IS 221: ICT RESEARCH METHODS

Lecture 4 Final
April 2024

Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE 1

 Learning Objectives for Lecture 4
By the end of the class session (2 hrs), you will be able to:
1. Create data collection tools (Interviews and
Questionnaire)
2. Perform thematic analysis on data
3. Identify principles of data interpretation
4. Discuss ways to report research data
5. Discuss ways to report your research data

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Research process
Ω Step 1: Identify the
research problem: This
involves identifying a gap in
knowledge or an issue that
needs to be addressed
through research.

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 Research process
Ω Step 2: Develop research
questions or hypotheses:
Based on the research problem
and literature review, the
researcher formulates research
questions or hypotheses that
they will address through their
study.

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Research process
Ω Step 3: Conduct a literature
review: This involves
reviewing existing research
studies and publications
related to the research
problem to identify what has
already been done and what
is still unknown.

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Research process
Ω Step 4: Design the study:
This involves determining
the research design,
methods for data collection,
and sampling strategy. The
researcher also needs to
ensure that ethical
considerations are
addressed.

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Research process
Ω Step 5: Collect data: This
involves collecting data using
the selected research
methods, such as surveys,
experiments, interviews, or
observation.

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 Research process
Ω Step 6: Analyze data: This involves analyzing the
collected data using appropriate statistical or
qualitative analysis techniques to answer the research
questions or test the hypotheses.

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 Research process
Ω Step 7: Interpret findings: This involves
interpreting the results of the data analysis and
drawing conclusions based on the findings.

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 Research process
Ω Step 8: Report results: This
involves writing up the
research study in a formal
report or manuscript, which
includes the research problem,
literature review, methodology,
results, and conclusions.

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Research process
Ω Step 9: Disseminate
findings: This involves
sharing the results of the
research study with other
researchers, practitioners,
and stakeholders through
conferences, publications,
or other means.

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1 Step 2 Step 5 Step 9

STEP 5: DATA COLLECTION

Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE 12

 Class Activity 1: Steps for Research
Ω Individually respond to the following question

ΩWhat is Data

Ω Share with the rest of the class

2 Minutes
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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Let us first define Data

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 Two types of data
 To be generated by the researcher for the purpose
of the study
Primary data

 Already available, generated by someone else for

other purposes
Secondary data

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 Secondary data Primary data
Data extraction Questionnaires
form • Self administered
• Interviewer
administered
Checklists
• Observation
• Examination
Measuring Equipment

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 Secondary data Primary data
Advantages Advantages
• inexpensive/ data • can collect the whole
already available range of information
• permits examination of needed
information in the past • can collect precise /valid
data

Disadvantages Disadvantages
• information may be • time consuming
imprecise or incomplete
• not easily accessible • resource intensive
• issues concerning
confidentiality
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 Data collection tools
• Questionnaires
– Self-administered
– Interviewer administered

• Observation/Examination checklists

• Measuring equipment

• Data extraction sheets

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 Tool 1- Questionnaire
When to use?
presence/absence of an attribute
knowledge, feelings, opinions
attitudes

Two types
 interviewer administered
 self administered

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 Interviewer
administered Self administered
trained interviewers ask written questions are presented to
questions and record the respondent to be answered in
most commonly used in written form
hospital/ clinic surveys/
community surveys used when
used when • a study population can read and
write and with similar educational
• participants have variable
background
ability to read and
understand questions school children
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 Interviewer administered Self administered

Advantages Advantages
• suitable for a study • can cover a large number of
population with varying respondents within a short
educational duration
background • permits anonymity resulting in
more honest responses
• suitable with illiterates
• not require assistants- less
• permits clarifications expensive
• higher response rate • not influenced by the
presence of an interviewer
4/26/2024 • can be even mailed 21
 Interviewer Self
administered administered

Disadvantages Disadvantages
• not to illiterate study
• presence of interviewer
populations
may influence-reporting
• low rate of response
may not be accurate
• no way of clarifying
• need trained interviewers doubts

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 Tool 2 - Checklist
Observation checklist- observe behaviour in the
natural setting and record

When to use?
assessing a skill, practice, procedure

Researcher has to have a good knowledge on

steps of the procedure to design the checklist

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 Observation checklist on hand washing techniques
Steps description Completed
as described
Yes no
Step 1 Wet hands and apply soap.
Step 2 Rub palms together until soap is bubbly.
Step 3 Rub each palm over the back of the other hand.

Step 4 Rub between your fingers on each hand.

