Some Notations

_ 0 +
ℝ = The set of all real numbers.
ℤ = The set of all integer numbers = … , −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … .
ℕ = The set of all positive integers = 1,2,3, … .
𝑎
ℚ = The set of all rational numbers = 𝑏 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ and 𝑏 ≠ 0 .
+ + + + -2 - - - - - 5 + + + +

++++ 2 ----- 3 ++++

 Chapter 0:

Consider the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) represented by the table

Then we write:

Consider the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) represented by the equation:

or
A graph of a function Not a graph of a function Not a graph of a function

Note That:
 𝑓 −3 = 0, 𝑓 −1 = 0, 𝑓 0 = 1 − 02 = 1, 𝑓 4 = 4

Consider a function

Remarks 1) Consider the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

2)
1)

Dom(𝑓) = ℝ = (−∞, ∞)
2)

Dom(𝑓) = ℝ − 1,3
3)

We must have
++++ 2 ----- 3 ++++
Dom(𝑓) = −∞, 2 ∪ [3, ∞)
 4)

Dom(𝑓) = ℝ − 2

Example Find the domain and range of

We must have 𝑥 − 1 ≥ 0 and so 𝑥 ≥ 1 Dom(𝑓) = [1, ∞)

Now, we have 𝑥 − 1 ≥ 0 2+ 𝑥−1 ≥ 2 Range (𝑓) = [2, ∞)

We must have 𝑥 − 1 ≠ 0 Dom 𝑓 = ℝ − 1

𝑥+1
Now, let 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑥−1 =𝑥+1 𝑦𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑥−1
𝑦+1
𝑦−1 𝑥 = 𝑦+1 𝑥= Range (𝑓) = ℝ − 1
𝑦−1
 Find the domain and range of

𝑥2−4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
We must have ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)
𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2 Dom 𝑓 = (−2,2) ∪ (2, ∞)
To find the range we note that for 𝑥 ≥ −2, 𝑥 ≠ 2 we have
and
Range 𝑓 = [0, ∞) − 2 .
𝑓 𝑥 = 3−𝑥− 𝑥−2

We must have 3 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 𝑥 ≤ 3 and 𝑥 ≥ 2

Dom 𝑓 = [2,3]
 Dom 𝑓 + 𝑔 =Dom 𝑓 ∩ Dom 𝑔
Dom 𝑓 − 𝑔 =Dom 𝑓 ∩ Dom 𝑔
Dom 𝑓𝑔 =Dom 𝑓 ∩ Dom 𝑔

Dom 𝑓/𝑔 =Dom 𝑓 ∩ Dom 𝑔 − 𝑥: 𝑔 𝑥 = 0

Dom 𝑓 + 𝑔 =Dom 𝑓 ∩ Dom 𝑔 = 2, ∞ ∩ ℝ = 2, ∞ .

Dom 𝑓/𝑔 =Dom 𝑓 ∩ Dom 𝑔 − 𝑥: 𝑔 𝑥 = 0 = 2, ∞ − 3

= 2,3 ∪ (3, ∞).
 Similarly, we can define
Note: Dom 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 = 𝑥 ∈ Dom 𝑔 ∶ 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ Dom(𝑓)

Dom 𝑓 = ℝ and Dom 𝑔 = 0, ∞

Dom 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 = 𝑥 ∈ Dom 𝑔 ∶ 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ Dom(𝑓)

= 𝑥 ∈ 0, ∞ ∶ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ = 0, ∞

Dom 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑥 ∈ Dom 𝑓 ∶ 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ Dom(𝑔)

= 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 2 + 3 ∈ 0, ∞ = ℝ (since 𝑥 2 + 3 ≥ 0 for all 𝑥)
Let 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 and ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥. Then ℎ ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑓(𝑥)
(a)
(b)
( )
1)

𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 is even

2)

(−𝑥)5 −(−𝑥) −𝑥5 +𝑥 −(𝑥5 −𝑥)

𝑓 −𝑥 = = = = −𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 is odd
1+(−𝑥)2 1+𝑥2 1+𝑥2
𝑥
3) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥+1

−𝑥 𝑥
𝑓 −𝑥 = = −( ) 𝑓 is neither even nor odd
−𝑥+1 −𝑥+1
Homework
Note: (Dom(𝑥 𝑛 ) = ℝ) for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
Note: (Dom(𝑥 −𝑛 ) = ℝ − 0 ) for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
 1
𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥

Note: Dom( where

A function of the form 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

where 𝑎𝑖 ∈ ℝ for all 𝑖 and 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … is called a polynomial
Note: 1) 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are called the coefficient of 𝑝 𝑥
2) If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then the degree of 𝑝 𝑥 is deg(𝑝 𝑥 ) = n
3) Dom( Polynomials) = ℝ .
Dom 𝑓 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
Trigonometric Functions
Reference Angle
Dom(sin 𝑥) = ℝ
Range(sin 𝑥) = [−1,1]

Dom(cos 𝑥) = ℝ
Range(cos 𝑥) = [−1,1]
 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
Dom(tan 𝑥) = ℝ − ∓ , ∓ ,∓ ,…
2 2 2
Range(tan 𝑥) = ℝ
Homework
Note
 In general, we have

