Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
19UMEPC603 - HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
UNIT -4 - RADIATION
Black Body Radiation – Grey body radiation - Shape Factor – Electrical Analogy –
Radiation Shields. Radiation through gases. Radiation heat exchange between black
bodies, heat exchanger between non-black bodies- infinite parallel planes and infinite long
concentric cylinders. Effects of radiation from gases and vapour.

4. 1 Radiation:

The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is known as
radiation .It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through
space or through a material medium. This includes electro-magnetic radiation such as radio waves,
visible light, and x-rays, particle radiation such as α, β, and neutron radiation and acoustic radiation
such as ultrasound, sound, and seismic waves. Radiation may also refer to the energy, waves, or
particles being radiated.

Fig:4.1 Example for Radiation.

Radiation is emitted by every point on a plane surface in all directions into the hemisphere
above the surface. The quantity that describes the magnitude of radiation emitted or incident in a
specified direction in space is the radiation intensity. Various radiation fluxes such as emissive power,
irradiation, and radiosity are expressed in terms of intensity. This is followed by a discussion of
radiative properties of materials such as emissivity, absorptive, reflectivity, and transmissivity and
their dependence on wavelength, direction,and temperature.
The greenhouse effect is presented as an example of the consequences of the wavelength dependence
of radiation properties. The last section is devoted to the discussions of atmospheric and solar
radiation because of their importance

4.1.1 Black body Radiation:

Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties.
• A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and direction.
• For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more energy than black
body.
1
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

A black body is defined as a body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its surface. Actual
black bodies don't exist in nature - though its characteristics are approximated by a hole in a
box filled with highly absorptive material. The emission spectrum of such a black body was
first fully described by Max Planck.
The radiation energy per unit time from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature and can be expressed with Stefan-Boltzmann Law as
q = σ T4 A

Where, Fig 4.2 Black body Radiation

q = heat transfer per unit time (W)
σ = 5.6703  10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T = absolute temperature Kelvin (K)
A = area of the emitting body (m2)
4.1.2Features of Black body:
• At a specified temperature and wavelength a black body emits more radiation energy than
the real one.
• It absorbs all incident radiation regardless of wavelength and direction
• It emits radiation energy uniformly in all direction. That is black body is a diffuse emitter the
term ‘diffuse’ means independent of direction.
• Depending on type of surface, the reflected radiation is specular or diffuse. A smooth and
polished surface is more specular while the rough surface is more diffuse.
• The fraction of incident energy absorbed by the surface is called the absorptivity. For a black
body it is equal to one.

4.2 Laws of Radiations

(i) Planck’s distribution law.( Eb )
• The relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of a black body and wave
length ofa radiation at a particular temperature is given by the following expression, by
Planck
c1−5
Eb =
  cT2  
e   − 1
 
Where,
Eb = Monochromatic emissive power W/m2
c1 = 0.374  10-15W/m2
 = Wave length – m
c2 = 14.4  10-3mk

2
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

(ii) Wien’s displacement law.( T )

The Wien’s displacement law gives the relationship between temperature and wave length
corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive power of the black body at that temperature.
maxT = C3
C3 = 2.9  10 −3
maxT = 2.9  10 −3 mK
 
 2hc 2 1 
d 5 
  e kT − 1
hc
dE ( , T )
=
d d
maxT = 2897.8mK
(iii) Stefan – Boltzmann law.(EbT )
The emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature.
  
 2hc 2 1 
0 E ( , T )d = 0 5 hc d


 e kT − 1

2hc 
2 4
E ( , T ) = 4
T 4 = T 4
 hc 
15 
k 
Eb ∞ T 4

Eb = σ T4
Where,
Eb = Emissive power W/m2
σ = Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67  10-8 W/m2 K4
T = Temperature, K
(iv) Radioactive Heat Transfer:
Consider the heat transfer between two surfaces, as shown in Figure.
To find this, we will first look at the emission from A to B. Surface
A emits radiation as described in
QA,emitted =  AAATA4

This radiation is emitted in all directions, and only a fraction of it will

actually strike Surface B.
This fraction is called the shape factor, F.
The amount of radiation striking Surface B is therefore: Fig.4.3 Radioactive Heat Transfer
QB ,inceident = FA→ B AAATA4
The only portion of the incident radiation contributing to heating Surface B is the absorbed
portion, given by the absorptivity αB:
QB ,absorbed =  B FA→ B AAATA4
Above equation is the amount of radiation gained by Surface B from Surface A.

3
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

To find the net heat transfer rate at B, we must now subtract the amount of radiation emitted
by B:
QB ,emitted =  BABTB4
(v) Kirchoff’s law of radiation:
This law states that the ratio of total emissive power to the absorptivity is constant for all
surfaces which are in thermal equilibrium with the surrounding. This can be written as
E1 E 2 E3
= =
1 2 3

(vi) Lambert’s cosine law for radiation.

It states that the total emissive power Eb from a radiating plane surface in any direction
proportional to the cosine of the angle of emission
Heat emission from a surface in an angle β can be expressed with Lambert's cosine law as
qβ = q cos β
where
qβ = heat emission in angle β
q = heat emission from the surface
β = angle
(vii) Shape Factor:
The shape factor is defined as “The fraction of the radioactive energy that is diffused from
one surface element and strikes the other surface directly with no intervening reflection “.it is
represented by Fij. Other names for radiation shape factor are view factor, angle factor and
configuration factor .The shape factor is used in the analysis of radioactive heat exchange
between two surfaces.
(viii) Expression for radiant exchange between black surfaces:

This can be represented by electrical analogue shown in Fig.

Where,
Heat transfer in W
Surface area m2
σ = Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67  10-8 W/m2 K4
T1=Temperature of Object 1 in K
T2=Temperature of Object 2 in K

4.2 Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures:

4
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Where,
Heat transfer in W
A1 , A2 = Surface area m2
σ = Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67  10-8 W/m2 K4
T1=Temperature of Object 1 in K
T2=Temperature of Object 2 in K
 1 ,  2 = Surface Emissivity of Object
This important result is applicable to any two gray, diffuse, and opaque surfaces that form
an enclosure.
Example 1:Consider a cylindrical furnace with outer radius = 1 m and height = 1m. The top
(surface 1) and the base (surface2) of the furnace have emissivity’s 0.8 & 0.4 and are maintained
at uniform temperatures of 700 K and 500K respectively. The side surface closely approximates
a black body and is maintained at a temperature of 400 K. Find the net rate of radiation heat
transfer at each surface during steady state operation.