Step 5 Rub your hands with the fingers together.
Step 6 Rub around each of your thumbs.
Step 7 Used running water to rinse.
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• Examination checklist

presence of a clinical
sign/signs

eg: Joint involvement in

arthritis
examine for inflamed joints
and mark

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 Tool 3 - Measuring equipment
Any measurement you do
Ω Anthropometry

Ω Clinical data
 Blood pressure

Ω Laboratory equipment /other equipment

 Haemoglobinometer
 Dip sticks
4/26/2024  Ultra sound scanner 26
 Any study design - one or more of tools
Study design tools
• Cross sectional study • Questionnaires
– Self-administered
• Analytical study – Interviewer
– Case control administered
– Cohort
• Observation/exami
• Experimental study
nation checklist
• Clinical audit • Measuring
equipment
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 Activity

• Identify a data collection instrument for your

study, giving reasons.

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Data Collection Process

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Class Activity 2: Conducting interviews

Ω Talk to your neighbor

Ω Have you done interviews before?
What did you do before, during and
after?
Ω Note your points in your notebook
Ω Share with the rest of the class
3 Minutes
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 1. Conducting Interviews

• Always bring a stiff-backed notebook and several

trustworthy writing instruments
• If you wish to tape-record your interview, always ask
before doing so
• Keep notes on the interview, but make sure that you
are still talking to the interviewee, not just scribbling
 1. Conducting Interviews

Field Notebook

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 1. Conducting Interviews

Before the Interview:

1.Prepare a list of questions
2.Find background information
about the interviewee
3.Prioritize your questions and ask the most important first
4.Decide your goals for the interview
 1. Conducting Interviews to Collect data

• Ask yourself: “What do I need to know?”

• Write a list of things you want
to find out
• Write questions that will help your interviewee discuss
this information
 1. Conducting Interviews to Collect data

 Introduce yourself
 State the objective of the interview
 Ask for permission to record the conversations
 Use your smartphone to record
 1. Conducting Interviews to Collect data

a) One-to-one
interview
 1. Conducting Interviews to Collect data

b) Small Focus
group Interviews

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1. Conducting Interviews to Collect data

c) Large Focus
group Interviews

• The standard size of a focus group interview typically ranges from 6 to 12

participants.
• This size allows for a diversity of opinions and perspectives while still maintaining a
manageable group for discussion facilitation.
• However, the ideal size can vary depending on the specific research objectives, the
complexity of the topic, and the dynamics of the group. 10
• Bring your prepared list of
questions
• Try to stick to the topic, but be
flexible if your interviewee brings
up unexpected but valuable
information
• If you need to interview via email, remember
to ask for permission first
• Establish the scope and time period of the
interview
• Remember that the same rules of courtesy
still apply
Follow-up Etiquette:
•Always be sure to thank your interviewee, in
person and in writing
•Write-up your results soon after the interview
while they are still fresh in your mind
•Let your interviewee review your findings in
order to confirm that you have represented
him/her accurately
Conducting a successful interview involves
attention to the following steps:

1.Making contact to setup the interview

2.Preparing for the interview
3.Meeting the interviewee
4.Following up on the interview
 Class Activity 2: Errors during data collection

Ω Talk to your neighbor

Ω Think of the errors that might occur
during data collection
Ω Note your points in your notebook
Ω Share with the rest of the class

3 Minutes
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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Errors During Data Collection

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 Types of errors that may occur in research data

Sources of mistakes

• Interviewer/observer/person performing the

measurement/person performing the
laboratory test

• Respondent/person being observed or

measured

• Tools
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 Sources of errors- Interviewer Administered
Questionnaires

Interviewer Respondent Questionnaire

• non-uniform  reactions to the interviewer  mistakes in
administration  frightened construction of the
• terms used  antagonistic/hostile tool
• probing  suspicious
• assisting  annoyed
 reactions to the surrounding
environment
 fear of consequences/lack of
confidence of the use of data
 level of understanding
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Construction of Data Collection Tool

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 Construction of Questionnaires

• Content is transformed into questions and

instructions to the interviewer/respondent

• Decide on how the variables should be

operationalized to obtain the information
required

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 Construction of questionnaires
Questions are basically two types

Ω Open-ended

Ω Closed-ended

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 Open-ended questions
‘What are the problems you experienced when taking
drug X ?’ ……………………………………………
When to use?

 if the information required is a numeral

 when it is important to have information on how the response

was expressed

 has limited knowledge on what the responses would be

 when checking for ‘core’ knowledge

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 Closed-ended questions
‘Which of the following problems did you
experience
when taking drug X?’
Drowsiness
Vomiting
Itching

