BIO1203: GENERAL ZOOLOGY

Chapter 7: Animal Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Organization

7.1 Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Taxonomy

It concerns with nomenclature, description, classification

and identification of a species.

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history of a species is studied based on

common ancestries inferred from: fossil records,
morphological and biochemical similarities, and
molecular (DNA) evidence.

Systematics

Governs evolutionary history and phylogenetic

relationship in addition to taxonomy.

Nomenclature

Binomial System of Nomenclature

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).

 No two animals have the same binomial.

 Every animal has only one correct name.
 The genus of an animal begins with a capital letter,
the species epithet begins with a lowercase letter,
and the entire scientific name is italicized or
underlined because it is derived from Latin or is
latinized.

Humans are named Homo sapiens which is abbreviated

H. sapiens.

Taxonomic Hierarchies

Taxon any grouping of animals that shares a particular

set of characteristics.

Taxonomic Categories Molecular Approaches to Animal Systematics

 Hierarchically arranged (broader to specific).  The relatedness of animals is reflected in the gene
 Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, products (proteins) animals produce and in the
genus, species. genes themselves (the sequence of nitrogenous
bases in DNA).
 As one moves down through the hierarchy from
domain toward species, one is looking at groups
Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA.
derived from more recent ancestors and a smaller
subset of more closely related animals.
Ribosomal RNA.
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Chapter 7: Animal Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Organization
 Related animals have DNA derived from a common
ancestor.
 Biologists use phylogenetic trees, or phylogenies, to
visualize genetic relatedness of organisms.

Animals also have extragenic DNA that does not code

for protein.

Comprises a large portion of animal genomes

Can change without harming the animal, not conserved

evolutionarily.

A number of DNA analysis techniques (e.g.,

microsatellites and amplified fragment length
Phylogeny of canid species. The tree shown was
polymorphisms [AFLP] can be used to examine this
constructed using maximum parsimony. Bootstrap
DNA and investigate phylogenetic changes.
values and bayesian posterior probability values are
listed above and below the internodes, respectively.

Domains and Kingdoms

The highest levels of classification in the taxonomic

hierarchy are domains and kingdoms.

Ribosomal RNA

 It is an ancient molecule, and it is present and

retains its function in virtually all organisms.
 rRNA changes very slowly.
 This slowness of change, called evolutionary
conservation, indicates that the protein-producing
machinery of a cell can tolerate little change and still
retain its vital function.
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Chapter 7: Animal Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Organization
Analysis tools are used to study base sequences,
identify the corresponding genes, and compare these
genes to other base sequences in molecular databases.

A commonly used database is maintained by the

National Center for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI).

The systematists decide which arrangement of the

organisms best explains the data from database Approaches to Animal Systematics
comparisons.
1. Phylogenetic systematics or cladistics.
Animal Systematics
 Homologies of recent origin are most useful.
The goal of animal systematics is to arrange animals into  Ancestral character states or plesiomorphies.
groups that reflect evolutionary relationships.
Common to all members of a group.
These groups should include the most recent ancestral
species and all of its descendants. Such a group is Indicate shared ancestry.
called a monophyletic group
Cannot be used to describe relationships within the
Some modern groupings reflect insufficient knowledge. group because present in all members. Called
symplesiomorphies.
Polyphyletic groups – do not include the most recent
common ancestor of all members of the group.  Outgroup.

Paraphyletic groups – include some, but not all, Related group not included in study group.
descendants of a most recent common ancestor.
Used to help decide whether a character is ancestral or
has more recently derived.

 Characters that have arisen since common ancestry

with the outgroup are called derived character states
or apomorphies.

Derived characters shared by members of a group are

called synapomorphies.

 Cladogram.

Depicts a sequence in the origin of derived character

states.

 Clade

Related subset within a lineage or cladogram.