Given Data:
Outer radius=height =1 m
Room temperature, T3==400 K
Top surface temperature, T1=700K
Base surface temperature, T2=500K
Emissivity of Top surface,  1 = 0.8
Emissivity of Base surface,  2 = 0.4

SOLUTION:-The surfaces of a cylindrical furnace are maintained at uniform

temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer at each surface during
steady operation is to be determined.
Assumptions:-1 Steady operating condition exists. 2 The surfaces are opaque,
diffuse, and gray. 3 Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Analysis:-We will solve this problem systematically using the direct method to demonstrate its use.
The cylindrical furnace can be considered to be a three surface enclosure with surface areas of
A1 = A2 = ro2 =  (1) = 3.14m 2
2

A3 = 2ro H =  (11) = 6.28m 2

The view factor from the base to the top surface is, from Figure, F12=0.38. Then the view
factor from the base to the side surface is determined by applying the summation rule to be
F11+F12+F13= 1 → F13=1-F11-F12=1-0-0.38= 0.62

5
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Since the base surface is flat and thus F11= 0. Noting that the top and bottom surfaces are
symmetric about the side surface, F21=F12= 0.38 and F23= F13= 0.62. The view factor F31 is
determined from the reciprocity relation,
A1F13=A3F31 → F31=F13(A1/A3)=(0.62)(0.314/0.628)= 0.31
Also, F32=F31= 0.31 because of symmetry. Now that all the view factors are available, we
apply Eq. to each surface to determine the radiosities:
1 − 1
Top surface (i =1): T1 = J 1 +
4
F1→2 (J1 − J 2 ) + F1→3 (J1 − J 3 )
1
1− 2
Bottom surface (i =2): T2 = J 2 +
4
F2→1 (J 2 − J1 ) + F2→3 (J 2 − J 3 )
2
Side surface (i= 3): T3 = J 3 + 0
4
[since surface 3 is black and thus  3 = 1
]
Substituting the known quantities,
1 − 0.8
(5.67  10 )(700)
−8 4
= J1 +
0.8
0.38(J1 − J 2 ) + 0.68(J1 − J 3 )
1 − 0.4
( )
5.67 10 −8 (500) = J 2 +
4

0.4
0.28(J 2 − J1 ) + 0.68(J 2 − J 3 )
(5.67  10−8 )(400)4 = J 3
Solving the equations above for J1, J2, and J3 gives
J1=11,418W/m2,J2=4562W/m2and J3=1452W/m2
Then the net rates of radiation heat transfer at the three surfaces are determined from Eq. to
be
Q1 = A1 F1→2 (J 1 − J 2 ) + F1→3 ( J 1 − J 3 )
Q1 = 3.140.38(11418 − 4562) + 0.62(11418 − 1452)
Q1 = 27.6 10 3 W = 27.6kW
Q2 = A2 F2→1 ( J 2 − J 1 ) + F2→3 ( J 2 − J 3 )
Q2 = 3.120.38(4562 − 11418) + 0.62(4562 − 1452)
Q2 = −2.13  103W = −2.13kW
Q3 = A3 F3→1 ( J 3 − J 1 ) + F3→2 ( J 3 − J 2 )
Q3 = 6.280.31(1452 − 11418) + 0.31(1452 − 4562)
Q3 = −25.5  103W = −25.5kW
Note that the direction of net radiation heat transfer is from the top surface to the base and
side surfaces, and the algebraic sum of these three quantities must be equal to zero. That is,
Q1+Q2+Q3= 27.6+ (-2.13) + (-25.5)  0
Discussion To maintain the surfaces at the specified temperatures, we must supply heat to the top
surface continuously at a rate of 27.6 kW while removing2.13 kW from the base and 25.5 kW from
the side surfaces. The direct method presented here is straightforward, and it does not require the
evaluation of radiation resistances. Also, it can be applied to enclosures with any number of surfaces
in the same manner.

6
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Example 2: Emissivity’s of two large parallel plates maintained at 800oC and 300oC are 0.3 and
0.5 respectively. Find the net radiant heat exchange per square metre for these plates. Find the
percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminum radiation shield (  = 0.05 ) is
placed between them. Also find the temperature of shield.

Given Data:
First Plate temperature, T1=800oC =1073K
Second plate temperature, T2=300oC =573K
Emissivity,  1 = 0.3 ,  2 = 0.5
Shield emissivity,  3 = 0.05
To find:
a) Net radiant heat exchange per square metre
b) Percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminum radiation shield
c) Temperature of shield
Solution:
Heat exchange between two large parallel plates without radiation shield is given by

Q12 =   A T14 − T24 
Where,
1
=
1 1
+ −1
1 2
1
=
1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.5
 = 0.23

Q12 = 0.23  A T14 − T24 
−8

Q12 = 0.23  5.67  10  A  (1073) − (573)
4 4

Q12
A
4

= 0.23  5.67  10 −8  (1073) − (573)
4

Q12
= 15880.7W / m 2
A
Q12
= 15.8807 kW / m 2
A
Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation shield 3 is given by

 Q13 =   A T14 − T34 
1
=
1 1
+ −1
1  3
 AT14 − T34 
Q13 =
1 1
+ −1
1  3
Heat exchange between radiation shield 3 and plate 2 is given by
7
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

 Q32 = A T34 − T24  

1
=
1 1
+ −1
3 2
AT34 − T24 
Q32 =
1 1
+ −1
3 2
We know that,
Q13 = Q32
AT14 − T34  AT34 − T24 
 =
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1  3 3 2
T
− T34
4
 AT34 − T24 
 1
=
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.06 0.06 0.5


10734 − T34
=
 T34 − 5734 
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.06 0.06 0.5
17.6(1073) − (T3 )
4 4

 T3 = + (573)
4 4

19
 T3 = 0.926 [(1073) − (T3 ) ] + (573)
4 4 4 4

 T3 = 0.926 (1073) − 0.926(T3 ) + (573)

4 4 4 4

1.926(T3 ) = 1.33  1012

4

(T3 )4 = 6.90  10 11

T3 = 911.5K
Radiation shield temperature, T3 = 911.5K
AT14 − T34  AT34 − T24 
Substituting T3 value in equation, Q13 = or Q32 = ,we get
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1 3 3 2

Q13 =

5.67  10 −8  A (1073) − (911.5)
4 4

1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.06
Q13
= 1895.76W / m 2
A
Heat transfer with radiation shield
Q13
= 1.89576kW / m 2
A
Reduction in heat transfer due to radiation shield
8
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Q12 − Q13
=
Q12
15.88 − 1.89
=
15.88
= 0.88 = 0.88%
Result:
Q12
• Net radiant heat exchange per square metre, = 15.8807kW / m 2
A
• Percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminum radiation shield, =88%
• Temperature of shield, T3 = 911.5K
4.2.1 Radiation Intensity:
Radiation is emitted by all parts of a plane surface in all directions into the hemisphere above
the surface, and the directional distribution of emitted (or incident) radiation is usually not uniform.
Therefore, we need a quantity that describes the magnitude of radiation emitted (or incident) in a
specified direction in space. This quantity is radiation intensity, denoted by I. Before we can describe
a directional quantity, we need to specify direction in space. The direction of radiation passing
through a point is best described in spherical coordinates in terms of the zenith angle and the azimuth
angle as shown in the fig.

Fig: 4.4 Radiation Intensity

4.2.2 Boiling Curve - Operating Constraints:
The boiling curve, shown in Fig 4.2.2, is based on the assumption that the temperature of the
heated surface can be maintained at the desired value. In that case, it would be possible to operate the
vapour producing system at the point of maximum flux with nucleate boiling. If the heat flux instead
of the surface temperature is the independent variable and it IS desired to operate the system at the
point of maximum flux, it is just possible that a slight increase in the heat flux will increase the surface
temperature substantially. And, the equilibrium will be established at point F. If the material of the
heating element has its melting point temperature lower than the temperature at the equilibrium point
F, the heating element will melt.

9
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Fig: 4.5 Temperature difference curve for boiling water heated.

4.2.3 Factors Affecting Nucleate Boiling:

Since high heat transfer rates and convection coefficients are associated with small values of
the excess temperature, it is desirable that many engineering devices operate in the nucleate boiling
regime. It is possible to get heat transfer coefficients in excess of 104 W/m2 in nucleate boiling regime
and these values are substantially larger than those normally obtained in convection processes with
no phase change.