– Choose from a number of fixed alternatives

which should be
• Exhaustive/comprehensive
• Mutually exclusive
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 Open-ended questions Closed-ended questions

Disadvantage Disadvantages
• may generate a wide • not allow own answers which
range of responses would be potentially more
accurate
• difficult to categorize in • not allow detailed responses
analysis
Advantages
Advantages • quicker and easier to answer
• Can get detailed • responses are already
responses categorized for analysis
• list of answers help clarify the
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 Mixed type
Choose from a number of fixed alternatives and an
added opportunity to account for missed choices

‘Which of the following problems did you

experience when taking drug X?’
Drowsiness
Vomiting
Itching
Any other
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 Single response Multiple responses
‘What was the problem that you – Cannot expect by the
experienced mostly when
taking drug X?’ respondent unless you
instruct
– Which of the following
problems did you
experience when taking
drug X?’
yes no
– When have to select one
response from a range Drowsiness

• read all Vomiting

Itching
• show on a card
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 Visual analogue scales
• Mark a spot that best represent his characteristic on a line
representing a continuum from one extreme to the other
• anchor each end with words that describe the most extreme
values

‘Please mark an X on the line, the place that best describes the
severity of your pain during the first day after surgery’

no pain at all unbearable pain

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 Statements Strongly Agree No Disagree Strongly
agree comment disagree
Fat kids are healthier than
thin ones
one cannot do much about
obesity even if tried hard

Ω Respondents attitudes may be latent/ never have given a thought till

he was confronted with the question
Ω Requires thought and self analysis
Ω Many sides to the issues assessed
 moral, medical, legal
 answer depend on aspect that is uppermost in his mind
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 Other principles
Ω Avoid
Leading questions
‘Do you agree that exclusive breast feeding
is good for your baby?’

Questions with hidden assumptions

‘How many cups of milk do you drink a day?’

Double negative questions

‘didn’t you breast feed the baby on the days that the baby
was not having fever?’

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 Other principles
Ω Avoid
Unanswerable questions
Do you approve or disapprove the new law to
legalize abortion ?
-Yes
-No

Double Barrel questions

Are you satisfied with the salary and social
status you receive from this job ?
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 Other principles
Maintain neutrality

Ω Set a tone that permits respondents to admit to

behaviours and attitudes that may be undesirable

‘People sometimes forget to take medication

as instructed. Does that ever happen to you?’

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 Other principles

Ω Give ‘don’t know’ and ‘not applicable’ options

Ω Use adequate words.

Age?
Age in completed years.

When did you have measles?

At what age did you have measles?

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 Other principles
Set time frame
Ω If designed to measure the
 frequency of an event
‘How many episodes of loose stools did your child
experience?’

 frequency of certain habitual or recurrent behaviour

 On average….how many times or on a usual day how
many times…..

Ω Questions needing recall- also offer a ‘cannot remember’

option
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 Other principles
When assessing knowledge,

Ω Open questions vs Closed questions

Ω In closed questions offer a ‘don’t know/ cannot
remember’ option
Ω When using MCQ type questions – Make sure there is
only one correct answer
Ω Scoring of Knowledge questions – Equal scores vs
Unequal scores
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 Other principles
When assessing attitudes

 Allow adequate options to answer.

E.g. Totally agree Agree Unsure Disagree Totally
disagree

 Keep the statements simple

E.g. With the economic conditions as the way they are these days, it
really is not fair to have more than two children in a family.

 Avoid leading questions

Are you against giving equal rights to males and females?
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 Other principles
When assessing attitudes
 Avoid double scales
E.g. How would you rate your job ?
- Rewarding but stressful - Rewarding and stress-free
- Unrewarding but stress-free - Unrewarding and stressful

 Use non-judgmental statements.

Do you believe poor people should not be given free health care ?