2
Note: Dom 𝑓 = [ , ∞) and Range 𝑓 =Dom(𝑓 −1)= (−∞. ∞)
3

𝜋𝑥
(a) Let 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (3). Then 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 + 𝑥 2 + tan =3
2
𝜋𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 + tan = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0 (by inspection)
2
(b) 𝑓 𝑓 −1 5 = 5.
For 𝑥 < 2 , 𝑦 = 5Τ2 − 𝑥 𝑥 = 5Τ2 − 𝑦 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 5Τ2 − 𝑥
For 𝑥 ≥ 2 , 𝑦 = 1Τ𝑥 𝑥 = 1Τ𝑦 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 1Τ𝑥
Therefore, 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥.
 −𝜋 𝜋
1) 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 is not 1-1 in general but it is 1-1 on ,
2 2
We can define 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = sin−1𝑥 where
Dom(sin−1𝑥) = [−1,1] and
−𝜋 𝜋
Range(sin−1𝑥) = ,
2 2
Note:
𝑓(𝑓 −1 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 sin sin−1𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
−𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 −1 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 sin−1 sin 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ,
2 2

𝜋 1 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
since sin( ) = and ∈ ,
4 2 4 2 2

−𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋
since sin = −sin = −1 and ∈ ,
2 2 2 2 2
2) 𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 is not 1-1 in general but it is 1-1 on 0 , 𝜋
We can define 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = cos −1 𝑥 where
Dom(cos−1𝑥) = [−1,1] and
Range(cos−1𝑥) = 0 , 𝜋
Note:
cos cos−1𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
cos−1 cos 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 0 , 𝜋

−𝜋 𝜋
3) 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 is 1-1 on ,
2 2
We can define 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 −1

Dom(tan−1𝑥) = −∞. ∞ and

−𝜋 𝜋
Range(tan−1𝑥) = ,
2 2
Note:
tan tan−1𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
−1 −𝜋 𝜋
tan tan 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ,
2 2
 1
tan(sin−1( ))
3
1 1
Solution Let 𝑦 = sin−1( ) sin 𝑦 =
3 3
1 1
tan(sin−1( )) = tan 𝑦 =
3 2 2

−1 3 3
Solution Let 𝑦 = sin ( ) sin 𝑦 = 5 3
5 5
1
sin(2sin−1( )) = sin2𝑦 = 2sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦
3
3 4 24
=2 = 4
5 5 25
 4
3 −3
Solution Let 𝑦 = sin−1(− ) sin 𝑦 = 3
4 4
−1 −3 1 4
sec(sin ( )) = sec𝑦 = = 7
4 cos 𝑦 7
(𝑦 must be in the 4th quadrant and so cos 𝑦 is positive)
−1
4𝜋
cos cos( )
3

4𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
cos = cos where ∈ 0 , 𝜋 = Dom (cos 𝑥)
3 3 3
4𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
cos−1 cos( ) = cos−1 cos( ) =
3 3 3
Homework:
Remarks
1)
2) is
𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 is 1-1 for 𝑏 > 0
3)

4) For any 𝑏 > 0,

Dom 𝑏 𝑥 = (−∞, ∞) and
Range 𝑏 𝑥 = (0, ∞)
The number 𝑒 is the base of the exponential function such that the slope
of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 at (0,1) is 𝑚 = 1. ( )
For 𝑎 > 0, the exponential function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 is 1-1. The inverse
function of 𝑓 is called the logarithmic function with base 𝑏 and is
Denoted by 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = Log𝑎 𝑥.
Note:
1) Dom(Log𝑎 𝑥) =Range(𝑎 𝑥 ) = (0, ∞)
2) 𝑓(𝑓 −1 𝑥 ) = 𝑥
𝑒 Log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 for 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞)
3) 𝑓 −1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
Log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
4) Log 𝑎 1 = 0
5) Logarithms Log10 𝑥 with base 10
are denoted by Log 𝑥.
and we write
Note:
1)

2)

3)

𝑥 = 10log 𝑥 = 10 2

𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 ln (𝑥+1) = 𝑒 5 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑒 5 − 1
𝑥 = log5 5𝑥 = log5 7
But 𝑒 𝑥 ≠ 1 − 2 since 1 − 2 < 0 and so 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 2
Therefore, 𝑥 = ln(1 + 2)
ln 4𝑥 − 3 ln 𝑥 2 = ln 2 ⇒ ln 4𝑥 − ln 𝑥 2 3 = ln 2
⇒ ln 4𝑥 − ln 𝑥 6 = ln 2
4𝑥
⇒ ln 6 = ln 2
𝑥
4𝑥
ln
⇒ 𝑒 𝑥6 = 𝑒 ln 2
4𝑥
⇒ 6 =2 ⇒ 2𝑥 6 − 4x = 0
𝑥
⇒ 2𝑥(𝑥 5 − 4) = 0
5
But 𝑥 ≠ 0 since ln 0 is not defined and so 𝑥 = 4
 Homework

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