They are associated with small values of the excess temperature, it is desirable that many
engineering devices operate in the nucleate boiling regime. It is possible to get heat transfer
coefficients in excess of 104 W/m2 in nucleate boiling regime and these values are substantially larger
than those normallyobtained in convection processes with no phase change. The factors which affect
the nucleate boiling are:

(a) Pressure - Pressure controls the rate of bubble growth and therefore affects the temperature
difference causing the heat energy to flow. The maximum allowable heat flux for a boiling liquid first
increases with pressure until critical pressure is reached and then decreases.

(b) Heating Surface Characteristics - The material of the heating element has a significant effect on
the boiling heat transfer coefficient. Copper has a higher value than chromium, steel and zinc. Further,
a rough surface gives a better heat transfer rate than a smooth or coated surface, because a rough
surface gets wet more easily than a smooth one.

(c) Thermo-mechanical Properties of Liquids - A higher thermal conductivity of the liquid will cause
higher heat transfer rates and the viscosity and surface tension will have a marked effect on the bubble
size and their rate of formation which affects the rate of heat transfer.

(d) Mechanical Agitation - The rate of heat transfer will increase with the increasing degree of
mechanical agitation. Forced convection increases mixing of bubbles and the rate of heat transfer.

10
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Example 3: State laws of radiation and solve the following. Assume the sun to be block body
emitting radiation with maximum intensity at  = 0.5m , Calculate the surface temperature of
the sun and the heat flux at its surface.

Radiation laws:
The heat transferred from one body to another without any transmitting medium is known as
radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
Given Data:
Wave length  = 0.5m
 = 0.5  10 −6 m
[1 = 10 −6 m]
To find:
i. Surface temperature
ii. Heat flux
Solution:
To find Surface temperature
According to Wien’s displacement law,
maxT = 2.9  10 −3 mK
[From HMT data book, page no.81]
−6 −3
0.5  10  T = 2.9  10
T = 5800 K
Surface temperature,
T = 5800 K
To find Heat flux
Q
q=
A
Q
= Eb = T 4
A
q = 5.67  10 6 T 4
q = 5.67  10 6  5800 4
q = 64.16  10 6 W / m 2
Result:
• Surface temperature, T = 5800 K
• Heat flux, q = 64.16  106 W / m 2

Example 4: Derive the relation for heat exchange between infinite parallel plates and solve.
Consider double wall as two infinite parallel planes. The emissivity of the walls is 0.3 and 0.8
respectively. The space between the walls is evacuated. Find the heat transfer/unit area when
inner and outer surface temperatures are 300oC and 260oC. To reduce the heat flow, a shield
of polished aluminum with (  = 0.05 ) is inserted between the walls. Find the reduction in heat
transfer.

11
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Case-1
Derivation for the relation for heat exchange between infinite parallel plates:
Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces may be reduced eitherby using the materials
which are high reflective or introducing radiation shields between them.
Fig shows two infinite parallel gray planes interchanging radiative energy between them with
and without a radiation shield. For the case (a) without a radiation shield.


Q12  T14 − T24
=

A 1 1
+ −1
1  3
For the case (b), with a radiation shield between the surfaces, at
equilibrium
Q  T14 − T34  Q32  T34 − T24 
, 13 = or =
A 1 1 A 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1 3 3 2

Where T3 is the equilibrium temperature of the shield. If T3 is known, the heat transfer rate can
easily be calculated. The radiation network with one shield is shown in fig.
If the two parallel planes is equal emissivity  ,
Q12  T14 − T24
=
 
...............................................(1)
A 2
−1

If the third plane placed between them also has the same emissivity, at equilibrium
=

Q13  T14 − T34 Q
= 32 =
 T34 − T24  
...............................(2)
A 2 A 2
−1 −1
 
Q13 Q32
At thermal equilibrium = , therefore
A A
T14 − T34 = T34 − T24
T14 − T24
T = 3
4
...................................(3)
2
Substituting in Eq.(2)
 T14 T24 
 T14 − −
Q13 Q  2 2 
= 32 =
A A 2
−1

=

1  T14 − T24 
.........................( 4)
2 2
−1

From Eqs. (1) and (4)
12
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

 Q12  1Q 
  =  12 
 A  With 1 shield 2  A  Without shield
By the use of one radiation shield, the net radiant heat transfer is reduced by 50%. The position
of the shield so long as it does not touch either of the planes does not alter its effectiveness.
Case-2
Given Data:
Inner surface temperature, T1=300oC =573K
Outer surface temperature, T2=260oC =533K
Emissivity,  1 = 0.3
 2 = 0.8
Shield emissivity,  3 = 0.05
To find:
a) Heat transfer/unit area
b) Heat transfer reduction

Solution:
Heat exchange between two large parallel plates without radiation shield is given by

Q = A T14 − T24 
Where,
1
=
1 1
+ −1
1 2
1
=
1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.8
 = 0.279

Q12 = 0.279  A T14 − T24 

Q12 = 0.279  5.67  10 −8  A  (573) − (233)
4 4

Q12
A
4

= 0.279  5.67  10 −8  (573) − (533)
4

Q12
= 428.59W / m 2
A
Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation shield 3 is given by

 Q13 = A T14 − T34 
1
=
1 1
+ −1
1 3

13
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

AT14 − T34 
Q13 =
1 1
+ −1
1  3
Heat exchange between radiation shield 3 and plate 2 is given by
 Q32 = A T34 − T24  
1
=
1 1
+ −1
3 2
AT34 − T24 
Q32 =
1 1
+ −1
3 2
We know that,
Q13 = Q32
AT14 − T34  AT34 − T24 
 =
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1  3 3 2


T
− T34
1
4
=
 AT34 − T24 
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.05 0.05 0.8


5734 − T34
=
 
T34 − 5334 
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.05 0.05 0.8
 T3 = 9.433  10
4 10

T3 = 554.19 K
Radiation shield temperature, T3 = 554.19 K
AT14 − T34  AT34 − T24 
Substituting T3 value in equation, Q13 = or Q32 = ,we get
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1 3 3 2

Q13 =

5.67  10 −8  A (573) − (554.19)
4 4

1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.05
Q13
= 34.205 W / m 2
A
Heat transfer with radiation shield
Q13
= 34.205 W / m 2
A
Reduction in heat transfer due to radiation shield
=

14
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Q12 − Q13
=
Q12
428.59 − 34.205
=
428.59
= 0.92 = 92%

Result:
Q12 Q
• Heat transfer/unit area = 428.59 W / m 2 , 13 = 34.205W / m 2
A A
• Heat transfer reduction, 92%

4.3 Prove Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation.

Kirchhoff’s law states that the emissivity of a surface is equal to
its absoptivity at any given temperature and wavelength. For gray,
bodies, this is approximated for all wavelengths. In general application
it is also approximated to all temperatures.

Solution: Rigorously ελT= αλT, F or grey surfaces εT= αTgeneral

application ε = α

Fig. 4.6 Thermal radiation – small body

Proof: Consider an enclosure at uniform temperature T in which a small body is placed. The walls of
the enclosure can be considered as black. After thermal equilibrium is attained, the body temperature
will reach that of the walls of the enclosure. The body at this condition has to emit at every wavelength
radiation equal to the radiation it absorbs. If Gλ is the irradiation in the space.
Eλ = αλGbλ……………………(1)
E
=   …………..…(2)
G b
This equation will hold good for any other body also. As Gbλ is the same.
E 1 E  2 E  3
= = = Gb …………………………..(3)
 1 2  3
As αλ can have a maximum value of unity at which Eλ will equal Ebλ
Gbλ = Ebλ
Using equation (1)
ελEbλ = αλGbλ.......................................(4)
As this is considered at temperature T,
ελT = αλT
This is rigourously true. However this is generalished as ε = α.

