while others considered it from a broad view points. According to Rodney (1972),
“development in human society is many – sided process. At the level of the individual, it implies
increased skilled and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self – discipline, responsibility and
material well – being. At the level of social group, development implies an increasing capacity to
regulate both internal and external relationship. The above definition shows that development
goes beyond economic indicators. In the same vein,

Todaro (1985), define development as: a multi – dimensional process involving the re –
organization and re – orientation of the entire economic and social system. This involves, in
addition to improvement of income and output, radical changes in institutional, social and
administrative structures as well as in popular attitudes, customs and beliefs.

Todaro in the above definition views development from holistic perspectives. To him,
development is the total transformation in all facets of life of the people in a given society. In
other words, Seer (1969) focused on the improvement in the living condition of individual in his
words:

The question to ask about a country’s development is therefore: what has been happening to
poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? If
all three of these have declined from high level, then beyond doubt, this has been a period of
development for the concerned. If one or two of these central problems have been growing
worse, especially of all the three, it would be strange to call the result development, even if per
capital income doubled (Seers, 1969).
Indices and Characteristics of Good Governance
Participation: involves freedom of association and expression, on one hand, and an organized
civil society on the other hand. Participation is where citizens are engaged in formulating,
implementing and evaluating policies that affect them (Simbine, 2004). According to
Bangladesh government (1996), participation is a process in which people influence and have
control over development initiatives. The need for participation exists for the citizenry to
participate and contribute in governance, to help regulate individual conducts in the society and
provide for the good of the people.
Transparency: involves taking decision and enforcement in a manner that follows rules and
regulations, it is the available information directly accessible to the affected by such decisions
and their enforcement (Sharma, 2006). Transparency means that leaders allow for public
scrutiny of what they do while in public office. The citizens attend public meetings and are free
to obtain information on what happens in public offices, who makes what decisions and why,
as step towards accountability.
Responsiveness: means that policy decisions respond to popular needs and expectations; it is
the fundamental interest and ultimate purpose that defines the actions of government to
represent the needs of the people (Ojo, 2009). It ensures that public institutions serve all
stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.
Effectiveness and Efficiency: is when an institution makes the best use of resources at its
disposal. It covers the sustainable use of natural resources of the environment. The governance
at the local government level makes adequate values derived from government resources
committed to government programmes to achieve result for the needs of the society and use the
available resources at its disposal (Carsten, 2005).
Accountability: is the responsibility to account for stewardship to the authority and the people,
this conforms to whom powers and responsibilities are delegated. Accountability can be
enforced with transparency, rule of law and constitutionality (Potter, 2000). Accountability
implies that those who will be affected by its decisions and actions are those appointed or
elected, and the personnel that man the institutions or stakeholders.
Rule of Law: is the legal framework enforced impartially to protect human rights particularly
the minorities. The enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and incorruptible
police force to guarantee basic fundamental human rights. An incorruptible law enforcement
agency is the pre-requisite for good governance (Sharma, 2006).
Consensus Oriented: is where the interest of people in the society varies, and good
governance requires that this interest should be harmonized. The society must reach broad base
consensus on the best interest of the whole community and how it can be achieved. This is a
long term process on the need for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals
of such development (Onyishi, 2010).
Equity and Inclusive: involves where all citizens in the society is treated equal to have a stake
in governance, not to feel excluded in the society. It requires the inclusiveness of all groups
such as the minority groups in a multi ethnic society like Nigerian society (Pryor, 2003). It
entails equality before the law, and equality to realize individual capacities without regard to
one’s race, gender, ethnic background, religion or whatsoever.