Interpretation: An assemblage of species 1– 8 is a
polyphyletic group because species 1– 6 have a different  Hierarchical nesting.
ancestor than species 7 and 8. An assemblage of
species 3–6 is a paraphyletic group because species 1 Cladograms represent nested groups that share
and 2 share the same ancestor as 3–6, but they have synapomorphic characters.
been left out of the group. An assemblage of species 1– The less inclusive the nest is, the more closely related
6 is a monophyletic group because it includes all of the the organisms
descendants of a single ancestor.

Determine whether the group is monophyletic,

paraphyletic, or polyphyletic.
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Chapter 7: Animal Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Organization
Morphological Data for Five Groups of Vertebrates

Interpreting Cladograms

7.2 Patterns of Organization

Symmetry

It describes how parts of an animal are arranged around

a point or axis.

The concept of symmetry is fundamental to

understanding animal organization.

Cladogram showing Vertebrate Phylogeny

Approaches to Animal Systematics

2. Evolutionary Systematics

Traditional approach.

Homologies useful in classification.

Phylogenetic trees depict relationships, time, and Other Patterns of Organization

abundance.
The patterns described in this section concern the
Figure demonstrates integration of information from organization of animal bodies based on tissue layers and
fossil record to depict time periods & relative body cavities.
abundance of taxa within a lineage.
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Chapter 7: Animal Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Organization
1. Unicellular (Cytoplasmic) Level of Organization

Protists (unicellular)

Unicellular organization is not “simple.”

All unicellular organisms must provide for the functions

of locomotion, food acquisition, digestion, water and ion
regulation, sensory perception, and reproduction in a
single cell.

Sponges (cell aggregate)

consist of loose associations of cells that exhibit little

interdependence, cooperation, or coordination of
function—therefore, cellular aggregates cannot be
considered tissues.

3. Triploblastic Level of Organization

Mesoderm.

 Third tissue later, composed of cells, found between

ectoderm and endoderm.
 Supportive, contractile, and blood cells.

Body cavities often present, further help to organize

animals.

 Organ development.
 Surface area for diffusion of gases, nutrients,
wastes. Storage.
 Hydrostatic skeletons.
 Elimination of wastes and reproductive products.
2. Diploblastic Level of Organization  Facilitate increased body size.

Body parts are organized into layers derived from two

embryonic tissue layers

 Ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis, the outer

layer of the body wall.
 Endoderm gives rise to the gastrodermis, the tissue
that lines the gut cavity.

Mesoglea (middle, noncellular).

The feeding movements of Hydra or the swimming

movements of a jellyfish are only possible when groups
of cells cooperate.

Triploblastic Body Plans

a. Acoelomate

Mesoderm forms solid mass.

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Chapter 7: Animal Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Organization
b. Eucoelomate cleavage patterns and the method of coelom
formation.
 Body cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm.
 Mesenteries suspend visceral structures in body
cavity.

c. Pseudocoelomate

 Body cavity not entirely lined by mesoderm.

 Gut is not associated with muscle or connective
tissue.

Protostome vs Deuterostome

In protostomes, the first opening in the embryo becomes

the mouth.

In deuterostomes, the first opening in the embryo

becomes the anus, and the mouth develops later.

Animal Taxonomy

This tree depicts an independent origin of the phyla

Ctenophora, Porifera, Placozoa, Acoelomorpha, and
Cnidaria.
7.3 Higher Animal Taxonomy
Members of the phyla containing bilaterally symmetrical
 Five “basal phyla” probably originated independently animals are divided into three groups.
from other animal groups. These include the
The Lophotrochozoa are protostomes that do not molt.
Ctenophora, Porifera, Placozoa, Acoelomorpha, and
They include the annelids, molluscs, and others.
Cnidaria.
 The Cnidaria and Ctenophora are commonly The Ecdysozoa are protostomes that molt. They include
grouped together (Radiata) based on the presence the nematodes, arthropods, and others.
of radial symmetry and diploblastic organization in
both groups. The Deuterostomia includes the echinoderms,
 Bilateral animals have been grouped into two hemichordates, and chordate
branches (Protostome and Deuterostome) based on
embryological characteristics, including early