Ant colony optimization algorithms

In computer science and operations research, the ant colony

optimization algorithm (ACO) is a probabilistic technique for
solving computational problems which can be reduced to finding
good paths through graphs. Artificial ants stand for multi-agent
methods inspired by the behavior of real ants. The pheromone-
based communication of biological ants is often the predominant
paradigm used.[2] Combinations of artificial ants and local search
algorithms have become a method of choice for numerous
Ant behavior was the inspiration for
optimization tasks involving some sort of graph, e.g., vehicle the metaheuristic optimization
routing and internet routing. technique

As an example, ant colony optimization[3] is a class of optimization

algorithms modeled on the actions of an ant colony.[4] Artificial
'ants' (e.g. simulation agents) locate optimal solutions by moving
through a parameter space representing all possible solutions. Real
ants lay down pheromones directing each other to resources while
exploring their environment. The simulated 'ants' similarly record
their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in later
simulation iterations more ants locate better solutions.[5] One
variation on this approach is the bees algorithm, which is more
analogous to the foraging patterns of the honey bee, another social
insect.

This algorithm is a member of the ant colony algorithms family, in

swarm intelligence methods, and it constitutes some metaheuristic
optimizations. Initially proposed by Marco Dorigo in 1992 in his
PhD thesis,[6][7] the first algorithm was aiming to search for an When a colony of ants is confronted
optimal path in a graph, based on the behavior of ants seeking a with the choice of reaching their food
path between their colony and a source of food. The original idea via two different routes of which one
has since diversified to solve a wider class of numerical problems, is much shorter than the other, their
and as a result, several problems have emerged, drawing on various choice is entirely random. However,
those who use the shorter route
aspects of the behavior of ants. From a broader perspective, ACO
reach the food faster and therefore
performs a model-based search[8] and shares some similarities with go back and forth more often
estimation of distribution algorithms. between the anthill and the food.[1]

Overview
In the natural world, ants of some species (initially) wander randomly, and upon finding food return to their
colony while laying down pheromone trails. If other ants find such a path, they are likely not to keep
travelling at random, but instead to follow the trail, returning and reinforcing it if they eventually find food
(see Ant communication).[9]
Over time, however, the pheromone trail starts to evaporate, thus reducing its attractive strength. The more
time it takes for an ant to travel down the path and back again, the more time the pheromones have to
evaporate. A short path, by comparison, gets marched over more frequently, and thus the pheromone
density becomes higher on shorter paths than longer ones. Pheromone evaporation also has the advantage
of avoiding the convergence to a locally optimal solution. If there were no evaporation at all, the paths
chosen by the first ants would tend to be excessively attractive to the following ones. In that case, the
exploration of the solution space would be constrained. The influence of pheromone evaporation in real ant
systems is unclear, but it is very important in artificial systems.[10]

The overall result is that when one ant finds a good (i.e., short) path from the colony to a food source, other
ants are more likely to follow that path, and positive feedback eventually leads to many ants following a
single path. The idea of the ant colony algorithm is to mimic this behavior with "simulated ants" walking
around the graph representing the problem to solve.

Ambient networks of intelligent objects

New concepts are required since “intelligence” is no longer centralized but can be found throughout all
minuscule objects. Anthropocentric concepts have been known to lead to the production of IT systems in
which data processing, control units and calculating forces are centralized. These centralized units have
continually increased their performance and can be compared to the human brain. The model of the brain
has become the ultimate vision of computers. Ambient networks of intelligent objects and, sooner or later, a
new generation of information systems that are even more diffused and based on nanotechnology, will
profoundly change this concept. Small devices that can be compared to insects do not dispose of a high
intelligence on their own. Indeed, their intelligence can be classed as fairly limited. It is, for example,
impossible to integrate a high performance calculator with the power to solve any kind of mathematical
problem into a biochip that is implanted into the human body or integrated in an intelligent tag which is
designed to trace commercial articles. However, once those objects are interconnected they dispose of a
form of intelligence that can be compared to a colony of ants or bees. In the case of certain problems, this
type of intelligence can be superior to the reasoning of a centralized system similar to the brain.[11]