Role of association of local government in governance at grass root development

• Strive for the establishment of local government as a distinct sphere of
government, working in support of national and other sphere of governments in Nigeria.
• Ensure democracy, equality and respect for human rights at the local level.
• Promote sharing of human and intellectual capital as well as other resources
among local authorities in Nigeria.
• Empower local governments through research, training and capacity development.
• Pursue sustainable development in partnership with institutions, structures and
programmes of the same mission.
  Lobby for local government to be recognized as a distinct order of government in the
framework of the decentralization policies to be adopted and implemented.
 Improve the quality and profile of local governance throughout Nigeria , in particular
through the participation and effectiveness of women and youth, an increased
participation of communities, civil society and private sector, both in governance and in a
better provision of services at the local level;
 Increase the responsiveness of local governments to the demands of their citizenry
including vulnerable and disadvantaged groups in society;
 Better the policy and development implementation environment at the local level through
facilitating effective and competent voice and influence of local governments at the
national, regional and continental levels.
 Foster the recognition and expression of Nigeria culture and heritage as key identity icons
in value systems of local government’s development work.

Conclusion

The effort of associations of local government of Nigeria is established as framework to serve as

umbral for the channeling of individual needs of local government collectively through
consensus. Through this channel the voice and needs of local government her heard toward
prompting good governance in Nigeria with the secondary aim of achieving development at
grassroots and fostering popular representation.

References

Ahmed, T. (2007): “Nigeria and the scourge of the Failed Local Government” Business Day
October 19, 17-19

Carsten, A. (2005): “The Role of Transparency and Accountability for Economic Development
in Resource Rich Countries” A Regional Workshop on Resource Management in
CEMAC Countries. Abuja, 15th August.
Kyenge, J.. (2013: 70-76) listed indiscipline, misplaced priority, unskilled staff, financial
challenges and Autonomy.

Lawal, S (2000) Local Government Administration in Nigeria. A Practical Approach.

Onah, R. (2004): “Local Government in Nigeria Structure, Roles and Expectations” in Onyishi,
T. (eds.), Key Issues in Local Government and Development: A Nigerian Perspective.
Enugu: Praise House Publishers.

Onyishi, T. (2010): Nigeria: A Handbook of Good Governance. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic
Publishers Ltd.

Onwuemenyi, O. (2008): “Tackling Corruption in Local Government

Councils” http://www.punchng.com/article.

Pryor, J. (2003): “How Private and Public Sector Can Sustain Good Governance” Daily
Independent, Thursday 18 December, 18-19

Rodney .W. (1972): How Europe under developed Africa.London: Bogle- L’ouverture

Sharma, S. (2006): Good Governance and Reforms Strategy. Journal of Management in

Governance 32 (2), 1- 16.

Todaro M.P. (1985) Economics for a developing World: London. Longman: United Nation
Economic Commission integrated Approach Rural Development in Africa. ( UNEC, New
York, 1977)
Simbine, A. (2004): “Citizen's Disposition towards Governance and Democratic Rule in
Nigeria” NISER Monograph Series, No. 15.

World Bank (2007) Nigeria: a Fiscal Agenda for Change, Public Expenditure, Management and
Financial Accountability Review (PEMFAR), Report no. 36496-NG. Washington DC:
A Comparative Analysis of Roles of Local Government and Non-Governmental Organization
in Rural Development

Introduction

A large population of over 150 million population of Nigeria live in rural areas facing a myriad
of socio-economic challenges. Over 35% of its rural population live in extreme poverty where
54% of rural people are poor in terms of health, education, housing and other indicators of
living standard compared with less poverty in urban areas (UNDP, 2016). Public initiatives
such as basic democracy, integrated rural development , people’s rural programme, and ,
National Rural Support Programme were introduced by successive governments to strengthen
agricultural growth, reduce poverty and regional inequality, transform rural economy, create
more employment opportunities and improve livelihood of rural population (Khisa, 2004).
However, the performance of these programmes has little impact on reducing poverty and
achieving the other desired objectives. These major challenges resulted in decentralization of
authority to the people and empowered non-governmental organisations (NGOs), community-
based organisations (CBOs) and provincial rural support programmes to work effectively for
rural development (Majeed et al., 2006; Zaidi, 2005).
In contrast to the prevalence of government utilities in urban areas, the majority of
community services in rural areas, including improving agricultural, safe drinking water,
sanitation, public health and education, are provided by the local government and NGOs or
CBOs. However, both local government institutions and some CBOs and NGOs leave
consumers exposed to poor public service delivery (Zaidi, 2005), and the pace of human and
rural development in Nigeria remained very slow (UNDP, 2016), hindering the country from
achieving its millennium development goals (MDGs) in 2015 and have severe implications for
achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). Similarly, a series of adverse developments
such as political turmoil and ‘politicized development’ made these efforts less effective and
efficient (Saima et al., 2011).
The local government has been considered to lack commitment, have poor organizational and
financial performance and showed greater red-tapism, coupled with low participation and
ownership of local communities, which further jeopardizes the effectiveness of their community
services. Interestingly, contrary to public institutions, NGOs and CBOs are considered to be
effective in community development and in improving the socio-economic condition of rural
areas (Alvi et al., 2020; Hameed, 2017; Shakeri, 2004).

