Intro To Information and

Communication Technology
Lecture 04
Topics Covered
The systems life cycle
• Analysis
• Design
• Development and testing
• Implementation
• Documentation
• Evaluation
Analysis
The first stage in the process is the analysis of the current system
Analysis
Analyses the current system
Typically, four methods are used:
• Observation
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Examination of existing documents.
Analysis
Observation: This method involves watching personnel using the
existing system to find out exactly how it works.
Advantages
• The analyst obtains reliable data
• It is possible to get a better overall view of the system
• Relatively inexpensive method because it only involves the analyst
• All inputs and outputs of the current system are seen
Analysis
Disadvantages:
• People are generally uncomfortable being watched and may work in a
different way (known as the Hawthorne effect)
• If workers perform tasks that contravene standard procedures, they
may not do this while being watched
Analysis
Interviews: This method involves a one to one question-and-answer session
between the analyst and the user. It is a good method if the analyst wants to
probe deeply into one specific aspect of the existing system.
Advantages
• It gives the opportunity to motivate the interviewee into giving open and
honest answers to the analyst’s questions
• The method allows the analyst to probe for more feedback from the
interviewee (questions can be extended)
• It is possible to modify questions as the interview proceeds and ask
questions specific to the interviewee
• Analyst can watch body language and facial expressions
Analysis
Disadvantages
• It can be a rather time consuming exercise
• It is relatively expensive (team of interviewers and analyst needed)
• The interviewee cannot remain anonymous with this method, and
may hide information or not be honest with their answers
• Interviewee can give answers they think the interviewer wants to
hear
• Interviewees may not be available at times to suit the analyst
Analysis
Questionnaires: This method involves distributing questionnaires to the
workforce, clients or system users to find out their views of the existing
system and to find out how some of the key tasks are carried out.
Advantages
• The questions can be answered fairly quickly
• It is a relatively inexpensive method (only need to produce questionnaires)
• Individuals can remain anonymous if they want (therefore give more
truthful answers)
• Allows for a quick analysis of the data
• Interviewees can fill in questionnaire in their own time
• Allows a greater number of people to take part
Analysis
Disadvantages
• The number of returned questionnaires can be low; not always a
popular method
• The questions are rather rigid because they have to be generic; it is
not possible to ask follow-up questions
• No immediate way to clarify a vague answer to a question; it is not
possible to expand their answers
• Users tend to exaggerate their responses as they are anonymous
• Because anonymous, the interviewees may not take it seriously
Analysis
Looking at the existing documents: This method allows the analyst to see how
existing files are kept, look at operating instructions and training manuals, check the
accounts, etc. This allows the analyst to get some idea of the scale of the problem,
memory size requirements, type of input/output devices needed, etc.
Advantages
• This method allows information to be obtained which was not possible by any of
the other methods
• The analyst can see for themselves how the current system operates
Disadvantages
• It can be a very time consuming exercise
• Because of the analyst’s time needed, it is a relatively expensive method to use
Analysis
The main objectives of Analyzing the Current System are:
• What input and output takes place
• What processing is done
• What problems exist with the current system
• User and information requirements for the new system.
Example: Flight Reservation System
• what inputs take place during the customer enquiry (in this case, a
customer keys in their flight details, such as names of passengers,
passport numbers, dates of flight, and so on)
• what processing is done (check flights, process customer data,
allocate flight reference number and access booking database;
customer flight booking has to be added to database once all
processing completed)
• what outputs are produced (in this case, on-screen and e-ticket (QR
code) sent to customer’s smartphone)
Design
File structures
consider how the files containing data will be structured;
File structures
Each field in the record now needs to be totally defined as follows:
• field name (for example, product_code)
• field length (what is the maximum number of characters that need to
be stored)
• data type
• is any code being used (for example, the codes T, A and B are being
used)
• coding saves space in the file because only a single character is being used.
this also speeds up entry and also reduces errors)
• the primary key field here will be product_code because it is unique.
Data types
Data types
Exercise
Which data types would you use for the following data items?
A21DD45678
Y
Sample_data_items
T or F (only)
01214444555
200
€55
24.12
22/10/2020
Validation routines
• When data is input into a computer system, there is a need to check
that the data is acceptable.
• Validation is the process where data entered into a computer is
checked to see if it satisfies certain criteria. It is an automatic check
carried out by the computer as part of its programming.
• For example, validation criteria could be that only positive numbers
entered, or eight characters must be entered; any data failing these
criteria should be rejected.
Validation routines
Exercise
A password (which takes the form xxxxnnxx where x = a letter and n = a
numerical digit) is being entered using an online form.
• Name three possible validation checks you could use.
• Give an example of an input that would pass each of your validation checks.
• Give an example of an input that would cause an error message for each of
your validation checks.
Validation routines

