NOTES: CH 42, part 2 -

Gas Exchange in Animals

 Functions of the Respiratory System:
1) Air distribution /
gaseous exchange;
2) Filter, warm &
humidify air we
breathe;
3) Influence speech;
4) Help maintain
body’s pH;
5) Make sense of
smell possible.
**Gas
exchange
supplies O2
for cellular
respiration
and
disposes of
CO2.
 ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
*The organs of the respiratory system can be
divided into two groups:

1) Upper Respiratory Tract: nose, nasal

cavity, sinuses, pharynx

2) Lower Respiratory Tract: larynx, trachea,

bronchial tree, lungs, alveoli
 SUMMARY OF PATHWAY OF AIR (OXYGEN) IN THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

Nostrils

Nasal cavity

Pharynx

Glottis/epiglottis

Larynx
Trachea

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Alveoli

Blood (capillaries)

Body cells
 ● NOSE
 supported by bone and cartilage

 openings for air: NOSTRILS

 ● NASAL CAVITY
 lined with mucous
membrane to filter,
warm, and moisten
incoming air

 CILIA carry particles

trapped in the mucus to
the pharynx, where
they are swallowed
 ● SINUSES
 spaces in the bones of the skull that open
into the nasal cavity

 lined with mucous membranes

 ● PHARYNX
 behind the oral cavity;
between the nasal cavity
and the larynx

 a.k.a. the “throat”

 ● LARYNX
 conducts air and
prevents foreign particles
from entering trachea
 composed of muscles
and cartilage; lined with
mucous membrane
 the GLOTTIS and
EPIGLOTTIS help
prevent foods and liquids
from entering the trachea
 contains the VOCAL
CORDS
**VOCAL CORDS vibrate from side to
side and produce sounds when air
passes between them
 ● TRACHEA
 extends into the thoracic cavity; in front of
the esophagus

 divides into R and L BRONCHI

 ● BRONCHIAL TREE
 consists of branched
air passages that lead
from the trachea to the
air sacs

 ALVEOLI are at the

distal ends of the
narrowest tubes, the
ALVEOLAR DUCTS
ALVEOLI: humans have approx.
300,000,000 of these microscopic air
sacs; walls are only 1-2 cells thick
 ALVEOLI
• O2 dissolves in moist film covering
epithelium & diffuses across to the
capillaries covering each alveolus;
• CO2 moves in opposite direction
 ● LUNGS
 enclosed by the
DIAPHRAGM and
the thoracic cage

 closely surrounded
by the PLEURAE
-VISCERAL PLEURA: attaches
to the surface of the lungs

-PARIETAL PLEURA: lines the

thoracic cavity

-PLEURAL CAVITY: the space

between the two pleurae;
contains fluid to lubricate and
cushion lungs during
breathing; fluid also holds the
two pleurae together which
aids in breathing
Gas Exchange and Transport
 ALVEOLAR GAS EXCHANGES
*Gas exchange between
air and blood occurs in
the alveoli.
 ALVEOLAR GAS EXCHANGES
● Gases (O2 and CO2) diffuse from regions of
HIGH concentration (and partial pressure)
to regions of LOW concentration (partial
pressure)
● OXYGEN diffuses from alveolar air into
blood
● CARBON DIOXIDE
diffuses from blood
into alveolar air
 Partial Pressure in Partial Pressure in
Gas Action
Blood Alveolar Space

Carbon Dioxide 45 mm Hg exit 40 mm Hg

Oxygen 40 mm Hg enter blood 104 mm Hg

 GAS TRANSPORT IN THE
BLOOD / BODY
*Blood transports gases between the lungs
and body cells.
 OXYGEN TRANSPORT:
● oxygen binds to the
protein hemoglobin in
the blood (RBCs)

● the resulting molecule,

oxyhemoglobin, is
unstable and readily
releases oxygen in
regions where PO2 is
low
 OXYGEN TRANSPORT
(continued)…
● more oxygen will be released from
oxyhemoglobin when:

-CO2 levels in the blood increase

-blood becomes more acidic

-blood temperature increases

CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT:
● carbon dioxide may be carried:
-in solution

-bound to hemoglobin (different spot on

molecule than where oxygen binds)

**as a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) …MOST

CO2 is in this form!
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT:
● carbon dioxide reacts with water to form
carbonic acid:

CO2 + H 2O  H2CO3
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT:
● carbonic acid dissociates to release
hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions:

H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-
Control of Breathing:
*Normal breathing is rhythmic and
involuntary.
 Respiratory Center:
● the respiratory center is in the brain stem
and includes portions of the PONS and
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 FACTORS AFFECTING
BREATHING:
1) respiratory center in the brain
2) chemical concentrations
(gases, ions, pH, etc.)
3) stretching of lung tissue
4) emotional state
 EXAMPLES:
*when chemoreceptors in the walls of
certain large arteries detect low O2 levels
(or high CO2 levels), breathing rate
increases