The Abilities and Success of Local Governmental Organizations

The literature enumerates many interrelated problems common to local authorities in developing
countries. Generally, local governments exercise regulatory, revenue raising and eminent domain
powers over most local resources within their borders, but their capacity to affect policy issues
remains challenging. While ideally, they must address directly varying socio-economic concerns
in their respective territories, structures and population, several studies show that they have
become inhibitors for developing inclusive community development initiatives in most of the
developing countries (Luqman et al., 2005; Shamim et al., 1992). On the other hand, despite
decentralisation in the public sector, the local population perceive the government differently.
The study conducted by Jelinek (2009) shows that the government did not actively engage the
local communities in the banning of poppy cultivation, which adversely affected people’s
livelihoods, and the public showed great anger and concerns over government interventions.
According to Norad (2013), the local community may not participate in any government and
NGO development programmes when they feel that they have no ownership, thus undermining
the effectiveness of the aid programmes. Swidler and Watkins (2009) state that if the local
community has ownership of any project, they will actively volunteer and participate in its
implementation, resulting in sustainability of the project and external financing. Similarly, Anzar
(2002) asserts that potential for community participation in any given intervention is generated
from the satisfaction with the services provided by the development partners.

In Africa, for instance, the local sources of revenue are poorly developed and administered, and
local service needs are not well met (Onyango-Delewa, 2016). In addition to fiscal turbulence,
human resource is inadequate, and many employees lack adequate professional training,
followed by extensive political interference in local administration (Olowu & Smoke, 1992).
Similarly, in Nigeria, where subsequent government propagates to help in improving local
governance, the living conditions of the inhabitants of the rural areas remained controversial.
While the country faced adverse military dictatorship and political turmoil, the historic tensions
between federal and provincial governments further constrained the financial and institutional
capacity of local governments, paralysing the local institutions (Archondo-Callao, 2001;
Siddiqui, 1992; World Bank, 2007). The federal government adopted the approach to integrate
social development in the overall national development plan through the Social Action
Programme (SAP). An attempt was made by adopting what was called the Poverty Reduction
Strategy (PRSP), which focused back then on achieving broad-based economic growth as a way
to reduce rural–urban poverty in Pakistan. However, it failed in its attempt due to lack of
direction and lack of participation of local communities and led to a major failure in the
integration process (Baig & Khan, 2006).
Likewise, in the post-devolution era of 2001, there was another attempt from the federal
government to revive local governance to improve living standards of rural communities,
enhance agricultural growth and build an inclusive community emancipation plan. As a result,
the scope of local governments in terms of service delivery and resource allocation increased
substantially (Cheema et al., 2005) and rural areas witnessed some change. However, these local
governments were effectively used for politics of patronage and corruption, limiting attributes of
successful government interventions at local level (Cheema et al., 2005; Malik, & Ahsan, 2019;
PILDAT, 2013, p. 26).
Abilities and Successes of Non-governmental Organizations