Example 5: What is a black body? A 20 cm diameter spherical ball at 527 oC is suspended in the
air. The ball closely approximates a black body. Determine the total black body emissive power,
and spectral black body emissive power at wavelength of 3  m

15
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

BLACK BODY:
Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties.
• A blac body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and direction.
• For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more energy then
black body.
Given Data: In sphere, (Black body)
Diameter of sphere, d=20 cm =0.2 m
Temperature of spherical ball, T=527oC=273=800K
To find:
i. Total black body emissive power, Eb
ii. Spectral black body emissive power at a wavelength of 3  m
Solution:
To find Total black body emissive power, Eb
Eb = AT 4
= 5.67  10 −8    (0.2 )  (800 )
2 4

= 23224.32  0.12573
= 2920W
To find Spectral black body emissive power at a wavelength of 3  m
C1
Eb =
 C  
5 exp 2  − 1
  T  
0.374  10 −15
=
5  14.14  10 −3  
(3 10 )
−6
 
exp
 −6

 − 1
  3 10 800  
Eb = 3824.3  106 W / m 2
or
Eb = 3824.3W / m 2 m
Result:
• Total black body emissive power, Eb = 2920W
• Spectral black body emissive power at a wavelength of 3  m=
Eb = 3824.3W / m 2 m
Example 6: State laws of radiation and solve the following. Assume the sun to be block body
emitting radiation with maximum intensity at  = 0.5m , Calculate the surface temperature of
the sun and the heat flux at its surface.
Radiation laws:
The heat transferred from one body to another without any transmitting medium is known as
radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
Given Data:
Wave length  = 0.5m
 = 0.5  10 −6 m
[1 = 10 −6 m]
16
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

To find:
iii. Surface temperature
iv. Heat flux
Solution:
To find Surface temperature
According to Wien’s displacement law,
maxT = 2.9  10 −3 mK
[From HMT data book, page no.81]
−6 −3
0.5  10  T = 2.9  10
T = 5800 K
Surface temperature,
T = 5800 K
To find Heat flux
Q
q=
A
Q
= Eb = T 4
A
q = 5.67  10 6 T 4
q = 5.67  106  5800 4
q = 64.16  106 W / m 2
Result:
• Surface temperature, T = 5800 K
• Heat flux, q = 64.16  106 W / m 2

Derivation for Wien’s displacement law of radiation from Planck’s law

Solution:
We know that, planck’s distribution law,
c1−5
( E )b =
c 
exp 2  − 1
 T 
( E ) b Becomes maximum (if T remains constant)
d ( E )b
When =0
d

17
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

 
d ( E )b d  c1−5 
 =  =0
d d   c2  

exp  −1
 T  
  c2   −5   c2  c2  − 1 
exp T  − 1 (−5c1 ) − c1 exp T  T  2 
−6

       
 2
=0
  c2  
exp T  − 1
   
c  1 c 
 −5c1− 6 exp 2  + 5c1− 6 + c1c2− 5 2 exp 2  = 0
 T  T  T 
Dividing both sides by 5c1 ,we get
−6

c  1 1 c 
− exp 2  + 1 + c2  exp 2  = 0
 T  5 T  T 
Solving this equation by trial and error method, we get
c2 c
= 2 = 4.965
T maxT
c
maxT = 2
4.965
1.439  104
= mK
4.965
= 2898mK
maxT = 2.9  10−3 mK
Example 7: In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger; oil is cooled from 85°C to 55°C by
water entering at 25°C. The mass flow rate of oil is 9,800 kg/h and specific heat of oil is 2000 J/kg
K. the mass flow rate of water is 8,000 kg/h and specific heat of water is 4180 j/kg K. Determine
the heat exchanger area and heat transfer rate for an overall heat transfer coefficient of 280
W/m2K.

Given:
Hot fluid – oil Cold fluid –water
T1,T2 t1, t2
Entry temperature of oil T1 = 85ᴼC
Exit temperature of oil T2 = 55ᴼC
Entry temperature of water t1 = 25ᴼC
Mass flow rate of oil (Hot fluid) mh = 9,800 kg/h
Mass flow rate of oil ( Hot fluid )mh = 9800kg / h
9800
kg / s
3600
mh = 2.72kg / s

18
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Mass flowof water (cold fluid mc = 8000kg / h)

8000
kg / s
3600
me = 2.22kg / s

Specific heat of water Cpc –4180 j/kg K

Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 280 W/m2K
To find:
• Heat exchanger area (A)
• Heat transfer rate (Q)
Solution:
We know that
Heat lost by oil Hot fluid = Heat gained by water cold fluid Qh = Qc
mhC ph (T1 − T2 ) = m c C ph (t1 − t2 )
2.72  2000(85 − 55) = 2.22  4180  (t2 − 25)
163.2 103 = 9279.6t2 − 231.9 103
t2 = 42.5 C
Exit temperature of water t2 = 42.5 C
Heat transfer Q = mcC pc (t2 − t1 )(or ) mcC pc (t2 − t1 )
Q = 2.22  4180  (42.5 − 25)
Q = 162 103W
Q = UA(T ) m...................(i )

From HMT data book P.No 154

For counter flow
(T − t ) − (T2 − t2 )
Tm = 1 1
T −t
ln( 1 1 )
T2 − t2
From HMT data book Page no 154
(85 − 42.5) − (55 − 25)
Tm =
85 − 42.5
ln( )
55 − 25
Tm = 35.80 C
Substitute Tm Uand Q values in Equation(1)
Q = 162  103 = 280  A  35  0.8
A = 16.16m 2

19
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Example 8: Calculate the following for an industrial furnace in the form of a black body and
emitting radiation at 3000oC:
a) Monochromatic emitting power 1 m length
b) Wavelength at which the emissive is maximum
c) Maximum emissive power
d) Total emissive power

Given Data:
Surface temperature, T=3000K
To find:
a) Monochromatic emitting power Eb ,at  = 1 m = 1  10−6 m
b) Wavelength at which the emissive is maximum, max
c) Maximum emissive power,( Eb )max
d) Total emissive power, Eb
Solution:
To find Monochromatic emitting power, Eb :
Fromplanck’s distribution law, we know that,
c1−5
( E )b =
c 
exp 2  − 1
 T 
[From HMT data book, page no.81]
Where
c1 = 0.374  10−15Wm 2
c2 = 14.4  10− 3Wm 2
 = 1  10−6 m
c1−5
( E )b =
c 
exp 2  − 1
 T 
0.374  10−15 [1  10− 6 ]− 5
=
 14.4  10− 3 
exp −6
 − 1
 1  10  3000 
( E )b = 3.10  1012W / m 2
To find maximum Wavelength, max :
From Wien’s displacement law
maxT = 2.9 10 −3 mK
2.9 10 −3
max =
3000
max = 0.966 10 − 6 m

20
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

To find Maximum emissive power, ( Eb )max:

( E b ) max = 1.307 10 −5 T 5
= 1.307 10 −5  3000 5
( E b ) max = 3.17 1012 W / m 2
To find Total emissive power,Eb:
From Stefan Boltmann law,
Eb = T 4
[From HMT data book, page no.81]
Eb = T 4 = 5.67 10 −8  (3000) 4
Eb = 4.59 10 6 W / m 2
Result:
Monochromatic emitting power ( E )b = 3.10  10 W / m
12 2
•
Wavelength at which the emissive is maximum, max = 0.966 10 m
−6
•
Maximum emissive power, ( E b ) max = 3.17 10 W / m
12 2
•
Total emissive power, Eb = 4.59 10 W / m
6 2
•
Example 9: Two parallel plates of size 1.0m  1.0 spaced 0.5 m apart are located in very large room,
the walls are maintained at a temperature of 27 oC. One plate is maintained at a temperature of
900oC and the other at 400oC. Their emissivity’s are 0.2 and 0.5 respectively. If the plate’s exchanges
heat between themselves and surroundings, find the heat transfer to each plate and to them.
Consider only the plate surfaces facing each other.

