2 The Nature of Approaches and

2 The nature of approaches and methods 21
In describing methods, the

the level of theory and
difference between a philosophy of language teaching at
principles and a set of derived
procedures for teaching a language
is central. In an attempt
to clarify this difference, a scheme was proposed by the American
applied linguist Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization
and organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique:
The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a
method which
consistent with an approach
is
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of lan-

guage teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the
subject matter to be taught
Method is an
overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no
part of whichcontradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An
approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural.

Within one approach, there can be many methods
A technique is implementational - that which actually takes place in a classroom.
It iS aparticular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate
objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony
with an approach as well.
(Anthony 1963: 63-7)
According to Anthony's model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs
about language and language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is
put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the
content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is the
level at which classroom procedures are described.
Anthony's model serves as a useful way of distinguishing between different degrees

of abstraction and specificity found in different language teaching proposals. Thus, we can
see that the proposals of the Reform Movement were at the level of approach and that the
Direct Method is one method derived from this approach. The so-called Reading Method,
which evolved as a result of the Coleman Report (see Chapter 1), should really be described
in the plural - reading methods since a number of different ways of implementing a read-
ing approach have been developed.
Other ways of conceptualizing approaches and methods in language teaching
have also been proposed. Mackey, in his book Language Teaching Analysis (1965),
elaborated perhaps the most well known model of the 196os, one that focuses primarily
on the levels of method and technique. Mackey's model of language teaching analysis
concentrates on the dimensions of selection, gradation, presentation, and repetition
underlying a method. In fact, despite the title of Mackey's book, his concern is prima-
rily with the analysis of textbooks and their underlying principles of organization. His
model does not address the level of approach, nor does it deal with the actual classroom
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38 Major trends in twentieth-century language teaching
Factors responsible for the rise and fall of methods
What factors appear to be responsible for the rise and fall of methods? We would suggest
that a number of factors are involved, including the following.
Paradigm shifts
As with other fields of education, language teaching is subject to the influences of
changes in the theories found in the supporting disciplines of linguistics, psychology,
and second language learning. Chomsky's attack on behaviorism (Chapter 3) and his
theory of linguistic competence was an example of such a shift one that had a signifi-
cant impact on approaches to language teaching. The emergence of the field of second
language acquisition similarly prompted a shift in thinking about the nature of second
language learning and new approaches to language teaching that led to the Natural
Approach and Task-Based Language Teaching. Communicative Language Teaching
similarly was adopted as evidence of a new paradigm of understanding about language
teaching and learning.
Support networks
The support networks available in
promoting or explaining a new teaching approach or
method are also crucial. Here
ministry or department of education, key educational
administrators, leading academics, and professional bodies and organizations can play
an important role in promoting a new approach or method. The fact that the Common
European Framework of Reference (Chapter 8) is the product of an important European
organization (the Council of Europe) has done much to give it a sense of legitimacy, as
was similarly the case with earlier proposals from the Council of Europe - the Threshold
Level - that provided a framework for Communicative Language Teaching (Chapter 5).
Practicality
A method that simple to understand, that requires little time to master, that appears
is
to conform to common sense, and that can be used in many different kinds of situations
is more likely to find advocates than one that is difficult to understand and that requires
special training and resources. Total Physical Response and Text-Based Instruction would
be examples in the former category while the Silent Way and Task-Based Language
Teaching would be examples of the second.
Teacher's language proficiency

Many of the world's language teachers are not native speakers of the
languages they teach
but nonetheless often achieve very good results. However, a method that assumes a native-
speaker level of proficiency on the part of the teacher is
unlikely to find advocates in some
countries. The Direct Method proved difficult for many teachers for this reason, and more
recent methods such
as Task-Based Language Teaching and CLIL may also be difficult for
some teachers to use for the same reason.

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2 The nature of approaches and methods 21

In describing methods, the

An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of lan-

approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural.

(Anthony 1963: 63-7)

Anthony's model serves as a useful way of distinguishing between different degrees

Factors responsible for the rise and fall of methods

Teacher's language proficiency

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