Adebayo (1997) revealed that NGOs focusing on development and poverty alleviation
programmes help to mobilise resources beyond the state budget for development. He also
remarked positively on the genuineness of few NGOs. He concluded that NGOs like Farmers
Development Union (FADU) have successfully invested over ₦90 million in their various
poverty alleviating programmes with an in-built guarantee for sustainability. Kang (2011)
pointed out that NGOs focus on ‘bottom-up approaches’ as opposed to the predominantly
growth-centred development and top-to-bottom approach pursued by many agencies and
governments. They have the influence and capacity to promote and involve the local
population to participate because they are sometimes rooted in local communities or tend to
develop bonds with the people they serve. Likewise, Cernea (1988) added that the close
interaction between NGOs and the local community enables them to reach the rural and poor
people where the government has little access to delivery services. Hence, they identified the
demands of the local community by setting the agenda for development together with the local
people during different processes.
Ibrahim and Hulme (2011) explained that NGOs are empowering the local community by
inspiring the marginalised and the poor to organise themselves and advocate for their own
rights. Similarly, Kang (2011) agreed that NGOs are more flexible, cost-effective, innovative,
grass-root oriented and strongly committed to the delivery of the local people from the
bondage of poverty. In a nutshell, NGOs have the capacity to innovate and adapt, using the
transfer of technologies that were already developed elsewhere and adapting them according to
the local conditions (Cernea, 1988). Holmquist (1984) explained that NGOs play a significant
role in the alleviation of poverty using different methods. They created wider employment
chances for poor people, introduced new livelihood projects, empowered self-help groups and
implemented government programmes. Their benefits are seen widely by the local population.
Korten (1980) believes that by offering relief and other basic services to the people, NGOs
play a vital role since their initiated programmes empower both men and women to change
their lifestyle through viable and effective skill-based livelihood projects.
Ehigiamusoe (1998) states that NGOs incorporate other strategies to alleviate poverty; these
development programmes can be implemented at the macro level. Khan and Ali (2016)
examined various activities of local supportive organisations (LSO) in Northern areas of
Pakistan and ascertain their impact on women empowerment. They found that LSO has
meaningfully contributed towards increasing women’s access to financial resources and
enhancing financial and social awareness through training, which has played a vital role in
creating opportunities for women and brought social and economic empowerment in rural
areas. Ehigiamusoe (1998) mentioned that NGOs offer proper socio-economic services to the
poor. Ohiorhenuan (2003) believed that NGOs are helping the poor by introducing various
developmental programmes, for example, skill and agricultural training programmes.
However, despite these success stories, a great chunk of writers in developing countries criticised
NGOs for their fewer effective programmes, poor service delivery and incapacity to influence the
larger population. According to Kang (2011), NGOs are implementing foreign interests, which
can be dangerous to the local community, for example, free distribution of condoms in the
villages. Mohan (2002) believes that the reality with NGOs are hidden since what they do
appears different. Mohan (2002) recorded that NGOs give out inadequate information to the
community, and the inadequate information flows and lack of participation at the planning level
are making NGOs lose their popular trust from the community. Similarly, Mawdsley et al. (2002)
observed that there are common problems of NGOs where they just rush to implement whatever
their foreign donors wanted them to do without taking into consideration the due demands of the
community. A report from the regional NGOs workshop (2015) explained that NGOs lack
enough funds to implement all their programmes that are meant to improve the lives and the
standards of the poor people. The report recorded that Lack of Funds and donor conditions,
absence of strategic planning, poor networking, poor communications, poor development
approaches, the bad relationship among NGOs, and limited capacity to implement some
programmes.

Comparison of Service Quality: Government Versus Nongovernmental Organisations

People’s Perceptions over Educational Facilities

Local communities’ perception on the performance of the available educational facilities

provided by government organizations and NGOs over two time periods were studied by
asking them whether they are satisfied with the available educational facilities. These
findings contradict the traditional argument that private or non-government funded schools
are more popular among parents and students and have better educational programmes
(Andrabi et al., 2002; Ashraf, 2012; Sattar et al., 2012). These results might also appear due
to several reasons such as higher tuition fee (Khan & John, 2006) and lower parental income,
which restrict parents from sending their children to these private or NGO-led schools.

