ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Electrical installation is the process of fixing electrical apparatus in a position together with the
necessary connection of wires and control gears ready for uses.
In order to safeguard users as well as the installation, the following laws must be known:-
i) Institute of Electrical Engineers (I.E.E) regulations
ii) Electrical supply regulations (local laws)
iii) Factory Act

I.E.E REGULATIONS
These are regulations for electrical equipment of buildings which cover in detail the actual
installation of wiring and apparatus in the building and requires the material used to comply
with the British standard. It also defines:-
a) The inspection
b) Testing
c) Maintenance
d) Requirements for installations, etc

LOCAL LAWS
These laws are given by the electrical supply authority eg:- TANESCO.
The supply authority are responsible for providing electricity to a suitable terminal on a
consumer primises. It provides means of conveying the electricity to the equipment when it is
to be used.

FACTORY ACTS
All of the factory regulations must comply with I.E.E regulations. The certain additional
requirements particularly for condition where special hazards exists, so anyone engage in the
factory should read and study a memorundam from the factory engineer or factory supervisor.

ACCESSORIES
Accessories are all those components responsible for the electrical installation excluding
cables, conduits, trunking, ducts, etc.
Examples of accessories are; switches sockets, lampholders, etc.

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SWITCHES

- 1 way 1 gang switch has only two terminals to connect wires.

- 1 way 2 gang switch has only four terminals to connect wires; each gang has two
terminals to connect wire.
- 2 ways 1 gang switch has only three terminals to connect wires. 1 terminal is
common and 2 terminals are lines terminals.
- 2way 2 gang switches, has six terminals to connect wires; each gang has 3
terminals.
- Intermediate switch has four terminals. Available with one gang only.

LAMPHOLDERS

- They available in pin and screw lampholders. Also they can be straight or angled
lampholders.

CEILING ROSE
- They are associated with lampholders. They can have 2 to 4 outlet points for wires
going to the lampholders.

SOCKETS
- They are available in single or twin depending on the customer needs.
Size and types:
5A – they have round holes.
13A – they have square holes.
15A – they have round holes, a little bigger than that of 5A sockets.

JUNCTION BOXES
- It is used for the safety connection of cables.

MAIN SWITCH/ISOLATOR
- Used for isolation/cutting off electric power to the main distribution board.

DISTRIBUTION BOARD
- It is used to distribute electrical power to the appliances/accessories.
- It contains fuses or miniature circuit breakers (mcb).

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

INSTALLATION SYMBOLS

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4
WIRING SYMBOLS

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i) ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

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TOOLS
WORKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

i) Working tools
SN TOOLS USED FOR:-
1. Screw drivers opening and tightening screws.
2. Combination plier twisting, cutting and removing isulation of wires.
3. Side cutter cutting cables/wires.
4. Hummer (metallic) hummering metallic/iron materials.
5. Mallet (plastic hummer) hummering plastic/wood materials.
6. Wire stripper removing/stripping insulation of wires.
7. Knife removing/stripping insulation of wires.
8. Tape measures, ruler. measuring distance.
9. Spirit level measuring vertical and horizontal levels.
10. Thermometer measuring temperature.
11. Spanner tightening and opening bolts and nuts
12. Pipe wrench holding up round pipes.
13. Torque wrench Measuring tightening bolts/nuts at a given setted torque.
14. Cutting punch Cutting different materials
15. Center punch Marking a center before drilling.
16. Adjustable spanner Tighing/opening bolts/nuts by adjusting size of spanner.

ii) Measuring tools

SN Tools Used for measuring:-
1. Ammeter Currents in ampere.
2. Voltmeter Voltages in volts.
3. Ohmmeter Resistance and continuity in ohms.
4. Energymeter (kWh) meter Energy in kWh.
5. Wattmeter Power in watts.
6. Frequency meter Frequency in hertz.
7. Insulation resistance tester Insulation resistance of conductor/cables.
(Meggar).
8. Tachometer or tachogenerator Rotation speed.

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 9. Luxmeter Light intensity.
10. AVO meter Currents, voltage and resistance.

ASSIGNMENT 1 (5 MARKS)” C”
1. Describe ten (10) safety precaution required in the workshop.
2. Explain first aid and first aid kit.

