7 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating Current
Topic-1 Concepts covered: Alternating current, peak and rms value,
reactance and impedance

Revision Notes
 An alternating current is a current whose magnitude changes continuously with time and
direction reverses periodically.
 It is represented by sine curve or cosine curve
I = I0sin ωt or I = I0cos ωt,
where, I is the instantaneous value of the current and I0 is the peak value of the current.
 Frequency (f) of an alternating current is the number of cycles which get completed per second.

i.e., f=
2
 Average value of A.C. is defined as that value of direct current which sends the same charge in a circuit at the
same time as it sent by the given alternating current in its half-time period.
2I0
Iav = = 0.637 I 0
π
 Root mean square or virtual or effective value of a.c. is defined as that value of a direct current which produces
the same heating effect in a given resistor as is produced by the given alternating current when passed for the
same time.
I
Irms = 0 = 0.707 I 0
2
 Impedance is a quantity that measures the opposition of a circuit to the flow of current through it.
 Irms = 70.71% of I0.
 Erms = 70.71% of E0
 Iav = 63.66% of I0.
 Eav = 63.66% of E0
 The part of the impedance in which the phase difference between the current and emf is p/2 is called reactance.
 If the current lags behind emf by p/2, then the reactance is called inductive.
 If the emf lags behind the current by p/2, then the reactance is called capacitive.
 If the emf is in phase with the current, then the circuit is called resistive.
 Hot wire ammeter and voltmeters can be used both in a.c. as well as d.c. circuits.
 The non-sinusoidal complex waveform of an a.c. is obtained when a number of harmonic superpose on one
another.

Key Formulae

2I0
 Iav = = 0.637I0
p
I0
 Irms =
2
 Irms = 70.71% of I0.
  Erms = 70.71% of E0
 Iav = 63.66% of I0.
 Eav = 63.66% of E0
1
 Average power = E0I0cos f = ErmsIrmscos f
2
 Inductive reactance, XL = wL

1
 Capacitance reactance, XC =
ωC

1
 Net reactance, XL ~ XC = XL – XC = wL –
ωC

Key Terms
 Direct current: It is that current which flows with a constant magnitude in the same fixed direction.
 Phasor: A rotating vector that represents a sinusoidally varying quantity is called a phasor.
 Reactance: The non-resistive opposition to the flow of A.C. is called reactance. It may be inductive reactance
(XL) or capacitive reactance (XC).

LCR Series Circuit

Concepts covered: Reactance and impedance of different types
Topic-2 of circuits, LC oscillations, LCR series circuit; Resonance; Power
in a.c. circuits, Wattless current

Revision Notes

 Sign for phase difference (f) between I and V for series LCR circuit.
f is positive, when XL > XC.

f is negative, when XL < XC.

f is zero, when XL = XC.

1
 The L.C.R. series circuit is said to be in resonance when XL = XC i.e., when wL = .
ωC
1
and w = is called resonant frequency.
LC
1
 At series resonant frequency, w0 = , we have
LC

• Z = R which is the minimum value of impedance.

• When f = 0, i.e., I and E are in phase with each other.
• VL is equal in magnitude and opposite to VC.
• Potential drop across C and L together is zero.
• E = VR.
1
• The impedance is minimum i.e., Z = R and w0 = .
LC

1
 The f varies, between – 90° to + 90°, with frequency. Also, f = 0 at resonant frequency, w0 = .
LC
  Power in a.c. circuit: The power in LCR series circuit is given by
P = EI = E0I0 cos(wt – f).
 Power in an LCR series circuit consists of two components as follows,
1
• Virtual power component = E0 I 0 cos ( 2ωt − φ).
2

It has a frequency twice as that of a.c. Its value over the complete cycle is zero.
1
• Real power component =
E0 I 0cos f. The power is dissipated.
2
 Cos f is called the power factor of the circuit.
• P = VI is called apparent power.
• Px = VIcos f is called active power.
• Py = VIsin f is called reactive power.
1/ 2
• P =  Px2  Py2 
 
 The average power i.e., energy dissipated in the LCR circuit:
E0 I 0
Pa =  cos 
2

Power factor = cos f = Resistance

Impedance
True power
= Apparent power

 Impedance for LCR series circuit

1/ 2
  1  
2
Z= R  ( X L  X C )   R 2   L 
2 2
 
  C  

 At resonance: XL = XC and SL = SC.
Also X = 0 and S = 0
and Z = R.
 At resonance, V is in phase with I.
V
 At series LCR resonance, the current is maximum and is given by Imax = .
R