Give a suitable validation check for each of the five fields. A

different validation check must be given for each field
Input formats
• Data capture forms are often used to input data into a computer.
• These forms ensure data is input into the computer in the correct
format.
• They need to be designed very carefully to ensure that the format of
the data matches, for example, the database where the data is being
stored.
Input formats
Paper-based data capture form
Input formats
A computer-based data capture form is slightly different. These often have
the following features:
• use of text boxes to capture key data clearly
• use of on-screen help when completing the form
• use of drop-down/combo boxes where there are limited choices
• use of radio buttons and tick boxes requiring a single click of a mouse to
select
• automatic validation of data as it is entered
• control buttons (such as next form, clear entry, save, etc.)
• double entry boxes (with verification rules) to check
Output formats
screen layouts and report layouts
The output from any system needs careful consideration because this is
part of any user interface, and is the result of some form of processing.
Output formats
Screen outputs should be designed:
• to make sure the size of all the output
fields is correct
• so that any instructions/descriptions
are clear
• so that the full screen is utilized
(avoiding large areas of ‘nothing’)
• so that colors and fonts (size and type)
make the output clear.
Development and Testing
Testing
Test designs cover how a system is to be tested.
It is ensured how the following aspects can be achieved:
• testing the data structures
• testing the file structures
• testing the input methods
• testing the output formats
• testing the validation rules.
Testing
Data structures: The test design should determine how we can test
that all data is in a correct format or has been stored in the correct way
(for example, whether tables hold data correctly)
File structures: The testing design should test that the file structures
function correctly (i.e. data is stored in the correct format and can be
correctly retrieved when required)
Input formats: The testing design should determine how we can test
that all data can be entered into the system correctly (for example, if a
date is to be entered does the input format permit this date to be
entered correctly)
Output formats: The test design should determine how we can test
that screen outputs and reports are all in the correct format (for
example, are the output results clear, complete and correctly match the
input data)
Validation routines: The test design should determine what data is
needed to test to see if all the validation rules work (for example, does
the system correctly reject unreasonable data being input)
Test strategies
Test strategies
Test plan and test data
Once the testing designs and strategy have been determined, it then
becomes necessary to formulate a test plan for each module. The test
plan should include:
• a list of all the tests to be performed
• what data is to be used in the testing
• what type of testing the data is designed to check (i.e. normal, abnormal or
extreme)
• what the expected outcomes are from the testing
• do the actual outcomes match what is expected?
Test Data
For example, entered data must take the format dd/mm/yyyy and all
data must be numeric.
normal – this is data which is acceptable/valid and has an expected
(known) outcome; for example, the month can be any whole number in
the range 1 to 12
extreme – this is data at the limits of acceptability/validity; for
example, the month can be either of the two end values i.e. 1 or 12
Test Data
abnormal – this is data outside the limits of acceptability/validity and
should be rejected or cause an error message; for example, none of the
following values are allowed as inputs for the month:
• any value less than 1 (for example, 0, −1, −15, etc.)
• any value greater than 12 (for example, 32, 45, etc.)
• letters or other non-numeric data (for example, July, etc.)
• non-integer values (for example, 3.5, 10.75, etc.).
Test Data
Live data is entered into the new system and the results compared with
those produced from the existing system. If the two outcomes do not
match, then further modifications to the system may be needed.
Example of a test plan
Exercise
Use the example of a date in the format dd/mm/yyyy when answering
the following questions.
• Consider the following 20 pieces of data and decide whether each
data item is normal, abnormal or extreme (tick the appropriate box in
the table).
Exercise

Describe how it would be possible to avoid errors altogether when inputting the data in the form shown
above.
Implementation
System implementation
Once the system is fully tested, the next stage is to fully implement it.
Methods used in changeover
Direct: With this method the old system is stopped overnight and the
new system introduced immediately
• This method can be disastrous if the new system fails because the old
system is no longer available
• The benefits are immediate
• Costs are reduced (because only one system is used there is no need
to pay for two sets of staff)
Methods used in changeover
Parallel With this method, the old and new systems are run side by side
for a time before the new system takes over altogether
• If this new system fails, the old system is still available as a backup
• It is possible to gradually train staff
• It is more expensive than direct because extra staff are needed to run
both systems together
• It is also more time consuming than direct because data needs to be
entered into two systems
Methods used in changeover
Pilot With this method, the new system is introduced into one branch
or office of the company and its performance assessed before
being introduced elsewhere in the company
• If the new system fails, only one part is affected; the remainder is
unaffected
• It is possible to train staff in one area only, which is much faster and
less costly than parallel
• The costs are also less than parallel because only one part of the
system is being used in the pilot branch
Methods used in changeover
Phased With this method, only part of the new system is introduced
and, only when it proves to work satisfactorily, is the next part
introduced, and so on, until the old system is fully replaced
• If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the system to
the point of failure; hence failure is not disastrous
• More expensive than direct because it is necessary to evaluate each
phase before moving to the next stage
• Very time consuming because each part needs to be fully evaluated
before making any further changes to the system
• It is possible to ensure the system works properly before expanding
Documentation
Once the new system is fully developed, a considerable amount of
documentation also needs to be produced for:
• people who may need to modify or develop the system further at some later
stage
• the end-user
Documentation
Technical documentation
Technical documentation is designed to help programmers/analysts to make
improvements to the system or repair/maintain the system. This can consist
of any of the following:
• program code
• program flowcharts/algorithms
• hardware requirements
• software requirements
• known ‘bugs’ in the system
• validation rules
• meaning of error messages
Documentation
User documentation
User documentation is designed to help users to learn how to use the software or
system. This can consist of any of the following:
• User manual
• how to load/install/run the software
• how to save files
• how to do a search
• how to sort data
• how to print out
• how to add, delete or amend records
• troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs (frequently asked questions)
• error messages/meaning of error messages
• glossary of terms
• Training tutorials
Evaluation
Once a system is up and running it is necessary to do some evaluation
and carry out any maintenance if necessary
• Compare the final solution with the original task requirements.
• Identify any limitations of the system.
• Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made.
• Evaluate the users’ responses to using the new system.
• Compare performance of the new system with performance of the old
system.