ASSIGNMENT 1 (5 MARKS)” C1”

1. Describe ten (10) safety precaution required in the workshop.
2. Explain first aid and first aid kit.

ASSIGNMENT 1 (5 MARKS)” C2”

1. Describe ten (10) safety precaution required in the workshop.
2. Explain first aid and first aid kit.

ASSIGNMENT 1 (5 MARKS)” C3”

1. Describe ten (10) safety precaution required in the workshop.
2. Explain first aid and first aid kit.

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 ACCIDENT
Accident is a sudden event (such as a crush) which is not planned/expected/intended that can
often damages something or injures someone.

Main causes of accident

i) Carelessness. When a job is done often enough, it tends to become boring and
boredom easily leads to careless work. For example, a maintenance technician may
continuously check control equipment when it is “LIVE” and become unconscious
of danger.
ii) Ignorance. Accident often occur in industries due to ignorance or inexperience of
workers. Remember that, most tasks look easier when done by an expert. Don’t
attempt a difficult job unless under supervision.
iii) Skylarking. Many young people work in industrial premises without a full
realization of hazards presence. Skylarking may be a legitemate way of “letting off
steam” in a school playground but it can often lead to serious and sometimes fatal
accidents in factory or workshop.
Sensible people often do things they would never otherwise do when they are
“dared”.

SOURCES OF DANGER
i) Portable equipment and tools
a) Effectiveness of earth continuity conductor.
It must be checked regularly. Danger signs are frayed cable at plugs and leads ins and
fault or incorrect jointing on cable, low voltage equipment should be used whatever
possible.
b) Water and chemicals
Moisture impregnates insulation and it is often the cause of breakdown.
Portable tools should be handled with great care in atmospheres containing inflammable
chemicals.
Portable lamps should not be used in garage pits, even if an earthed shield is used, as a
mechanical damage of lamp may lead to the ignition of petrol vapour.
ii) Temporary installation
This is also a source of electrical accidents. Common causes are:
a) Use of cable without mechanical protection (eg; PVC cable).
b) Lack of protective covering on switches, boxes, etc.

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 c) Cable run over sharp edges.
d) Use of unearthed brass or unskirted lampholders.
e) Unauthorised addition to circuits resulting in overloading with consequent fire risk.
f) Circuits over fused.
iii) Unprotected electric heater.
iv) Over loaded or over fused cables, particularly flexes.
v) Underground crane trolley, wires or bare overhead.

Points of danger for electrician

i) Burns
ii) Falls
iii) Ladder
iv) Trains - this occurs through attempting to lift over heavy loads or by lifting weight
incorrect.
v) Moving machines
vi) Electric shock – this is main hazards in electrical field. It is not always possible to
work on “dead” conductors but certain precautions must be taken. These are:-
a) Never assume that, an installation is “dead”, check it before opening equipment
and not checking by touching a conductor with finger.
b) Check the ckt before replacing a dead fuse in a live DFB, and if still in dobt
replace with gloves. Always keep your face far.
c) If working on an installation to which people can have access forexample crane,
remove fuses and keep them beside you.

Electric shock
This is caused by passage of current through the body (generally, hand to hand or hand to feet)
causing a paralysis of the muscles, particularly the heart muscles. Current low as 0.02A have
been known to be fatal.

Severity of shock will depends on:

a) Voltage between “live” metal and earth.
b) Moisture content of skin.
c) Proximity of body to effective earth, and lenght of time of contact.
SPEED IS ESSENTIAL in the treatment of electric shock. A few mintes of delay may make all
the difference between recovery and dearth. Switch off current before attempting to remove the

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casuality or if this is not possible remove him with an insulated material forexample; jacket, dry
wood or dry news paper.
Don’t touch or attempt to grasp casualities skin.
Remove any obstractions to breathing. Forexample; tight color or false teath.
Commence atificial respiration, using the mouth to mouth method (this should be practised by
every one working with electricity as efficiency can only come with practice).
Mouth to mouth artificial respiration, position casuality on floor with head tilted backwards.
Take a very deep breath.
Press his nouse between your fingers, place youur mouth against his mouth and yorm an air –
light seal.
Blow into his lungs until his chest expands.
Remove your month and watch for the construction of his chest.
Repeat the above until his breathing returns to normal.
NOTE
Mouth to nouth should be carried out if the casualities mouth is blocked (due to injury).