People’s Perceptions over Health Facilities

One of the key public challenges in rural areas is the health and health-related infrastructure.
Government health centres and hospitals are relatively few and widely dispersed. On the other
hand, private sector health centres often favour urban areas. In the absence of a concrete health
system, strengthening communitybased health services helps in providing more reasonable
access to health services (Chaya, 2007).
In contrast to public health facilities, HHs were somehow satisfied with NGOs regarding the
provision of health services in the area. These results conformed to Riaz et al. (2018) who
showed that rural communities were highly satisfied with the Rural Support Programme (PRSP).
Also, a low level of public satisfaction over public health services is primarily due to the
unavailability of BHUs or health facilities, doctors, etc.

People’s Perceptions over Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation Facilities

Since various studies indicate that safe drinking water and proper sanitation systems can reduce
health expenditure by reducing the prevalence of water-related diseases, which has a positive
impact on human health and overall well-being (Hoddinott, 1997; Kro, 2017; WHO, 2014), we
assessed the satisfaction level of respondents on available drinking water resources and sanitation
(overall sanitation, which includes drainage system and street pavement).
People’s Perceptions over Public Transportation and Rural Road Network

There has been a greater influence of farmer’s mobility on poverty reduction and its association
with public transportation and roads in the rural context (ArchondoCallao, 2001; Bryceson,
2006; Familoni, 2004). Therefore, it is necessary to assess the conditions and perceptions of the
farming community over access to roads and transportation. Since the government mostly
provides transportation and networks, we only assessed people’s perceptions of public sector
development.

Similarly, roads provide easy access to districts and Tehsils/towns where farmer and rural
communities can have access to the market and other social/recreational services. Rural roads
are the backbone of the economy (Carapetis et al., 1979). In this regard, our results reflect the
satisfaction level of the respondents on the availability of rural roads in their respective areas.
 People’s Perceptions over Agricultural Extension Services

The effective and efficient delivery of agricultural extension services has been of great concern
in the world and for agriculture-based countries like Pakistan, which ultimately results in
increased productivity of crops and livestock. However, like other developing countries, this
country is also facing severe problems in agricultural extension departments. Since rural
poverty and agriculture development are interlinked, the researcher also investigated the
satisfaction level of respondents over the extension services. Several NGOs
These results correspond to the findings by Sarker and Yoshihito (2009) and call for regular
training for extension agents so that reasonable knowledge and experience in adult learning
principles could be acquired to enhance their effectiveness (Aphunu & Otoikhian, 2008;
Ayansina, 2011).

People’s Perceptions over Access to Agricultural Market

The rural economy is largely based on farmer’s access to the agriculture market and the price of
agricultural goods. Better government policy and legislation have a greater impact on farmer’s
welfare and ultimately on rural development. Ensuring a fair price policy and access to the
market is the prime responsibility of the government in Nigeria

People’s Perceptions over Access to Formal and Informal Credit Markets

Microfinance or microcredits are considered as an instrumental tool for alleviating poverty in

poor economies. In Pakistan, various micro-finance institutions (MFIs) are operating including
commercial and public banks and NGOs, providing loan facilities to poor people in both rural
and urban areas. Likewise, non-institutional microfinance/microcredit or personal loan services
also exist. The rich or landlords in the area also provide a borrowing facility to the needy.

People’s Perceptions over Rural Electrification

In theory, the provision of electricity can improve socio-economic conditions in developing

countries through its influence on key components of poverty, health, education, income and
environment (Kanagawa & Nakata, 2008). Khandker et al. (2009) claimed that lack of access
to energy, more precisely electricity is one of the major impediments to economic development
in rural areas. Likewise, Chaurey et al. (2004) argued that a strong correlation exists between
rural poverty and access to electricity because electricity is a prerequisite for productive
activities. A study by Aklin et al. (2016) in India found that continuous electricity can also
increase user satisfaction level.
Conclusion

Community perceptions play a significant role to guide the development and public sector in
measuring the effectiveness, efficiency and assessing the challenges and feelings of the
community. This study indicates that the level of satisfaction from various development
interventions varies across organisations (i.e., NGOs and public sector) over time. Overall,
the rural areas under investigation have poor educational and health services. Contrary to
local government, NGOs tend to provide better services in health, education and safe drinking
water (social sector), whereas the local government was effective in providing agricultural
and agricultural extension services, improving infrastructure such as roads and access to
market, reducing the price of agricultural commodities, etc. Hence, the consequences of these
findings raise concerns about the quality of local governance and NGO performance.
However, these perceptions are even more pronounced for those who live in rural araea.
Besides, it entails new insights on how to ascertain NGO–government performance
differently and NGO–government partnership to improve the social sector. Finally, it calls for
the central government to invest in health, water and education. The growing dissatisfaction
over the local institution in the social sector while a low level of satisfaction on development
organizations have serious implication for their future and it must be built up through mutual
trust among people.

