Chapter 2

Frequency Distributions
PowerPoint Lecture Slides
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences
Seventh Edition
by Frederick J Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau
Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes
Concepts to review

• Proportions (math review, Appendix A)

– Fractions
– Decimals
– Percentages
• Scales of measurement (Chapter 1)
– Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
– Continuous and discrete variables (Chapter 1)
• Real limits (Chapter 1)
2.1 Introduction to Frequency
Distributions
• A frequency distribution is
– An organized tabulation
– Showing the number of individuals located in
each category on the scale of measurement
• Can be either a table or a graph
• Always shows
– The categories that make up the scale
– The frequency, or number of individuals, in
each category
2.2 Frequency Distribution Tables

• Structure of Frequency Distribution Table

– Categories in a column (usually highest to lowest)
– Frequency count next to category
• To compute ΣX from a table
– Convert table back to original score or
– Compute ΣfX
Proportions and Percentages
Proportions Percentages
• Measures the fraction of the • Expresses relative
total group that is frequency out of 100
associated with each score
•
• • Can be included as a
separate column in a
• Called relative frequencies frequency distribution table
because they describe the
frequency ( f ) in relation to
the total number (N)
Ex. 2.3 Frequency, Proportion
and Percent in a Table

This is an adaptation of example 2.3

Learning Check
• Use the Frequency Distribution
Table to determine how many
subjects were in the study
Learning Check - Answer
• Use the Frequency Distribution
Table to determine how many
subjects were in the study
Learning Check
• Is each of these statements
True or False for the
Frequency Distribution shown?
Learning Check - Answer
Grouped Frequency Distribution
Tables
• When the number of categories is very large,
they are combined, or grouped, in the table
• Information is lost when categories are
grouped or combined
– Individual scores cannot be retrieved
– The wider the interval, the more information
is lost
Rules for Grouped Frequency
Distribution Tables
• About 10 class intervals
• Width of interval should be simple number
• Bottom score in interval should be a multiple
of the width of the interval
• Intervals should be the same width
Real Limits and
Frequency Distributions
• For continuous variable, the score recorded
corresponds to an interval on the number line
– Individuals with the same recorded score might
have had different measurements
– In Frequency Distribution Table, the score actually
refers to the interval’s real limits
• For Grouped Frequency Distributions, the
apparent limits are smaller than the real limits
– Class interval extends from lower real limit of
lowest score to upper real limit of highest score
Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.
Learning Check - Answer
Learning Check
• A Grouped Frequency Distribution table has
categories 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, and 30-39.
• What is the width of the interval 20-29?
Learning Check - Answer
• A Grouped Frequency Distribution table has
categories 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, and 30-39.
• What is the width of the interval 20-29?
 2.3 Frequency Distribution Graphs

• Pictures of data available in tables

– All have two axes
– X-axis (abscissa) has categories of
measurement scale increasing left to right
– Y-axis (ordinate) has frequencies increasing
bottom to top
• General principles
– Both axes should have value 0 where they meet
– Height should be about ⅔ to ¾ of length
Creating a Histogram
• List all numeric scores on the X-axis
– Include those with a frequency of f = 0
• Draw bars above each class interval
– Height of bar corresponds to frequency
– Width of bar corresponds to real limits
• Grouped Frequency Histogram
– Uses grouped intervals
• Modified Histogram
– Creates bar of correct height by drawing a stack
of blocks, one per case
Figure 2.1
Frequency Distribution Histogram
Figure 2.2
Frequency Distribution Histogram for Grouped Data
Figure 2.3
Frequency Distribution Histogram: Block for Each Score
Frequency Distribution Polygons

• List all numeric scores on the X-axis

– Include those with a frequency of f = 0
• Draw a dot above the center of each interval
– Height of bar corresponds to frequency
– Connect the dots with a continuous line
– Close the polygon with lines to the Y = 0 point
• Can also be used with grouped frequency
distribution data
Figure 2.4
Frequency Distribution Polygon
Figure 2.5
Frequency Distribution Polygon for Grouped Data
Graphs for Nominal or Ordinal Data

• For non-numerical values (scores),

a bar graph is used
– Similar to a histogram
– Spaces between adjacent bars indicates
discrete categories without order (nominal)
or of unmeasurable width (ordinal)
Figure 2.6
Bar graph
Graphs for Population Distributions
• When population is small, scores for each
member are used to make a histogram
• When population is large, scores for each
member are not possible
– Graphs based on relative frequency are used
– Graphs use smooth curves to indicate exact
scores were not used
• Normal
– Symmetric with greatest frequency in the middle
– Common structure in data for many variables
Figure 2.7
Bar Graph of Relative Frequencies
Figure 2.8
Population Distribution of IQ: Normal Curve
Figure 2.9
Use and Misuse of Graphs
2.4 The Shape of a
Frequency Distribution
• Researchers describe a distribution’s shape
in words rather than drawing it
• Symmetrical distribution: each side is a mirror
image of the other
• Skewed distribution: scores pile up on one
side and taper off in a tail on the other
– Tail on the right (high scores) = positive skew
– Tail on the left (low scores) = negative skew
Figure 2.10
Shapes of Distributions
Learning Check

• What is the shape of

this distribution?
Learning Check - Answer

• What is the shape of

this distribution?
Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.
Learning Check - Answer
Figure 2.11
Answers to Learning Check