Given Data:
Size of the plate=1.0m  1.0m
Distance between plates=0.5m
Room temperature, T3=27oC=300 K
First plate temperature, T1=900oC=1173K
Second plate temperature, T2=400oC=673K
Emissivity of first plate, 1 = 0.2
Emissivity of second plate,  2 = 0.5
To find:
a) Net heat transfer to each plate.
b) Net heat transfer to room.
Solution:
Heat exchange takes place between two plates and the room. So, this is three surface
problem and corresponding radiation network is given below.
Area, A1=1.0m  1.0m=1.0m2
A1=A2=1.0m2
Since the room is large, A3 = 
From electrical network diagram,
From electric network diagram,
21
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

1 − 1 1 − 0.2
= =4
1 A1 0.2(1)
1 −  R 1 − 0.5
= =1
 R AR 0.5(1)
1− 2
=0  A3 = 0
 2 A2
1 − 1 1− R 1− 2
Apply =4 =1 = 0 values in electrical network diagram.
1 A1  R AR  2 A2
To find the shape factor F12,
[From HMT data book, page
no.91&92]
L 1
X = = =2
D 0.5
B 1
Y= = =2
D 0.5
X value is 2, Y value is 2. From that, we can find
corresponding shape factor value is 0.41525.
i.e,F12=0.41525
We know that, F11 + F12 + F13 = 1
But F11=0
F13=1-F12
F13=1-0.41525
F13=0.5847
Similarly, F21 + F22 + F23 = 1
F22=0
F23=1- F21
F23=1-F12
F23=1-0.41525
F23=0.5847
From electrical network diagram,
1 1
= = 1.7102
A1F13 1 0.5847
1 1
= = 1.7102
A2 F23 1 0.5847
1 1
= = 2.408
A3 F12 1 0.41525
From Stefan Boltmann law,
Eb = T 4
Eb1 = T14 = 5.67 10−8  (1173) 4 = 107.34 103W / m 2
Eb 2 = T24 = 5.67  10−8  (673) 4 = 1.63  103W / m 2

22
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Eb3 = T34 = 5.67  10−8  (300) 4 = 459.27W / m 2

From electrical network diagram, we know that,
Eb3 = J 3 = 459.27W / m2
The radiosities J1 and J2 can be calculated by using Kirchoff’s law.
The sum of entering the node J1 is zero

At node J1:
Eb1 − J1 J 2 − J1 Eb 3 − J1
+ + =0
4 1 1
A1 F12 A1 F13
107.34  103 − J1 J 2 − J1 459.27 − J1
+ + =0
4 2.408 1.7102
J1 J J J1
26835 − + 2 − 1 + 268.54 − =0
4 2.408 2.408 1.7102
26835 − 0.25 J1 + 0.415 J 2 − 0.415 J1 + 268.54 − 0.5847 J1 = 0
-1.2497J1+0.415J2= − 27.10  103 …………………….(1)
At node J2:
J1 − J 2 Eb 3 − J 2 E − J2
+ + + b2 =0
1 1 2
A1F12 A2 F23
J1 − J 2 459.27 − J 2 11.63  103 − J 2
+ + =0
2.408 1.7102 2
J1 J J2 11.63  103 J 2
− 2 + 268.54 − + − =0
2.408 2.408 1.7102 2 2
0.415 J1 + 0.415 J 2 + 268.54 − 0.5847 J 2 + 5.815  103 − 0.5 J 2 = 0
0.415 J1 + 1.4997 J 2 + 6.08  103 = 0
0.415 J1 + 1.4997 J 2 = −6.08  103 …………………….(2)
By solving equations,(1) and (2), we get
J1 = 25.35  103W / m 2
J 2 = 11.06  103W / m 2
Eb1 − J 1
Heat loss by plate (1) Q1 =
1 − 1
 1 A1
107.34  103 − 25.35  103
Q1 =
1 − 0.2
1 0.2
Q1 = 20.49  103W
E − J2
Heat loss by plate (2) Q2 = b 2
1− 2
 2 A2
23
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

11.63  103 − 11.06  103

Q2 =
1 − 0.5
1 0.5
Q2 = 570W
Heat loss by the plates (1)and(2), Q = Q1 + Q2
Q = 20.49  103 +570
Q = 21.06  103W
Total heat received or absorbed by the room
J −J J − J3
Q= 1 3 + 2
1 1
A1F13 A2 F23
25.35  103 − 459.27 11.06  103 − 459.27
Q= +
1.7102 1.7102
 Eb3 = J 3 = 459.27W / m 2 
Q = 20.752  103W
[Heat lost by the plates is equal to heat received by the room]
Result:
a) Net heat transfer to each plate.
Q1 = 20.49  103W
Q2 = 570W
b) Net heat transfer to room. Q = 20.752  103W
Example 10: A gas turbine combustion chamber is 0.35 m in diameter and the walls are
maintained at 500oC. The products of combustion are at 1000oC and a pressure of 1 atm and
contain 12% CO2 and 10% H2O vapour by volume. Determine the net radiant heat transfer per
unit surface area.
Solution:
From HMT data book table, the mean beam length, L=D=0.35 m
PCO2 = 0.12atm PCO2 L = 0.12  0.35 = 0.042 matm
PH 2O = 0.10atm PH 2O L = 0.10  0.35 = 0.035 matm
From HMT data book fig.
 CO2 = 0.078  H 2O = 0.05
From HMT data book fig, the correction factors are
 P + P 1.1 
CCO2 = 1 and C H 2O =  at H 2O = = 0.55atm  = 1.03
 2 2 
 CO = 0.078 and
2
 H O = 0.05  1.03 = 0.0515
2

From HMT data book fig, when

PH 2O 0.10 10
= = = 0.45
PH 2O + PCO2 0.10 + 0.12 22
( )
and PH 2O + PCO2 L = 0.077 m atm
 = 0.003
24
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

The emissivity of the mixture at 1000oC

 =  CO2 +  H 2O −  = 0.078 + 0.0515 − 0.003 = 0.1265
The absorptivity has to be found at wall temperature of 500oC.
From HMT data book fig,at 500oC for PCO2 L = 0.042 matm PH 2O L =0.035 m atm
 CO =  CO = 0.081 ,  H O =  H O = 0.085
2 2 2 2

From HMT data book fig,

CCO2 = 1 C H 2O = 1.03
Corrected values:
 CO2 = 0.081 and  H 2O = 1.03  0.085 = 0.0876
From HMT data book fig,
 = 0.003
For the mixture at TW=500oC,
 g =  g =  CO2 +  H 2O −  = 0.018 + 0.0876 − 0.003 = 0.1656
Radiant heat exchange
Q = A( g Tg4 −  g Tw4 )
( ) (
Q = 5.67 10 −8 1 0.1265  (1273) − 0.1656  (773)
4 4
) W
Q = 15483.5 W
=15.4835 kW
Example 11: Two large parallel planes are at T1 =800 K,  1 =0.3, T2 =400 K,  2 =0.7 and are
separated by a gray gas having  g =0.2, τg=0.8. Calculate the heat-transfer rate between the two
planes and the temperature of the gas using a radiation network. Compare with the heat transfer
without presence of the gas.