*fear and pain typically increase the normal

breathing pattern
 CONTROL OF BREATHING
-medulla control center also
monitors blood biochemistry &
pH of the spinal fluid;
-as blood CO2 concentrations
increase, the pH drops (CO2
combines with water to form
carbonic acid);
-when the medulla senses the
drop in pH, the rate & depth of
breathing are increased &
excess CO2 is removed in the
exhaled air
 CONTROL OF BREATHING
-when oxygen concentration in blood
becomes very low, oxygen sensors in
aorta and carotid arteries send signals to
the medulla and pons, which respond by
increasing the breathing rate.
 CONTROL OF BREATHING
-breathing is an automatic action
-we inhale when nerves in the “breathing centers”
of the medulla oblongata & pons send impulses
to the rib muscles or diaphragm stimulating the
muscles to contract
-when muscles contract, the volume of the chest
cavity expands, pressure decreases, air from
outside rushes in
-this happens approx. 10-14 times per minute

“Negative Pressure Breathing”

Breathing Mechanism
*Changes in the size of the thoracic cavity
accompany INSPIRATION (inhaling) and
EXPIRATION (exhaling).
 Pressure…
*ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
(the “weight” of the air) is the
force that moves air into
the lungs.

*Air (gases) move from regions of

HIGH PRESSURE to regions of
LOW PRESSURE
 INSPIRATION:
• if the pressure inside the lungs/alveoli
decreases, atmospheric pressure will force
air into the lungs
 INSPIRATION:
How does the pressure inside
the lungs decrease???

> Diaphragm contracts (moves

downward)

> Thoracic cage moves upward

and outward (external
intercostal muscles contract)
 INSPIRATION:
 the INCREASE IN VOLUME of the
thoracic cavity causes a DECREASE IN
PRESSURE
 INSPIRATION:
• as the walls of the thoracic cavity expand,
they pull on the parietal pleura
• the serous fluid in the pleural cavity holds
the pleural membranes tightly together
(much like a wet microscope slide will stick
to another microscope slide)
• as the parietal pleura is pulled outward, the
visceral pleura follows…
INSPIRATION:
• the lungs expand in all
directions and air is
pulled inward!!

**for a deeper breath, the

diaphragm and intercostals
muscles contract with
more force
 EXPIRATION:
• the forces for normal exhalation come from
ELASTIC RECOIL of tissues

• the opposite pressure and volume changes

occur…pressure inside the lungs
increases and forces air out
 EXPIRATION:
How does the pressure
inside the lungs
increase???

> Diaphragm relaxes (moves

upward)

> External intercostals

muscles relax; thoracic
cage moves downward and
inward
 EXPIRATION:
 Lungs and thoracic cage
recoil and return to their
original shape

 the DECREASE IN
VOLUME of the thoracic
cavity causes an INCREASE
IN PRESSURE

 air is forced out!!

RESPIRATORY AIR VOLUMES AND
CAPACITIES:
*the amount of air inhaled and exhaled
depends upon size, activity level and state
of health.
TIDAL VOLUME = volume of air an animal
inhales & exhales with each breath during
normal, quiet breathing
(Average = 500 mL in humans)
 RESPIRATORY AIR VOLUMES
AND CAPACITIES:
• even after forceful expiration,
some air remains in the lungs
(RESIDUAL VOLUME)
…why?
-so that lungs don’t collapse!
(alveoli always stay partially
inflated)
-prevents the O2 and CO2 levels
from fluctuating greatly (“new”
air always mixes with “old” air)
RESPIRATORY AIR VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES:

• VITAL CAPACITY = maximum air volume

that can be inhaled & exhaled during
forced breathing
(Average = 3400-4800 mL in humans)
-loss of lung elasticity may result in collapse of
bronchioles during exhalation
-emphysema causes a decrease in vital capacity
TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY =

VITAL + RESIDUAL
CAPACITY VOLUME

**all of these volumes/capacities vary with

age, sex, and body size
Vital capacity
NONRESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS: used to
clear passageways, or to express emotion

• COUGH -
-may be produced through conscious effort
-may be triggered by the presence of a
foreign object
-clears the object from the
lower respiratory tract
• SNEEZE -
-clears the upper respiratory tract
-a reflex triggered by a mild irritation in the
lining of the nasal cavity
-can propel a particle at 200 miles per hour!
• LAUGHING - involves taking a
breath and releasing it in a series of
short expirations

• CRYING - similar to laughing in

terms of mechanism

• HICCUP - a sudden inspiration to a

spasmodic contraction of the
diaphragm

• YAWN - may aid respiration by

providing an occasional deep
breath
Disorders and Diseases of the Respiratory System:
• Asthma

• Emphysema
 Disorders and Diseases of the
Respiratory System:
• Cancer

• Cystic fibrosis
 Disorders and Diseases of the
Respiratory System:
• Tuberculosis (TB)

• Pneumonia

• Common cold
 Disorders and Diseases of the
Respiratory System:
• Flu

• Whooping cough

• Plague
 Disorders and Diseases of the
Respiratory System:
• Strep throat
 Disorders and Diseases of the
Respiratory System:
• Bronchitis / laryngitis

Normal
vocal
chords

Inflamed
vocal
chords