Do you believe there should be a universal fee-levying system in our health care
service ?
Reduces Social Desirability Bias
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 Other principles
• Clear instructions

– Self administered questionnaires to the respondent

• how to fill

– Interviewer administered questionnaire to the interviewer

• To be read out to the respondent
• To remind important instructions

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 Other principles
• Clear instructions to respondent/ interviewer
– how to mark the responses
– whether more than one response allowed
– to skip irrelevant questions

yes no
10.Have you ever been told that
you have diabetes’
if ‘No’ go to q. …

11. At what age were you diagnosed? …………

– have section breaks

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 Language of the questionnaire
• Should be understood by the respondent
• Should be in the language of the interview
• Simple/ everyday language

Format of the questionnaire

• layout
• spacing
• font size
• not too long

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 Constructing other tools
Ω Observation checklists/Examination checklists
 include all steps/aspects
 take care to use terms/ language to suit the observer/examiner
 instructions for the observer/examiner

Ω Equipment
 select most refined
 Standardize prior to and in between
 as far as possible automated

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 Validity
Appraising validity of the draft tools
Any tool
• Face validity/Content validity- subjective judgment
whether it covers all steps

• Consensual validity- whether experts in the field

agree that the tool covers all aspects of the
phenomena under interest

• Pre-testing of tools- modify and clarify, add/drop

items, timing

• Reliability- better to report

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 Appraising validity of the draft tools
Ω May need a validation study if the tool is
 assessing a concept which cannot be directly assessed
• eg: parenting stress
psychological distress
Quality of life

 developed in another country EVEN if the tool is validated in that

country
• translate to local languages
• adapt to suit the culture

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 Internationally validated tools
 validity depend on
• language
• culture
• socio-demographic characteristics of the respondent
• mode of administration
• etc….

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 Reliability

• Test-retest • By applying the tool

reliability after a time gap
• Select a few
important variable
or two

• Internal
consistency
– Cronbach’s alpha
• If it is a multi-item
scale
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 Measures taken to minimize errors due to
interviewers/ observers

• Minimum required number

• Training
• Supervision
• Blinding

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Measures taken to minimize errors due to interviewers/ observers

• Training- interviewers, observers, technicians

• interactive sessions, role play
• uniform administration of questionnaires
• terms used
• probing
• assisting
• uniform observation/ examination
• uniform and correct technique in using
equipment
specify steps to follow /instruction manual
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Measures taken to minimize errors due to interviewers/ observers

• supervision

• blinding- making observers blind to the

research question

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 Measures taken to minimize errors due to respondent/ person
being observed

introductions and explanations of the study-

informed consent, confidentiality
neutral environment
take measures to assure anonymity
use familiar/known person as the interviewer
/examiner
physical preparation of the patient

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THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1 Step 2 Step 6 Step 9

STEP 6: DATA ANALYSIS

Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE 77

 DATA ANALYSIS

Qualitative Data Analysis

Data Analysis

Quantitative Data
Analysis
 DATA ANALYSIS
1. Thematic analysis
2. Content analysis
Qualitative Data 3. Discourse analysis
Analysis 4. Grounded theory
5. Quantitative analysis of
qualitative data

Data Analysis
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics
3. Correlation analysis
Quantitative Data 4. Regression analysis
Analysis 5. Factor analysis
6. Time series analysis
7. Cluster analysis
8. Multivariate analysis
Thematic Analysis In Qualitative Research
Question: A. 2?
From the image, how many phases/steps to B. 3?
reach get “Themes”? C. 4?
D. More than 4?
 Introduction to Thematic Analysis

 6-phase guide to doing thematic analysis

Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke (2006)

 Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis
in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2),
77-101.
 Introduction to Thematic Analysis

Analyzing the
collected data

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Introduction to Thematic Analysis