References
Adebayo, A. A. (1997). The role of NGOs in poverty alleviation: A case study of Farmers
Development Union (FADU) in poverty alleviation in Nigeria (pp. 397–414). Selected
Papers for the 1997 Annual Conference of the Nigeria Economic Society.
Agriculture Statistics of Pakistan. (2011–2012). Annual report. Federal Bureau of Pakistan.
Alvi, A. S., Ahmed, R. I., & Ahmad, A. (2020). Level of women’s political empowerment in
local government system: A study of female counselors in District Sargodha. Pakistan
Social Sciences Review, 4(1), 179–190.
Aklin, M., Cheng, C. Y., Urpelainen, J., Ganesan, K., & Jain, A. (2016). Factors affecting
household satisfaction with electricity supply in rural India. Nature Energy, 1(11), 1–6.
Andrabi, T., Das, J., & Khwaja, A. I. (2002). The rise of private schooling in Pakistan:
Catering to the urban elite or education the rural poor? The Study of World Bank.
Ansari, U. (2011). Devolution and public perceptions and experience of health services in
Pakistan: Linked cross sectional surveys in 2002 and 2004. BMC Health Services
Research, 11(suppl 2), S4. [PMC free article][PubMed]

Babasanya, B., Oladele, O. G., Odidi, O., Ganiyu, L., Apene, E., Etim, J., Olafemi, S. O., &
Sirajo, A. (2013). Farmers’ perception and knowledge need for adoption of new cultivars
of cassava in Igabi LGA, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and
Healthcare, 3(2), 45–43.
Baig, M., & Khan, N. (2006). Rural development in Pakistan: From vision to action.
University of Plymouth.
Bryceson, D. F. (2006). Roads to poverty reduction; Dissecting rural roads’ impact on mobility
in Africa and Asia. Development Policy Review, 26(4), 459–482.
Majeed, H. A., Ahmad, M., & Luqman, M. (2006). Attitude of farmers towards extension
work conducted by PRSP field unit, Muzaffargarh, (Pakistan). Journal of Agricultural
and Social Sciences, 2(2), 120–121.
Malik, M., & Ahsan, R. (2019). The history of local governance in Pakistan: What lessons to
learn? Journal of International Politics, 1(3), 26–35.
Márquez, D. (2002). Bases metodológicas del desarrollo rural. In F. D. Márquez (Ed.),
Nuevos horizontes en el desarrollo rural (pp. 1–28). Universidad Internacional de
Andalucía.
Maqbool, A., & Bashir, M. K. (2009). Rural development in Pakistan: Issues and future
strategies. In Conference Paper: Agriculture: Challenges, Opportunities and Option under
Free Trade Regime, January 2009. https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/216413804_Rural_Development_in_Pakistan_Issues_and_Future_
Strategies
UNDP. (2013). Human development report 2013. The rise of the south: Human progress in a
diverse world. United Nations Development Programme.
UNDP Pakistan. (2016). Multidimensional poverty in Pakistan. UNDP Press. https://www.
ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Multidimensional-Poverty-in-Pakistan.pdf
Von Doorslaer, E. (2006). Effect of payment for health care on poverty estimates in 11
countries in Asia: An analysis of household survey data. The Lancet, 368, 1357–1364.
WHO. (2014). Global health expenditure database. http://apps.who.int/nha/database World
Bank. (2002). Poverty in Pakistan: Vulnerabilities, social gaps and rural dynamics (Report
No. 24296-Pak). Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit.
World Bank. (2007). Pakistan promoting rural growth and poverty reduction (Report No.
39303-PK). The World Bank.