CABLES
A cable is a length of a single conductor solid or stranded of two or more conductors each
provided with its own insulator and are laid up together.
These insulated conductors may or may not be further covered with an overall protective sheath
to prevent mechanical damage. The insulated condctors are called CORE of the cable.

Size of a conductor/core
Depends on the uses of the cable, conductors sizes are varied as;
1.5 mm2, 2.5 mm2 , 4 mm2 , 6 mm2 , 10 mm2 , 16 mm2 , 25 mm2 , 50 mm2 , 70 mm2 , 90 mm2
120 mm2 , 150 mm2 etc.

Parts of the cable

Cable consists of three essential parts. These are:-
i) Conductor. Used to carry current.
ii) Insulator (dielectric). Used to provide the means of preventing leakage currents.
iii) Mechanical protection (sheathing). Used to protect cable from any mechanical
demage such as; chemical attack, fire or other external demaging factors to the
cable.

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STRANDED CONDUCTORS
Stranded-conductor cables are the more common Category type cables, and the ones we most
often work directly with. Inside the twisted pairs of a stranded cable, each individual conductor
is made up of a bundle of smaller-gauge wire strands.
The number of stranded used are; 1, 3, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91 and 127. The size of each conductor
within a stranded core varies from 0.5mm2 to 630mm2.
The stranding of the wire conductors serves to protect them, and gives stranded cables their
flexibility. For a given conductor length, the more times each strand twists around the central
conductor, the better the protection and the greater the overall flexibility of the cable.
If the outer surfaces of stranded conductors are coated with tin, the skin-effect problem is
redused because the bulk of the electrons are forced to flow along the tin layer, and tin has a
higher resistance than copper. At the same time, the formation of copper oxides on the surfaces
of untinned conductors can also increase the resistance on the conducting wire’s surface,
resulting in the gradual deterioration of performance just the same.
Thus, the cable are stranded so as to make the complete cable more flexible and to reduse the
problem of skin effects.

TYPES OF CABLE
A cable usually derives its name from the type of insulation used. Thus we have:
i) Polyvinly chloride (PVC) cables.
A conductor can be of copper or aluminium material but insulated with PVC. This cable
is normally used where the temperature does not exceed 65oC.
Advantage of PVC.

largely unaffected by oil, water and corrosive chemicals.

Does not support combustion.
Dis-advantages of PVC

Hardness at low temperature and softerning at high temperature.
ii) Tough Rubber Sheathed cables.
This is made by a special toughned rubber which is resistant to acids and alkalies.
Specially constructed T.R.S has been reinforced with tape and an external braiding is
used to farm yards.
iii) Polychloroprene (PCP or Neoprene) cable.
Its insulation is somehow similar to the T.R.S but capable to withstand most weather
conditions and particularly direct sunlight. Its mostly used in farms.
iv) Armarde cable.

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Inner sheathing, outer sheathing and armor are used for mechanical protection of a cable.

Electrical Resistance

Resistance (R)
Any device in a circuit which converts electrical energy into some other form impedes the current.
The device which converts electrical energy to heat energy is termed a resistor and its ability to
impede current is termed resistance. So resistance can be defined as the opposition to current
caused by a resistor.

The value of resistance of a conductor depends upon four things;

i) The material from which the conductor is made or (resistivity of the material “ρ”),
ii) The length of the conductor “l”,
iii) The thickness (cross-sectional area of the conductor “A”),
iv) The temperature at which it operates (in general, the higher its operating temperature
the greater its resistance “θ”).

Thus, Resistance is related to resistivity by:-


Resistivity (specific resistance)
This is the factor which takes into consideration the type of material used.
Resistivity of a material is the resistance of a unit cube of a material, measured across
opposity faces of a cube.

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Example
A 3000-km long cable consists of seven copper wires, each of diameter 0.73 mm, bundled
together and surrounded by an insulating sheath. Calculate the resistance of the cable. Use
  3 × 10 Ω for the resistivity of the copper.

Effect of heat on a conductor

When a current is passed through a conductor, the temperature of that conductor rises. An
extreme example is the element of an electric fire or electric iron.
The effect of this heat on the resistance of the conductor depends on the composition of the
conductor.