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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 WHAT is Thematic Analysis?
 Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and
reporting patterns (themes) within data.
 It minimally organizes and describes your data set in (rich) detail.
 However, it also often goes further than this, and interprets various
aspects of the research topic (Boyatzis, 1998).
 The range of different possible thematic analyses will further be
highlighted in relation to a number of decisions regarding it as a
method (see below).
 A theme might be given considerable space in some data items, and
little or none in others, or it might appear in relatively little of the data
set.
 So researcher judgment is necessary to determine what a theme is.
 WHAT is Thematic Analysis?
What is a Theme?
A theme captures something important about the data in relation to
the research question (RQ), and represents some level of patterned
response or meaning within the data set
An important question to address in terms of coding is what counts
as a pattern/theme.
This is a question of prevalence both in terms of space within each
data item, and prevalence across the entire data set.
Part of the flexibility of thematic analysis is that it allows you to
determine themes (and prevalence) in a number of ways.
What is important is that you are consistent in how you do this within
any particular analysis.
 How to do Thematic Analysis
 Thematic analysis involves the searching across a data set – be that a
number of interviews or focus groups, or a range of texts – to find repeated
patterns of meaning.
 Some of the phases of thematic analysis are similar to the phases of other
qualitative research, so these stages are not necessarily all unique to
thematic analysis
 The process
 the analyst begins to notice, and look for, patterns of meaning and issues of
potential interest in the data – this may be during data collection.
 Analysis involves a constant moving back and forward between the entire data
set, the coded extracts of data that you are analysing, and the analysis of the
data that you are producing
 The endpoint is the reporting of the content and meaning of patterns (themes) in
the data,
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Transcription of verbal data
If you are working with verbal data such as interviews,
television programmes or political speeches, the data will
need to be transcribed into written form in order to conduct
a thematic analysis.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Step 1: Familiarizing yourself with your data
It is vital that you immerse yourself in the data to the extent that you
are familiar with the depth and breadth of the content
Immersion usually involves
 “repeated reading” of the data, and
 reading the data in an active way - searching for meanings, patterns and so on.
It is ideal to read through the entire data set at least once before you
begin your coding, as your ideas, identification of possible patterns will
be shaped as you read through
This phase provides the bedrock for the rest of the analysis.
It is a good idea to start taking notes or marking ideas for coding that
you will then go back to in subsequent phases
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Step 2: generating initial codes
This phase then involves the production of initial codes from the
data.
At this stage you need to:
 have read and familiarized yourself with the data (phs 1), and
 have generated an initial list of ideas about what is in the data
and what is interesting about them.
Codes identify a feature of the data (semantic content or latent) that
appears interesting to the analyst, and refer to “the most basic
segment, or element, of the raw data or information that can be
assessed in a meaningful way regarding the phenomenon”
The process of coding is part of analysis as you are organizing your
data into meaningful groups (Tuckett, 2005).
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
How to make coding manageable
Make photocopies of original data
 Why?
Read through all of the data.
 Attach working labels to blocks of text
Cut and paste blocks of text onto index cards.
Group cards that have similar labels together
Revisit piles of cards to see if clusters still hold
together.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
 Coding will to some extent depend on whether:
 The themes are more “data-driven” (the themes will depend on the
data) or “theory-driven” (you might approach the data with specific
questions in mind that you wish to code around)
 You are aiming to code the content of the entire data set, or whether
you are coding to identify particular (and possibly limited) features of the
data set.
 Coding can be done either manually or through a software programme
 If coding manually:
• you can code your data by writing notes on the texts you're analyzing, by using highlighters or colored
pens to indicate potential patterns, or by using “post-it” notes to identify segments of data.
• You may initially identify the codes, and then match them up with data extracts that demonstrate that
code,
 If using computer software:
• you code by tagging and naming selections of text within each data item.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
 Key advice for this phase is:
1. Code for as many potential themes/patterns as possible (time
permitting) – you never know what might be interesting later;
2. Code extracts of data inclusively – i.e., keep a little of the
surrounding data if relevant, a common criticism of coding is
that the context is lost (Bryman, 2001); and
3. Remember that you can code individual extracts of data in as
many different “themes” as they fit into - so an extract may be
uncoded, coded once, or coded many times, as relevant.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Step 3: searching for themes
This phase re-focuses the analysis at the broader level of themes,
rather than codes
It involves
 sorting the different codes into potential themes, and
 collating all the relevant coded data extracts within the identified
themes.
Generally, you are starting to analyze your codes, and consider how
different codes may combine to form an overarching theme
It may be helpful at this phase to use visual representations to help
you sort the different codes into themes
 You might use tables, mind-maps, or you might write the name of each code on
a separate piece of paper and play around with organising them into theme-piles.
Thematic map
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
 Some initial codes may go on to form main themes, whereas others
may form sub-themes, and others still may be discarded.
 You may also have a set of codes that do not seem to belong
anywhere, and it is perfectly acceptable to create a “theme” called
miscellaneous to house the codes – possibly temporarily - that do
not seem to fit into your main themes.
 At the end of this phase:
1. You end this phase with a collection of candidate themes, and sub-themes, and
all extracts of data that have been coded in relation to them
2. You will start to have a sense of the significance of individual themes
3. Do not abandon anything at this stage, as without looking at all the extracts in
detail (the next phase) it is uncertain whether the themes hold as they are, or
whether some need to be combined, refined and separated, or discarded.
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Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Step 4: Reviewing themes
This phase involves the refinement of those themes from phase 3
During this phase, it will become evident that:
 Some candidate themes are not really themes (e.g., if there are not enough data
to support them, or the data are too diverse),
 While others might collapse into each other (e.g., two apparently separate
themes might form one theme).
 Other themes might need to be broken down into separate themes.
Data within themes should cohere together meaningfully, while there
should be clear and identifiable distinctions between themes.
This phase involves two levels of reviewing and refining your
themes.
L1: reviewing at the level of the coded data extracts.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Level 1:
Reviewing at the level of the coded data extracts.
Read all the collated extracts for each theme, and consider whether they
appear to form a coherent pattern.
If your candidate themes appear to form a coherent pattern, you then move
on to the second level of this phase (Level 2).
If your candidate themes do not fit, you will need to consider whether the
theme itself is problematic, or whether some of the data extracts within it
simply do not fit there – in which case, you would rework your theme, creating
a new theme, finding a home for those extracts that do not currently work in
an already-existing theme, or discarding them from the analysis.
Once you are satisfied that your candidate themes adequately capture the
contours of the coded data – once you have a “candidate thematic map” -
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Level 2:
You consider the validity of individual themes in relation to the data
set, but also whether your candidate thematic map “accurately”
reflects the meanings evident in the data set as a whole
What counts as “accurate representation” depends on your
theoretical and analytic approach
In this phase you re-read your entire data set for two purposes.
1. To ascertain whether the themes “work” in relation to the data set.
2. To code any additional data within themes that has been missed in
earlier coding stages
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
 If the thematic map works, then you move on to the next phase.
 However, if the map does not fit the data set, you need to return to
further reviewing and refining your coding until you have devised a
thematic map that you are satisfied with.
 In so doing, it is possible that you will identify potential new themes,
and you might need to start coding for these as well, if you are
interested in them.
Warning:
 Coding data and generating themes could go on ad infinitum
 It is important not to get over-enthusiastic with endless re-coding
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Step 5: Defining and naming themes
Phase 5 begins when you have a satisfactory thematic
map of your data
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
 You then define and further refine the themes that you
will present for your analysis, and analyze the data within
them.
 For each individual theme, you need to
 Conduct and write a detailed analysis.
 Identify the “story that each theme tells,
 So you need to consider
 the themes themselves, and
 each theme in relation to the others.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis

At the end of this Phase:

You can clearly define what your themes are, and what they are not.
 One test for this is to see whether you can describe the scope and content of
each theme in a couple of sentences.
 If you cannot do this, further refinement of that theme may be needed.
You should start thinking about the names that you will give them in
the final analysis.
Names need to be concise, punchy, and immediately give the reader
a sense of what the theme is about.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Data Interpretation
 Answer these four questions
 What is important in the data?
 Why is it important?
 What can be learned from it?
 So what?
 Remember
 Interpretation depends on the perspective of the researcher.
• Why?
 One technique for data interpretation (Wolcott)
 Extend the analysis by raising questions
 Connect findings to personal experiences
 Seek the advice of “critical” friends.
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis

Agreeing on the themes

generated by different raters

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 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Step 6: Producing the report
Phase 6 begins when you have a set of fully worked-out themes
This phase involves the final analysis and write-up of the report.
 This can be a publication, research assignment or thesis or dissertation
The report intends to tell the complicated story of your data in a way
which convinces the reader of the merit and validity of your analysis.
The report provides a concise, coherent, logical, non-repetitive, and
interesting account of the story the data tell – within and across
themes.
Your write-up must provide sufficient evidence of the themes within
the data, i.e., enough data extracts to demonstrate the prevalence of
the theme
Choose particularly vivid examples, or extracts which capture the
event
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Actual Thematic Map
 Steps to Conduct Thematic Analysis
Use of Extracts:
The extract should be easily identifiable as an example
of the issue.
Extracts need to be embedded within an analytic
narrative that compelling illustrates the story that you are
telling about your data
The extracts should be used to illustrate/support an
analysis that goes beyond their specific content, to make
sense of the data, and tell the reader what it does or might
mean
 Qualitative Data Analysis Tools
 NVIVO
 Atlasi.ti
 Good Thematic Analysis …
1. Thematic analysis is not just a collection of extracts strung together with
little or no analytic narrative.
2. Do not use data collection questions (such as from an interview schedule)
as the “themes” that are reported.
3. Avoid too much overlap between themes, or where the themes are not
internally coherent and consistent.
4. A weak or unconvincing analysis can also stem from a failure to provide
adequate examples from the data – for example, only one or two extracts
for a theme.
5. Your analysis needs to be convincing to someone who has not read your
entire data set
6. Avoid mismatch between the data and the analytic claims that are made
about it
Interview Questions
Interview Responses
 Themes Generated
“…So those people need to have prior knowledge on ICT,
Training at least to use some app, PowerPoint and saving some of
preparations content online...”