Solution:

The network shown in Figure applies to this problem. All the shape factors are unity for largeplanes
and the various resistors can be computed on a unit-area basis as
1 −  1 0.7
= = 2.333
1 0.3
1 −  2 0.3
= = 0.4286
2 0.7
1 1
= = 1.25
F12 (1 −  g ) 1 − 0.2

25
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

1 1 1
= = =5
F1g  g F2 g  g 0.2
Eb1 = T14 = 23,220W / m 2
Eb 2 = T24 = 1451W / m 2
The equivalent resistance of the center “triangle” is
1
R= = 1.1111
1 1
+
1.25 5 + 5
The total heat transfer is then
q Eb1 − Eb 2
=
A R
23,200 − 1451
= = 5616W / m 2
2.333 + 1.111 + 0.4286
If there were no gas present the heat transfer would be given by Equation
(
q  T14 − T24
=
)
A 1 + 1 −1
1 2
q 23,200 − 1451
= = 5781W / m 2
A 1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.7
The radiosities may be computed from
     
= (Eb1 − J 1 ) 1  = ( J 2 − Eb 2 ) 2  = 5616W / m 2
q
A  1 − 1  1−  2 
Which gives J1 =10,096 W/m and J2 =3858 W/m2.
2

For the network Ebgis just the mean ofthese values

Ebg = (10,096 + 3858) = 6977 = Tg4
1
2
So that the temperature of the gas is
Tg = 592.3 K
Example 12: (i) A thin aluminum sheet with an emissivity of
0.1 on both sides is placed between two very large parallel
plates that are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 = 800
K and T2 = 500 K and have emissivities  1 = 0.2 and  1 = 0.7 ,
respectively. Determine the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between the two plates per unit surface area of the
plates and compare the result to that without the shield.

SOLUTION:-A thin aluminum sheet is placed between

two large parallel platesmaintained at uniform temperatures. The net rates of radiation heat
transfer betweenthe two plates with and without the radiation shield are to be determined.
Assumptions:-The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray.

26
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Analysis:-Heat transferin the presence of one shield is determined from Eq. to be

Q
q12,oneshield = 12,oneshield
A

=
( )
 T14 − T24
=
( )( )
5.67  10 −8 800 4 − 500 4
= 806 W / m 2
1 1   1 1   1
+
1  
− 1 + 
1
+
1 
− 1
 + − 1 +  + − 1 

  1  2    3,1  3, 2   0.2 0 .7   0.1 0.1 
Discussion:-Note that the rate of radiation heat transfer reduces to about onefourthof what it
was as a result of placing a radiation shield between the twoparallel plates.

(ii).Two large parallel planes are at 1000 K and 600 K. Determine the heat exchange per
unit area. (i) if surfaces are black (ii) if the hot one has an emissivity of 0.8 and the cooler
one 0.5 (iii) if a large plate is inserted between these two, the plate having an emissivity
of 0.2.
Solution:
Case (i): The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (a)

( )
Q = AF1−2 T14 − T24 . As F1-2=1
For large parallel surfaces, considering unit area.
Q  1000  4  600  4 
= 5.67  1  −   = 49352W / m
2

A  100   100  

Case (ii): The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (b)

Q
=
(Eb1 − Eb1 )
A 1 − 1 1 1−  2
+ +
A1 1 A1 F1−2 A2 2

=
(56700 − 7348.32) = 219334W / m 2
0.2 0.5
+1+
1 0.8 0.5
Case (iii): The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.(c)

Q
==
(56700 − 7348.32) = 4387W / m 2
A 1 − 0.8 1 − 0.2 1 − 0.2 1 − 0.5
+1+ + 1+
0.8 0.2 0.2 0.5
A considerable heat flow reduction is obtained by shielding. This method finds application in
insulation. The shields should have low absorptivity and high reflectivity for economical applications.

Example 13: A black body at 3000 K emits radiation Calculate the following

27
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

• Monochromatic emissive power at 1 μm wave length

• Wave length at which emission is maximum
• Maximum emissive power
• Total emissive power
• Calculate the total emissive of the furnace if it is assumed as a real surface having
emissivity equal to 0.
Given:
Surface Temperature T=3000K

To find:
1. Monochromatic emissive power Ebλat λ=1
2. Maximum wave length(λmax)
3. Maximum emissive power (E bλ)
4. Total emissive power, Eb
5. Emissive power of real surface at ε=0.85
Solution:
1. Monochromatic emissive power Ebλatλ=1
From Planck ' s distribution law we know that
C1
Eb = T
e −1
C1 = 0.374  10 −15Wm 2
C2 = 14.4  10 −3 mK
 = 1 10 −6 m
0.374 10 −15 (110 −6 ) − 5
E b =
14.410 − 3
−6
e 110 3000 −1
= 3.10 1012 W / m 2
E b
2. Minimum wave length (λmax) :
λmax T = 2.9 X 10-3mK
2.9  103
max =
3000
λmax= 0.966 X 10-6m
3. Maximum emissive power (Ebλ)max:
(Ebλ) max = 1.307 X 10-5 T5
= 1.307 X 10-5 X (3000)5
(Ebλ) max = 3.17 X 1012 W/m2
4. Total emissive power Eb:
Eb = σ x T4 (From HMT data book P. No 8)
σ = Stefen Boltzman Constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
Eb = (5.67 x 10-8) x (3000)4
Eb = 4.59 x 10-6 W/m2

5. Total emissive power of real surface:

28
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

(Eb) real = ɛ σ T 4
ɛ - Emissivity = 0.85
(Eb) real = 0.85 x 5.67 x 10-8 x (3000)4
(Eb)real= 3.90 x 106W/m2
Result:
1. Ebλ = 3.10 X 1012 W/m2
2. λmax = 0.966 X 10-6μm
3. (Ebλ) max = 3.17 X 1012 W/m2
4. (Eb) real = 3.90 x 106 W/m2
Example 14: Assuming sun to be black body emitting radiation at 6000K at a mean distance of
12×1010m from the earth. The diameter of the sun is 1.5×109 m and that of the earth is
13.2 ×106 m. calculate the following.
1. Total energy emitted by the sun.
2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earth’s atmosphere.
3. The total energy received by the earth if no radiation is blocked by the earth’s atmosphere.
4. The energy received by a 2×2 m solar collector whose normal is inclined at 45ο to the sun. The
energy loss through the atmosphere is 50% and the diffuse radiation is 20% of direct radiation.
Given:
Surface temperature T = 6000 K
Distance between earth and sun R = 12 × 1010 m
Diameter on the sun D1 = 1.5 ×109 m
Diameter of the earth D2 = 13.2 × 106 m
Solution:
Energy emitted by sun Eb = T 4
Eb = 5.67  10 −8 W / m 2 K 4
Area of sun A1 = 4R1
2

1.5  109 2
= 4 ( )
2
A1 = 7  1018 m 2
2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earth’s atmosphere:
The distance between earth and sun R= 12x1010 m
Area A = 4 R 2
= 4    (12  1010 ) 2
A =1.80  10 23 m 2
The radiation received outside the earth atmosphere per m2
Eb
=
A
5.14  10 26
=
1.80  10 23
= 2855.5W / m 2
3. Energy received by the earth:

Earth area = ( D2 ) 2
4
29
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024


= (13.2  10 6 ) 2
4
Earth area =1.36  10 4 m 2
4. The energy received by a 2 ×2 m solar collector;
Energy loss through the atmosphere is 50%. So energy reaching the earth.
=100 - 50 = 50% = 0.50
Energy received by the earth
=0.50 ×2855.5
=1427.7 W/m2
Total radiation reaching the collection
=142.7 + 285.5
=1713.2 W/m2
Plate area = A×cosθ
= 2× 2 ×cos 45o
= 2.82 m2
Energy received by the collector
= 2.82× 1713.2
= 4831.2 W
4.4 REAL SURFACES OF RADIATION:
Solids and liquids emit radiation from the surface, with the material involved limited to a
small thickness at the surface. Gases however emit radiation over the whole volume. Real surfaces
radiate less energy as compared to black surface at the same temperature. The surfaces also do not
have a regular spectral distribution.
Some of the surfaces radiate only in limited wave bands. Some samples of real surface
monochromatic emission is shown in Fig. Curve A represents black body radiation. Curves B, C
and D represent different surface characteristics.