Temperature Coefficient of a material

This is the increase in the resistance of a 1 ohm resistor of that material when it is subjected to
a rise in temperature of 1oC.
Example: A copper wire has a temperature coefficient of 0.004/oC, a copper resistor of 1 ohm
will increase in resistance to (1 ohm + 0.004) when it is heated to 1oC.
The symbol for temperature coefficient is ∝.
The pure metal like copper and aluminium have positive temperature coefficient that is; their
resistancee increases with the increase in temperature.
Carbon and electrolytes have negative temperature coefficient, which means that, their
resistance decreases with the increase in temperature.

Calculating Resistance Increase

There are two formulae for calculating the increase in resistance of a conductor due to
temperature change. These are:
i) Temperature increases from 0oC.
ii) Temperature increases between two intermidiate temperature.

Temperature increases from 0oC.

  +∝ ∆,
∆   − 
R = conductor resistance at temperature (T) in ohms.
Rref = conductor resistance at reference temperature (Tref) in ohms.
∝ = temperature coefficient of resistance for the conductor material in per degree centigrrade.
T = conductor temperature in degree centigrrade.

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Tref = reference temperature that ∝ is specified at for the conductor material in degree
centigrrade.

Example
The resistance of a copper wire at 0oC is 100 ohm. Calculate the resistance of the coil at 30oC.
The temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004/oC.

Resistance increases between two intermediate temperatures.

 1+ ∝ 


 1+∝ 
R1 and R2 are the first and second resistance at the temperature t1 and t2 respectively.

Example
The field coils of motor have a resistance of 200 ohms at 20oC. Find the resistance of the coils
when the motor temperature increases to 40oC. Temperature coefficient of the conductor is
0.004/oC.

Permissible Voltage Drop In A Cable.

It is useless to install a cable which is capable of supplying the required current if the voltage at
the consumers equipment is too low. Low voltage to consumers equipment leads to inefficient
operation of lighting, power equipment and heating appliances.
The maximum voltage drop allowed between consumers terminals and any point in installation
is 2.5% of the supply voltage.

Current density and cable size

This is the amount of current which a conductor can carry it safely without undue heating per
unit cross section area.
Eg:- a copper conductor has 300A/cm2 and have a cross section area of 1.5mm2. find the
current carrying capacity of this conductor.

Current currying capacity = current density x cross section area

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 PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.
FUSES AND MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCB’S)
A fuse is defined as “a short length of wire designed to melt and separate/disconnect the circuit
when excess current passing through it. Fuses are always connected in series with the
component to be protected from over current, so that when the fuse blow (melt) it will open the
entire circuit and stop flow to that component.
Element: is the part of a fuse which is designed to melt when excessive a current passes
through it.
Current rating: this is the maximum current that a fuse can carry without deterioration of the
fuse element.
Fusing current: is a minimum current that will blow a fuse.
Fusing factor: is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the current rating.

Types of fuses
There are mainly three types of fuses. These are:-
i) Rewireble fuses.
ii) Catridge fuses.
iii) High Breaking Capacity (HBC) fuses.

Rewireble fuse
The rewireble fuses consists of a Porcelain (usual material) bridge and base. The bridge
contacts in the base. The fuse element usually tinned copper wire, is connected between the
terminals of the bridge. An asbestos tube or pad is usually fitted to reduce the effect of arcing
when the fuse element melts.
The fusing factor of a rewireble fuse is about 2 times the rated current. With a protective
asbestos pad, it is about 1.9 times the rated fuse current. This means that, a fuse element rated
10A will melt when an excessive currents of 20A flow through it to the circuit.

Advantages
i) simple to replace the blown fuse element and to install.
ii) cheap in cost.
iii) easier to identify a blown fuse.
iv) Has no mechanical moving parts.

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Disadvantages
i) It is very easy to replace a wrong fuse wire.
ii) Undue deterioration of the fuse elements due to oxidisation (diameter reduces in
size).
iii) Lack of discrimination between a momentary high currents (eg; motor starting
currents) and a continuous fault currents.
iv) Its case can be demaged in a severe short circuit due to high temperature.

Cartridge fuse
These are porcelein or clear glass tubes with metallic end caps on both sides of the fuse. The
fuse element is welded to the two caps to pass the current from one end to other end.
Sometimes other fuses are filled with quartz sand or silica sand to absorb or to extinguish the
spark or arc when the fuse element is blowing. When the fuse is blown, the whole catridge has
to be replaced.
The fusing factor for is 1.5 times its rated fuse current, thus a catridg fuse rated 13A will blow
when 19.5A passing through it.