Nature offers several examples of how minuscule organisms, if they all follow the same basic rule, can
create a form of collective intelligence on the macroscopic level. Colonies of social insects perfectly
illustrate this model which greatly differs from human societies. This model is based on the co-operation of
independent units with simple and unpredictable behavior.[12] They move through their surrounding area to
carry out certain tasks and only possess a very limited amount of information to do so. A colony of ants, for
example, represents numerous qualities that can also be applied to a network of ambient objects. Colonies
of ants have a very high capacity to adapt themselves to changes in the environment as well as an enormous
strength in dealing with situations where one individual fails to carry out a given task. This kind of
flexibility would also be very useful for mobile networks of objects which are perpetually developing.
Parcels of information that move from a computer to a digital object behave in the same way as ants would
do. They move through the network and pass from one knot to the next with the objective of arriving at
their final destination as quickly as possible.[13]

Artificial pheromone system

Pheromone-based communication is one of the most effective ways of communication which is widely
observed in nature. Pheromone is used by social insects such as bees, ants and termites; both for inter-agent
and agent-swarm communications. Due to its feasibility, artificial pheromones have been adopted in multi-
robot and swarm robotic systems. Pheromone-based communication was implemented by different means
such as chemical [14][15][16] or physical (RFID tags,[17] light,[18][19][20][21] sound[22]) ways. However,
those implementations were not able to replicate all the aspects of pheromones as seen in nature.

Using projected light was presented in an 2007 IEEE paper by Garnier, Simon, et al. as an experimental
setup to study pheromone-based communication with micro autonomous robots.[23] Another study
presented a system in which pheromones were implemented via a horizontal LCD screen on which the
robots moved, with the robots having downward facing light sensors to register the patterns beneath
them.[24][25]

Algorithm and formula

In the ant colony optimization algorithms, an artificial ant is a simple computational agent that searches for
good solutions to a given optimization problem. To apply an ant colony algorithm, the optimization problem
needs to be converted into the problem of finding the shortest path on a weighted graph. In the first step of
each iteration, each ant stochastically constructs a solution, i.e. the order in which the edges in the graph
should be followed. In the second step, the paths found by the different ants are compared. The last step
consists of updating the pheromone levels on each edge.

procedure ACO_MetaHeuristic is
while not terminated do
generateSolutions()
daemonActions()
pheromoneUpdate()
repeat
end procedure

Edge selection
Each ant needs to construct a solution to move through the graph. To select the next edge in its tour, an ant
will consider the length of each edge available from its current position, as well as the corresponding
pheromone level. At each step of the algorithm, each ant moves from a state to state , corresponding to a
more complete intermediate solution. Thus, each ant computes a set of feasible expansions to its
current state in each iteration, and moves to one of these in probability. For ant , the probability of
moving from state to state depends on the combination of two values, the attractiveness of the
move, as computed by some heuristic indicating the a priori desirability of that move and the trail level
of the move, indicating how proficient it has been in the past to make that particular move. The trail level
represents a posteriori indication of the desirability of that move.

In general, the th ant moves from state to state with probability

where is the amount of pheromone deposited for transition from state to , 0 ≤ is a parameter to
control the influence of , is the desirability of state transition (a priori knowledge, typically
, where is the distance) and ≥ 1 is a parameter to control the influence of . and
represent the trail level and attractiveness for the other possible state transitions.

Pheromone update
Trails are usually updated when all ants have completed their solution, increasing or decreasing the level of
trails corresponding to moves that were part of "good" or "bad" solutions, respectively. An example of a
global pheromone updating rule is

where is the amount of pheromone deposited for a state transition , is the pheromone evaporation
coefficient, is the number of ants and is the amount of pheromone deposited by th ant, typically
given for a TSP problem (with moves corresponding to arcs of the graph) by

where is the cost of the th ant's tour (typically length) and is a constant.