Fig: 4.7 Monochromatic emissive powers of different surfaces at temperature T.

The above fig represents the Curve B is a more uniform behavior. Curve D represents what is
known asband radiation. The emissive power of these surfaces is obtained by the area below the
spectral distribution curve. As it is difficult to deal with such non uniform behaviour, a fictitious
surface called gray body is defined for general use. A gray surface is one whosemonochromatic
emissive power at all wavelengths is the same fraction of the black body monochromatic emissive
power. This is shown as curve E in Fig. The ratio of ordinates of curves A and E at any wavelength
is the same. Such a surface does not exist. But real surfaces are approximated to gray surfaces in
30
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

practical applications. The ratio E/Eb is known as emissivity (ε) of a surface. Though emissivity
of a surface will vary with temperature for general application an average value is used in practice.
The emissivity value for various surfaces is listed in hand books and data books. Values for same
surfaces is given Table 4.4
Table: 4.4 Monochromatic emissive power of different surfaces at temperature T.
Material Temperature
Contents 310 K 530 K 800 K
Aluminium, polished 0.04 0.05 0.08
Aluminium oxidised 0.11 0.12 0.18
Copper polished 0.04 0.05 0.18
Copper oxidised 0.87 0.83 0.77
Iron polished 0.6 0.8 0.13
Cast iron oxidised 0.63 0.66 0.76
Stainless steel weathered 0.85 0.85 0.85

4.5 RADIATION EXCHANGE WITH EMITTING AND ABSORBING GASES:

So far we considered radiation heat transfer between surfaces separated by a medium that
does not emit, absorb, or scatter radiation—a nonparticipating medium that is completely transparent
to thermal radiation. A vacuum satisfies this condition perfectly, and air at ordinary temperatures and
pressurescomes very close. Gases that consist of monatomic molecules such as Ar and He and
symmetric diatomic molecules such as N2 and O2 are essentially transparent to radiation, except at
extremely high temperatures at which ionization occurs. Therefore, atmospheric air can be considered
to be a nonparticipating medium in radiation calculations.

4.5.1 The presence of a participating medium complicates the radiation analysis considerably
for several reasons:
• A participating medium emits and absorbs radiation throughout its entire volume. That is,
gaseous radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and thus it depends on the size and shape of the
body. This is the case even if the temperature is uniform throughout the medium.
• Gases emit and absorb radiation at a number of narrow wavelength bands. This is in contrast to
solids, which emit and absorb radiation over the entire spectrum. Therefore, the gray assumption
may not always be appropriate for a gas even when the surrounding surfaces are gray.
• The emission and absorption characteristics of the constituents of a gas mixture also depends on
the temperature, pressure, and composition of the gas mixture. Therefore, the presence of other
participating gases affects the radiation characteristics of a particular gas
Example 15: Charge-coupled deince (CCD) image sensors, that are common in modern digital
cameras, a respond differently to light sources with different spectral distributions. The
incandescent light may be approximated as a blackbody at the effective surface temperature of
2800 K. determine the fraction of radiation emitted within the visible spectrum wavelengths, from
0.40 micrometer (violet) to 0.76 micrometer (red), for the incandescent lighting source.

GIVEN DATA:
T = 2800K

31
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

λ1 = 0.40µm
λ2 = 0.76µm
SOLUTION:
λ1T = 0.4 X 2800
= 1120 µK
λ1T = 1120, corresponding factorial emission
Eb ( 0− 1T )
= 0.001813 From data book Pg. no 83 7thedition
T 4

λ2T = 0.76 x 2800

= 2128 µK
λ2T = 2128 µK corresponding factorial emission
Eb ( 0− 2T )
= 0.066728
T 4
Eb ( 1T − 2T ) Eb (0− 2T ) Eb (0− 2T )
= −
T 4 T 4 T 4
Eb ( 1T − 2T )
T 4 = 0.064915
Eb ( 1T − 2T )
= σT4 x 0.064915
= 5.67 x 10-8 x (2800)4 x 0.064915
= 2.26235 x 105 W/m2

Energy emitted Eb ( 1T − 2T ) = 2.26235 x 105 W/m2

Example 16: A cylindrical shaped furnace is 1 m dia and 1 m high. The top surface having an
emissivity of 0.7 emit a uniform heat flux of 7 kW/m2. The bottom surface with an emissivity of
0.4 is maintained at 350 K. The sides are insulated and function as reradiating surfaces.
Determine the heat transfer to bottom surface and also the temperatures of the top and sides.

In this case the heat flux at the top is given and not it’s emissive power. So the flux is to be taken as
radiosity of the surface. The equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.

Solution: Designating top as 1 bottom as 2 and sides as 3. The shape factor between the base and
top
F1–2 = 0.18 = F2–1 (parallel disks)
F1–3 = 1 – 0.18 = 0.82 F1–3 = F2–3 as A1 = A2

32
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

1 − 1 (1 − 0.7)4
= = 0.5457
A1 1  11 0.7
1− 2 (1 − 0.4)4
= = 1.91
A2 2   1  1  0.4
1 1 4
= = 7.074
A2 F1−2  11 0.18
1 1 4 1
= = 1.5527 =
A1 F1−3  11 0.82 A2 F2−3
Considering node J1
Eb1 − 7000 J 3 − 7000 J 3 − 7000
+ + =0
0.5457 1.5527 7.074
1.8325 Eb1 + 0.644 J3 + 0.1414 J2 – 18325 = 0 ………………….....(1)
Considering node J2
7000 − J 2 J 3 − J 2 Eb 2 − J 2
+ + =0
7.074 1.5527 1.91
989.54 + 0.644 J3 – 1.309 J2 + 0.5236 × 5.67 × 3.54 = 0
0.644 J3 – 1.309 J2 + 1435.05 = 0 ……………………………...(2)
Considering node J3
7000 − J 3 J 2 − J 3
+ =0
1.5527 1.5527
∴0.644 J2 – 1.288 J3 + 4508.3 = 0
Solving Eb1 = 7825 W/m2, ∴T1 = 609.5 K
J2 = 3738 W/m2
J3 = 5389 W/m2T3 = 554.7 K
To determine the heat flow :
From surface 1:
E −J 7825 − 7000
Q1 = b1 1 = = 1512 W
1 − 1 0.5457
A1 1
From surface 2:
5369 − 5.67  3.5 4
Q2 = = 1512 W
191
Check:
7000 − 5369
Through J1 – J3 = 1051 W
15527
7000 − 3738
Through J1 – J2 = 461 W
7.074

The sum of these two = 1512 W.