 I vs. w graph of a LCR circuit:

 Bandwidth: The bandwidth (BW) of a resonant circuit is defined as difference in frequency below and above the
resonant frequency for which the current is equal to or greater than 70.7% of its resonant value.
 Q-factor: Q factor is a measure of the quality of a resonance circuit represented by the letter Q. It is defined as the
ratio of resonant frequency and bandwidth.
1 L
Q = w0/Dw =
R C
 X L VL
It may also calculated as: Q = =
R VR
At resonance, VR = V and VL = VC
v V
\Q = L = C
V V
 LC circuit comprises of a fully charged capacitor and a totally de-energized Inductor. In such circuit, the inductor
begins to absorb energy from the capacitor. Magnetic energy stored in inductor rises, causing the capacitor
to discharge i.e., electric energy stored in capacitor decreases. When the Inductor is completely charged, the
electrical energy of capacitor becomes zero. The Inductor now begins to charge the capacitor using the energy
stored in it.
This process repeats - transfer of energy from capacitor to the inductor and then back to the capacitor. This is LC
oscillation. LC Oscillations are the continual flow of energy from one device to another.
 The maximum value of current in the LR circuit is V/R, where, V is applied emf.
 The maximum charge on the capacitor in RC circuit is VC.
 The current in RC circuit decays both while charging as well as discharging.

Key Formulae
 Impedance for LCR series circuit

1/2
  1  
2
Z= R  X   R 2   L 
2 2

  C  

 At resonant frequency
1
Z = R, ω0 =

LC
Resistance
 Power factor = cos f =
Impedance
True power
=
Apparent power
Q = (1/R)(L/C)

Key Terms
 Resonant frequency: The frequency at which the current amplitude I0 attains a peak value is called natural or
resonant frequency .
 Acceptor circuit: The series resonant circuit is also called an acceptor circuit.

Mnemonics
Concept : Phase difference in pure capacitive L : Leads
and pure inductive circuit. V : Voltage
Mnemonics: LUCCI Left Varoda. IVAN Left I : Inductive Circuit
Chennai. V : Voltage
Interpretation:
L : Leads
C : Capacitive Circuit
C : Current
C : Current
 Topic-3 a.c. Generator

Revision Notes
 The frequency of household a.c. in India is 50 hertz.
 The time period of a.c. is equal to the time taken by the a.c. generator coil to complete one rotation.
 Comparison of a.c. power supply and d.c. power supply:
Merits:
• The generation cost of a.c. is less than that of d.c.
• It can be made available in a wide range of voltages using transformers.
• The a.c. devices such as motors are mechanically more robust and stout than the d.c. devices.
• The power loss in a.c. transmission is negligible as compared to that in d.c. transmission.
• The a.c. can be easily converted to d.c. The reverse is not true.
• For reducing alternating current, we can use choke coils in which the loss of energy is much less than that in
the rheostat used for reducing d.c.
Demerits:
(i) The a.c. is more dangerous and fatal than d.c.
(ii) The 220 V a.c. supply has the peak value of about 311 V, which can cause more severe shock to the persons
coming in contact with it.
(iii) The a.c. is transmitted mostly at the outer surface of the wire, so the conductor needs to be in the form of
several stranded wires.
(iv) The a.c. contains higher harmonics in addition to the fundamental frequency.
(v) The a.c. cannot be used for electrolysis, electroplating, electrorefining, electro-typing, etc.
 a.c. Generator: It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in the form of alternating
current.
Construction: The main parts of a.c. generator are: (i) field magnet, (ii) the armature (iii), the slip
rings, (iv) the brushes.
Field magnet is a strong horseshoe permanent magnet. The armature having a soft iron core, is
rotated rapidly in the magnetic field between the poles of the field magnet. The armature is
connected to two coaxial metallic slip rings. Brushes are made of carbon.
(a) Initially,
df
e=
dt
e = BANwsin wt

e = e0sin wt

Here, e0 = BANw

and w = 2pf

e0 is called the peak value of induced emf.

Key Formulae
 e= BANw sin wt
e= e0ssin wt
Here, e0 = BANw
and w= 2pf
 Mnemonics
Concept : Fleming’s right hand rule is Interpretation:
applicable for generator. Fleming’s left hand L : Left
rule is applicable for motors. H : hand rule
Mnemonics: Left Handed Guy helped Right G : Generators
Handed Mam. R : Right
H : hand rule
M : Motors

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