Advantages
i) No mechanical moving parts.
ii) The current rating is accurately known.
iii) No possibility of replacing a wrong fuse wire.
iv) The fuse element is less liable to deterioration in service.

Disadvantages
i) It is expensive to replace than rewireble fuse.
ii) It is not suitable to use where the extremely high value of fault current may occur.

High breaking capacity fuse (HBC)

It consists of a catridge barrel high grade ceramic able to withstand the short circuit condition
when heavy fault current interrupted at the end caps.
Its fusing factor is 1.25 times the rated fuse current, thus a fuse of 10A will blown when a
current of 12.5A passing through it.
HBC fuse have the ablitity to discriminate the high starting current taken by the motor and high
fault current.

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Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
A circuit breaker is an electrical switch that can break the circuit automatically when the fault
current occurs. Or is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect electrical
circuit from damage caused by overloading or short circuit.
It is basic function is to detect fault and interrupt the current flow.
Miniature circuit breaker is a dual function because it works as fuse by means of circuit
breaker. Thus, mcb is an electrical device that break the circuit automatically when an
overloading or short circuit occured in the system.

Advantages of mcb over fuses

i) It is automatically switches off the electrical circuit during abnormal condition of
the network, means in over load condition as well as fault condition.
The fuse does not sense but mcb does it more reliable way, and it is much more
sensitive to over current than fuse.
ii) Another advantage is, as the switch operating knob comes at its off position during
tripping, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case
of fuse, fuse wire should be checked by opening fuse grip or cutout from fuse base,
for confirming the blow of fuse.
iii) Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse as because fuses have
to be rewireble or replaced for restoring the supply. But in the case of MCB, quick
restoration is possible by just switching on operation.
iv) Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse. Because of to many advantages
of MCB over fuse units, in modern low voltage electrical network, miniature circuit
breaker is mostly used instead of backdated fuse unit.

Only one disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this system is more costly than fuse unit
system.

Working Principle Miniature Circuit Breaker

There are two arrangement of operation of miniature circuit breaker. One due to thermal
effect of over current and other due to electromagnetic effect of over current. The thermal
operation of miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever
continuous over current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by
bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch
is attached with operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker contacts.
But during short circuit condition, sudden rising of current, causes electromechanical

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displacement of plunger associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes
the trip lever causing immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the circuit
breaker contacts. This was a simple explanation of miniature circuit breaker working
principle.

Miniature Circuit Breaker Construction

Miniature circuit breaker construction is very simple, robust and maintenance free. Generally a
MCB is not repaired or maintained, it just replaced by new one when required. A miniature
circuit breaker has normally three main constructional parts. These are:

Frame of Miniature Circuit Breaker

The frame of miniature circuit breaker is a molded case. This is a rigid, strong, insulated
housing in which the other components are mounted.

Operating Mechanism of Miniature Circuit Breaker

The operating mechanism of miniature circuit breaker provides the means of manual opening
and closing operation of miniature circuit breaker. It has three-positions "ON," "OFF," and
"TRIPPED". The external switching latch can be in the "TRIPPED" position, if the MCB is
tripped due to over-current. When manually switch off the MCB, the switching latch will be in
"OFF" position. In close condition of MCB, the switch is positioned at "ON". By observing the
positions of the switching latch one can determine the condition of MCB whether it is closed,
tripped or manually switched off.

EARTHING
Earthing is the process of connecting metallic parts of electrical appliances to the general mass
of the earth by means of an earth electrode.
I.E.E regulations reguarding earthing system state that, the metal work shall be earthed in such
a manner as to ensure immediate elecrical discharge without danger and other adquate shall be
taken to prevent danger.
The ground resistance must be as low as possible so as to increase the current path when earth
fault occurs.
NECESSITY OF EARTHING
i) To prevent the person from danger of electric shock.
ii) To avoid fire hazards due to fault currents.
iii) To protect equipment and installation from danger due to excess currents.

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Earthing system comprises of:-
i) Earth continuity conductor.
ii) Earth lead.
iii) Earthing electrode.

Earth Continuity Conductor

This is a cable or other conductor to which the metal work to be earthed is connected and which
itself is connected to the earthing lead by the way of consumers terminal.
Earth continuity conductor it can be either metal sheathing of cable or special continuity wire
inclosed in a cable sheath, metal conduit enclosing the cable, etc.