“…at least after 15 minutes you have to add something

Training which can just, aaah! so that you give him or her a kind of
Design motivation so and can refresh mind and get more energy..”

Themes for Interview Content “…mastering of the content, but also for mastering of how
Knowledge to interact with all items you have there…”

“…a person who makes their participants to engage, also to

Trainee create, and arouse a critical thinking and share their ideas
management during the training and also acquire all the activities
practiced…”

Personal “… That will be experienced than others yeah according to

Skills the time; approaching and so on he was good..”

“…So I think have speed interacting well with your

Personal trainee, you have confidence, I think these are thing for me
attributes you can say these are good qualities…”
 Data Analysis using SPSS

 Use this alternative tool: https://www.socscistatistics.com/

 This web site offers free resources for students and researchers
working with statistics in the social sciences.
 All the calculators and tools featured here have been designed
with ease of use and clarity of presentation in mind.
 Certainly, you should find them much less cumbersome - and
definitely less expensive! - than SPSS and the like.
THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1 Step 2 Step 7 Step 9

STEP 7: INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE 116

 Purpose: Interpretation of Findings
1. Understand the purpose
Ω The interpretation of your results is the section where
you explain the meaning and implications of your
findings in relation to your research objectives,
questions, and hypotheses.
Ω It is also where you discuss how your results fit with the
existing literature, theory, and practice in your field.
Ω The purpose of this section is to demonstrate how your
research contributes to the advancement of knowledge
and understanding in your discipline, and to highlight
the strengths, limitations, and implications of your study.
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 Purpose: Interpretation of Findings
2. Organize your content
Ω When interpreting your results, it is important to
maintain a clear and logical structure to help the reader
follow your arguments and conclusions.
Ω A common approach is to use subheadings that
correspond to your research questions or hypotheses,
and then address each one with the following elements.
Ω Summarize the main findings and how they answer the
research question or support or reject the hypothesis.

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 Purpose: Interpretation of Findings
2. Organize your content
Ω Compare and contrast your results with relevant
literature and previous studies.
Ω Explain potential reasons, mechanisms, or causes
behind your results.
Ω Discuss any limitations, uncertainties, or biases that
may affect the validity or generalizability of your results.
Ω Lastly, provide implications, recommendations, or
suggestions for future research or practice based on
your results.
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 Purpose: Interpretation of Findings
3. Use appropriate language
Ω The language you use to interpret your results should
be clear, concise, and accurate.
Ω Avoid using vague or ambiguous terms, such as
"some", "many", "a lot", or "significant", without
providing specific numbers or measures.
Ω Use transition words and phrases, such as "however",
"therefore", "in contrast", or "as a result", to show the
relationships between your ideas and evidence.

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 Purpose: Interpretation of Findings
3. Use appropriate language
Ω Use hedging expressions, such as "may", "might",
"suggests", or "indicates", to show the degree of
certainty or uncertainty in your claims.
Ω Use modal verbs, such as "can", "could", "should", or
"would", to express possibility, ability, obligation, or
recommendation.

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 Purpose: Interpretation of Findings
4. Support your claims
Ω The interpretation of your results should be based on
solid and credible evidence from your data analysis and
the literature.
Ω Do not make claims that are not supported by your data
or that go beyond the scope of your study.
Ω Do not ignore or dismiss contradictory or unexpected
results, but rather explain them and acknowledge their
implications.

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 Purpose: Interpretation of Findings
4. Support your claims
Ω Do not overgeneralize or oversimplify your results, but
rather qualify them and acknowledge their limitations.
Ω Do not introduce new data or information that was not
presented or discussed in the previous sections, but
rather synthesize and integrate what you have already
reported.

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THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1 Step 2 Step 8 Step 9

STEP 8: REPORTING RESEARCH DATA

Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE 124

 Reporting Research Data
Ω There are several forms of reporting research data,
each with its own advantages and purposes.

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 Reporting Research Data
1.Research Papers:
Ω Research papers are formal
documents that present the
findings of a study.
Ω They typically follow a
standardized format, including
sections such as introduction,
methods, results, and discussion.
Ω Research papers are often
published in academic journals.
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 Reporting Research Data
2. Theses and Dissertations:
Ω Theses and dissertations are longer research documents written
as part of a graduate or postgraduate degree program.
Ω They present a detailed account of a student's research, including
methods, results, and conclusions.