Also through J3 – J2, (5369 – 3738)/1.5527 = 1050.4 so checks.
4.6 Radioactive Properties:
Most of the materials in practice such as metals, wood and bricks, are opaque to thermal
radiation is considered to be a surface phenomenon for such materials. That is thermal radiation
33
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

emmited within the first few microns of the surface, and thus we speak of radioactive properties of
surfaces for opaque materials.
Some other materials such as glass and water, allow visible radiation to penetrate to considerable
depths before any significant absorption takes place.
Radiation through such semi transparent materials obviously cannot be considered to be a surface
phenomenon since the entire volume of the materials interacts with radiation. On the other hand both
glass and water are practically opaque to infrared radiation.
In the Preceding section we defined a blackbody as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation
and said that nobody can emit more radiation can serve as a convenient reference in describing the
emission and absorption characteristics of real surfaces.
This type of material is created using the same techniques as those in composite engineering,
but without the use of lead. Composite molding has allowed experts to create materials that, when
combined, offer the same amount of protection as lead composite shielding.
Lead-free composites can be custom formulated across a wide range of densities, impact
strengths, flexibilities, and heat-deflection temperatures. These eco-friendly, durable materials can be
used as a lead replacement for radiation shielding or weighting applications.
Radiation shielding materials are used for a variety of radiologic applications. “The use of
radiation in diagnosing and treating patients has significantly advanced the field of medicine and
saved or extended countless lives¹.” Advances in technology and more sophisticated applications
have improved standard treatments for the benefit of the patient. Radiation use does, however, come
with risks.
4.6.1 Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements:
A temperature measuring device indicates the temperature of its sensor, which is supposed to
be, but is not necessarily, the temperature of the medium that the sensor is in. When a thermometer
is placed in a medium, heat transfer takes place between the sensor of the thermometer and the
medium by convection until the sensor reaches the temperature of the medium. But when the sensor
is surrounded by surfaces that are at a different temperature than the fluid, radiation exchange will
take place between the sensor and the surrounding surfaces. When the heat transfers by convection
and radiation balance each other, the sensor will indicate a temperature that falls between the fluid
and surface temperatures. Below we develop a procedure to account for the radiation effect and to
determine the actual fluid temperature.

Fig No 4.8: Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements

The presence of a participating medium complicates the radiation analysis considerably for
several reasons:
• A participating medium emits and absorbs radiation throughout its entire volume. That is,
gaseous radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and thus it depends on the size and shape of
the body. This is the case even if the temperature is uniform throughout the medium.
• Gases emit and absorb radiation at a number of narrow wavelength bands. This is in contrast
to solids, which emit and absorb radiation over the entire spectrum. Therefore, the gray

34
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

assumption may not always be appropriate for a gas even when the surrounding surfaces are
gray.
• The emission and absorption characteristics of the constituents of a gas mixture also depend
on the temperature, pressure, and composition of the gas mixture. Therefore, the presence of
other participating gases affects the radiation characteristics of a particular gas.

4.7 Radiation in Gases- The Exponential Decay Formula

Radiation exchange between a gas and a heat-transfer surface is
considerably more complex than the situations described in the
preceding sections. Unlike most solid bodies, gases are in many
cases transparent to radiation. When they absorb and emit
radiation, they usually do so only in certain narrow wavelength
bands. Some gases, such as N2, O2, and others of nonpolar
symmetrical molecular structure, are essentially transparent at
low temperatures, while CO2, H2O, and various hydrocarbon
gases radiate to an appreciable extent.
The absorption of radiation in gas layers may be described
analytically in the following way, considering the system shown
in Figure. A monochromatic beam of radiation having intensity
Iλimpinges on the gas layer of thickness dx. The decrease in
intensity resulting from absorption in the layers is assumed to be proportional to the thickness
of the layer and the intensity of radiation at that point. Thus
dIλ=−aλIλ dx
Where the proportionality constant aλis called the monochromatic absorption coefficient.
Integrating this equation gives
I x
dI  x
I I  = 0 − a dx
0

Or
I x
= e − a x
I0
The above Equation is called Beer’s law and represents the familiar exponential-decay
formula experienced in many types of radiation analyses dealing with absorption. In
accordance with our definitions, the monochromatic transmissivity will be given as
  = e −  x
If the gas is nonreflecting, then
  +  = 1
And
αλ=1− e −  x
As we have mentioned, gases frequently absorb only in narrow wavelength bands. For example, water
vapor has an absorptivity of about 0.7 between 1.4 and 1.5 μm, about 0.8 between 1.6 and 1.8 μm,
about 1.0 between 2.6 and 2.8 μm, and about 1.0 between 5.5 and 7.0 μm. As we have seen in
Equation, the absorptivity will also be a function of the thickness of the gas layer, and there is a
temperature dependence as well.

35
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Example 17: Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at 800 oC and 300oC are 0.3
and 0.5 respectively. Find the net radiant heat exchange per square metre for these plates. Find
the percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminum radiation shield (  = 0.05
) is placed between them. Also find the temperature of shield.
Given Data:
First Plate temperature, T1=800oC =1073K
Second plate temperature, T2=300oC =573K
Emissivity,  1 = 0.3 ,  2 = 0.5
Shield emissivity,  3 = 0.05

To find:
d) Net radiant heat exchange per square metre
e) Percentage reduction in heat transfer when a
polished aluminum radiation shield
f) Temperature of shield
Solution:
Heat exchange between two large parallel plates
without radiation shield is given by

Q12 = A T14 − T24 
Where,
1
=
1 1
+ −1
1 2
1
=
1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.5
 = 0.23

Q12 = 0.23  A T14 − T24 
Q12 = 0.23  5.67  10  A  (1073) − (573)
−8
 4 4

Q12
A
4

= 0.23  5.67  10 −8  (1073) − (573)
4

Q12
= 15880.7W / m 2
A
Q12
= 15.8807 kW / m 2
A
Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation shield 3 is given by

 Q13 = A T14 − T34 
1
=
1 1
+ −1
1 3

36
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

AT14 − T34 
Q13 =
1 1
+ −1
1  3
Heat exchange between radiation shield 3 and plate 2 is given by
 Q32 = A T34 − T24 
1
=
1 1
+ −1
3 2
AT34 − T24 
Q32 =
1 1
+ −1
3 2
We know that,
Q13 = Q32
AT14 − T34  AT34 − T24 
 =
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1 3 3 2


T
− T34
1
4
=

A T34 − T24  
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.06 0.06 0.5


10734 − T34
= 3

T 4 − 5734  
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.3 0.06 0.06 0.5
17.6(1073) − (T3 )
4 4
 T34 = + (573)
4

19
 T3 = 0.926[(1073) − (T3 ) ] + (573)
4 4 4 4

 T34 = 0.926(1073) − 0.926(T3 ) + (573)

4 4 4

1.926(T3 ) = 1.33  1012

4

(T3 )4 = 6.90  1011

T3 = 911.5 K
Radiation shield temperature, T3 = 911.5K
AT14 − T34  AT34 − T24 
Substituting T3 value in equation, Q13 = or Q32 = ,we get
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1  3 3 2

Q13 =
5.67  10 −8  A (1073) − (911.5)  4 4

1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.06
Q13
= 1895.76W / m 2
A Heat transfer with radiation shield

37
Regulation 2019 Academic Year 2023-2024

Q13
= 1.89576kW / m 2
A
Reduction in heat transfer due to radiation shield
=

Q12 − Q13
=
Q12
15.88 − 1.89
=
15.88
= 0.88 = 0.88%
Result:
Q12
• Net radiant heat exchange per square metre, = 15.8807kW / m 2
A
• Percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminum radiation
shield, =88%
• Temperature of shield, T3 = 911.5K

38