Earthing lead
This is the conductor which connects earth continuity conductor to the earth electrode.
The minimum size of 6mm2 is recommended, but 2.5mm2 is acceptable when connected to
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).

Earth electrode or earth rod

This is a conductor or group of conductor in intimate contact with ground and providing an
electrical connection to the earth.

Types of earth electrode

Pipe. Generally 200mm diameter of about 2m long, and it is a cast iron material. Is subjected to
corrosion particularly if there are high surphur or content.
Copper rods. This is very economical and require no excuvation for their installation. It can be
drawn into the ground so that the soil contact with the rod is closed and definity.
Plate electrode.
Bare copper conductor or strips.

AUTOMATIC EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

Working Principle of ELCB and RCB
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking
to earth from an installation and cut the power and mainly used in TT earthing systems.

There are two types of ELCB

i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
ii) Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current-ELCB)

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Voltage Operated ELCB
• Voltage-ELCB is a voltage operated circuit breaker. The device will function when the
Current passes through the ELCB. Voltage-ELCB contains relay Coil which it being
connected to the metallic load body at one end and it is connected to ground wire at the
other end.
• If the voltage of the Equipment body is rise (by touching Phase to metal Part or Failure
of Insulation of Equipment) which could cause the difference between earth and load
body voltage, the danger of electric shock will occur. This voltage difference will
produce an electric current from the load metallic body passes the relay loop and to
earth. When voltage on the equipment metallic body rose to the danger level which
exceed to 50Volt, the flowing current through relay loop could move the relay contact
by disconnecting the supply current to avoid from any danger electric shock.
• The ELCB detects fault currents from live to the earth (ground) wire within the
installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB’s sense coil, it will
switch off the power, and remain off until manually reset. A voltage-sensing ELCB
does not sense fault currents from live to any other earthed body.

• These ELCBs monitored the voltage on the earth wire, and disconnected the supply if
the earth wire voltage was over 50 volts.
• These devices are no longer used due to its drawbacks like if the fault is between live
and a circuit earth, they will disconnect the supply. However, if the fault is between live
and some other earth (such as a person or a metal water pipe), they will NOT

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 disconnect, as the voltage on the circuit earth will not change. Even if the fault is
between live and a circuit earth, parallel earth paths created via gas or water pipes can
result in the ELCB being bypassed. Most of the fault current will flow via the gas or
water pipes, since a single earth stake will inevitably have a much higher impedance
than hundreds of meters of metal service pipes buried in the ground

Current-operated ELCB (RCB):

Current-operated ELCBs are generally known as Residual-current devices (RCD). These also
protect against earth leakage. Both circuit conductors (supply and return) are run through a
sensing coil; any imbalance of the currents means the magnetic field does not perfectly cancel.
The device detects the imbalance and trips the contact.
When the term ELCB is used it usually means a voltage-operated device. Similar devices that
are current operated are called residual-current devices. However, some companies use the term
ELCB to distinguish high sensitivity current operated 3 phase devices that trip in the milliamp
range from traditional 3 phase ground fault devices that operate at much higher currents.

Typical RCB circuit.

The supply coil, the neutral coil and the search coil all wound on a common transformer core.
On a healthy circuit the same current passes through the phase coil, the load and return back
through the neutral coil. Both the phase and the neutral coils are wound in such a way that they
will produce an opposing magnetic flux. With the same current passing through both coils, their
magnetic effect will cancel out under a healthy circuit condition.

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In a situation when there is fault or a leakage to earth in the load circuit, or anywhere between
the load circuit and the output connection of the RCB circuit, the current returning through the
neutral coil has been reduced. Then the magnetic flux inside the transformer core is not
balanced anymore. The total sum of the opposing magnetic flux is no longer zero. This net
remaining flux is what we call a residual flux.
The periodically changing residual flux inside the transformer core crosses path with the
winding of the search coil. This action produces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) across the
search coil. An electromotive force is actually an alternating voltage. The induced voltage
across the search coil produces a current inside the wiring of the trip circuit. It is this current
that operates the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Since the trip current is driven by the residual
magnetic flux (the resulting flux, the net effect between both fluxes) between the phase and the
neutral coils, it is called the residual current devise.
With a circuit breaker incorporated as part of the circuit, the assembled system is called
residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) or residual current devise (RCD). The incoming
current has to pass through the circuit breaker first before going to the phase coil. The return
neutral path passes through the second circuit breaker pole. During tripping when a fault is
detected, both the phase and neutral connection is isolated.