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 Reporting Research Data
3. Technical Reports:
Ω Technical reports are detailed documents that provide a
comprehensive account of a research project.
Ω They are often used in industry and government
settings to communicate research findings to
stakeholders.

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 Reporting Research Data
4. Infographics:
Ω Infographics are visual
representations of data
and findings.
Ω They are often used to
present complex
information in a clear
and engaging way.

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 Reporting Research Data
5. Data Visualizations:
Ω Data visualizations, such as charts, graphs, and maps,
are used to present data in a visual format.
Ω They can help to illustrate trends, patterns, and
relationships in the data.

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 Reporting Research Data
6. Policy Briefs:
Ω Policy briefs are short,
concise documents that
summarize research
findings and their
implications for policy
makers.
Ω They are designed to be
easily understood by non-
expert audiences.
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THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1 Step 2 Step 9

STEP 9: RESEARCH DISSEMINATION

Dr. Lucian Ngeze, CIVE 132

 Disseminating Research Findings to others
1. Publishing in Journals:
Ω Publish findings in academic journals, conference
proceedings, or working papers.

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 Disseminating Research Findings to others
2. Conference Presentations:
Ω Present research at conferences to share findings with
peers and experts.

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 Disseminating Research Findings to others
3. Workshops and Training:
Ω Conduct workshops or training sessions to educate
others about the research methodology and findings.

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 Disseminating Research Findings to others
4. Presenting Posters:
Ω Create posters summarizing the research for
presentations at conferences or in academic settings.

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 Disseminating Research Findings to others
5. Collaboration:
Ω Collaborate with other researchers or organizations to
disseminate findings through their networks and
channels.

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 Disseminating Research Findings to others
6. Using Online Platforms:
Ω Share research findings on websites, blogs, or social
media platforms to reach a wider audience.

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 Disseminating Research Findings to others
7.Media Releases:
Ω Media releases are used to
communicate research
findings to the media and the
public.
Ω They are often written in a
way that is accessible and
engaging to a general
audience.

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 Homework
Ω Watch the following video lessons
 https://youtu.be/c6Gp2R0wzhU?si=ScyLBDcU5fm_Y00c
 https://youtu.be/RV_yUMLQtL8?si=8xGR7uNZOS0WvWPt
 https://youtu.be/0sQjjQDj8pE?si=aM7EuaHR8pDOCHoC
Ω As you go through the videos, note the steps in your
notebook
Ω Recall the concepts we discussed in the classroom
session and connect them to the concepts discussed in
the videos
Ω Share the
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 Individual Activity 5: data collection tools
Dear IS 221 student,
Recall your research title, your problem statement, your research objectives, your research questions. It is now time that you start
creating tools to collect data for your first Research Questions. You have planned to conduct a focus group interview to collect
data from different respondents for your research. Now I want you to create data collection tools (Interviews and questionnaire)
that you will use. Respond to the following questions. Before you start creating the tools, ensure that you have read the theory
behind. Go through lecture 4, watch YouTube videos, go to the web to learn more. You can collect data using different tools
including online tools. Google Forms is one way to create data collection tools online. If you do not know how to use Google forms
to collect data, watch this video: https://youtu.be/xyq4N0GC2bU?si=8It04Z4zm279rNBr (or go to YouTube to watch for more
videos). Learn from your friends on how to use these online tools. They will be important in many ways in the near future here at
the university or just when you have graduated.
NOTES:
1. Much as we would like you to use your thinking, the use of any AI tools is prohibited. We will scan all your submissions through
anti-AI software tools and plagiarism checking tools.
2. Since every student has his/her own research title and research questions, we don't expect any kind of copying and pasting.
Every tool is expected to be unique.

ALL THE BEST

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 Text/Reference Books
1. Williamson, K. (2002). Research methods for students, academics and
professionals: Information management and systems. Elsevier.
2. Whyte, W. F. E. (1991). Participatory action research. Sage Publications,
Inc.
3. Peffers, K., Tuunanen, T., Rothenberger, M. A., &Chatterjee, S. (2007). A
design science research methodology for information systems research.
Journal of management information systems, 24(3), 45-77.
4. Bryman, A., & Burgess, B. (Eds.). (2002). Analyzing qualitative data.
Routledge.
5. Adrion, W. R. (1993, November). Research methodology in software
engineering. In Summary of the Dagstuhl Workshop on Future Directions in
Software Engineering” Ed. Tichy, Habermann, and Prechelt, ACM Software
Engineering Notes, SIGSoft (Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 36-37).
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