PROTECTIVE MULTIPLE EARTHING (P.M.E) OR CONTINUOUS NEUTRAL

EARTHING SYSTEM (C.N.E)
In this system, the earthing lead of a consumer is connected together with the neutral of the
supply authority.

International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthling arrangements, using
the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT.

The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply equipment
(generator or transformer):

"T" — Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: terra)

"I" — No point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high
impedance.
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical device being
supplied:
"T" — Direct connection of a point with earth
"N" — Direct connection to neutral at the origin of installation, which is connected to
the earth

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TN networks
In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is connected with
earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical device is
connected with earth via this earth connection at the transformer.

The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer's electrical installation
is called protective earth (PE; see also: Ground). The conductor that connects to the star point
in a three-phase system, or that carries the return current in a single-phase system, is called
neutral (N). Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:
TN−S
PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the power
source. This arrangement is a current standard for most residential and industrial
electric systems particularly in Europe.
TN−C
A combined PEN conductor fulfils the functions of both a PE and an N conductor.
TN−C−S
Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point split up into
separate PE and N lines. The combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the
substation and the entry point into the building, and separated in the service head. In the
UK, this system is also known as protective multiple earthing (PME), because of the
practice of connecting the combined neutral-and-earth conductor to real earth at many
locations, to reduce the risk of electric shock in the event of a broken PEN conductor -
with a similar system in Australia and New Zealand being designated as multiple
earthed neutral (MEN).

TN-S: separate protective TN-C: combined PE and N TN-C-S earthing system:

earth (PE) and neutral (N) conductor all the way from combined PEN conductor

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conductors from transformer the transformer to the from transformer to building
to consuming device, which consuming device. distribution point, but
are not connected together at separate PE and N conductors
any point after the building in fixed indoor wiring and
distribution point. flexible power cords.

It is possible to have both TN-S and TN-C-S supplies taken from the same transformer. For
example, the sheaths on some underground cables corrode and stop providing good earth
connections, and so homes where "bad earths" are found may be converted to TN-C-S.

TT network

In a TT (Terra-Terra) earthing system, the protective earth connection for the consumer is
provided by a local earth electrode, and there is another independently installed at the
generator. There is no 'earth wire' between the two. The fault impedance is higher, and unless
the electrode impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation should always have an RCD as its
first isolator.
The big advantage of the TT earthing system is that it is clear of high and low frequency noises
that come through the neutral wire from connected equipment. TT has always been preferable
for special applications like telecommunication sites that benefit from the interference-free
earthing. Also, TT does not have the risk of a broken neutral.
In locations where power is distributed overhead and TT is used, installation earth conductors
are not at risk should any overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen tree or
branch.
In pre-RCD era, the TT earthing system was unattractive for general use because of its worse
capability of accepting high currents in case of a live-to-PE short circuit (in comparison with
TN systems). But as residual current devices mitigate this disadvantage, the TT earthing system
becomes attractive for premises where all AC power circuits are RCD-protected.
The TT earthing system is used throughout Japan, with RCD units in most industrial settings.
This can impose added requirements on variable frequency drives and switched-mode power
supplies which often have substantial filters passing high frequency noise to the ground
conductor.

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IT network
In an IT network, the electrical distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it has
only a high impedance connection. In such systems, an insulation monitoring device is used to
monitor the impedance.

Comparison
TT IT TN-S TN-C TN-C-S
Earth fault loop High Highest Low Low Low
impedance
RCD preferred? Yes N/A Optional No Optional
Need earth Yes Yes No No Optional
electrode at site?
PE conductor cost Low Low Highest Least High
Risk of broken No No High Highest High
neutral
Safety Safe Less Safe Safest Least Safe
Safe
Electromagnetic Least Least Low High Low
interference
Safety risks High loop Double fault, Broken Broken Broken
impedance (step overvoltage neutral neutral neutral
voltages)
Advantages Safe and reliable Continuity of Safest Cost Safety
operation, cost and cost

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There are five types of neutral earthing. These are:-
i) Solid-earthed neutral
ii) Unearthed neutral
iii) Resistance-earthed neutral
o Low-resistance earthing
o High-resistance earthing
iv) Reactance-earthed neutral
v) Using earthing transformers

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