Common extensions
Here are some of the most popular variations of ACO algorithms.

Ant system (AS)

The ant system is the first ACO algorithm. This algorithm corresponds to the one presented above. It was
developed by Dorigo.[26]

Ant colony system (ACS)

In the ant colony system algorithm, the original ant system was modified in three aspects:

1. The edge selection is biased towards exploitation (i.e. favoring the probability of selecting
the shortest edges with a large amount of pheromone);
2. While building a solution, ants change the pheromone level of the edges they are selecting
by applying a local pheromone updating rule;
3. At the end of each iteration, only the best ant is allowed to update the trails by applying a
modified global pheromone updating rule.[27]

Elitist ant system

In this algorithm, the global best solution deposits pheromone on its trail after every iteration (even if this
trail has not been revisited), along with all the other ants. The elitist strategy has as its objective directing the
search of all ants to construct a solution to contain links of the current best route.

Max-min ant system (MMAS)

This algorithm controls the maximum and minimum pheromone amounts on each trail. Only the global best
tour or the iteration best tour are allowed to add pheromone to its trail. To avoid stagnation of the search
algorithm, the range of possible pheromone amounts on each trail is limited to an interval [τmax ,τmin ]. All
edges are initialized to τmax to force a higher exploration of solutions. The trails are reinitialized to τmax
when nearing stagnation.[28]

Rank-based ant system (ASrank)

All solutions are ranked according to their length. Only a fixed number of the best ants in this iteration are
allowed to update their trials. The amount of pheromone deposited is weighted for each solution, such that
solutions with shorter paths deposit more pheromone than the solutions with longer paths.

Parallel ant colony optimization (PACO)

An ant colony system (ACS) with communication strategies is developed. The artificial ants are partitioned
into several groups. Seven communication methods for updating the pheromone level between groups in
ACS are proposed and work on the traveling salesman problem. [29]

Continuous orthogonal ant colony (COAC)

The pheromone deposit mechanism of COAC is to enable ants to search for solutions collaboratively and
effectively. By using an orthogonal design method, ants in the feasible domain can explore their chosen
regions rapidly and efficiently, with enhanced global search capability and accuracy. The orthogonal design
method and the adaptive radius adjustment method can also be extended to other optimization algorithms
for delivering wider advantages in solving practical problems.[30]

Recursive ant colony optimization

It is a recursive form of ant system which divides the whole search domain into several sub-domains and
solves the objective on these subdomains.[31] The results from all the subdomains are compared and the
best few of them are promoted for the next level. The subdomains corresponding to the selected results are
further subdivided and the process is repeated until an output of desired precision is obtained. This method
has been tested on ill-posed geophysical inversion problems and works well.[32]

Convergence
For some versions of the algorithm, it is possible to prove that it is convergent (i.e., it is able to find the
global optimum in finite time). The first evidence of convergence for an ant colony algorithm was made in
2000, the graph-based ant system algorithm, and later on for the ACS and MMAS algorithms. Like most
metaheuristics, it is very difficult to estimate the theoretical speed of convergence. A performance analysis
of a continuous ant colony algorithm with respect to its various parameters (edge selection strategy, distance
measure metric, and pheromone evaporation rate) showed that its performance and rate of convergence are
sensitive to the chosen parameter values, and especially to the value of the pheromone evaporation rate.[33]
In 2004, Zlochin and his colleagues[34] showed that COAC-type algorithms could be assimilated methods
of stochastic gradient descent, on the cross-entropy and estimation of distribution algorithm. They proposed
these metaheuristics as a "research-based model".

Applications
Ant colony optimization algorithms have been applied to many
combinatorial optimization problems, ranging from quadratic
assignment to protein folding or routing vehicles and a lot of
derived methods have been adapted to dynamic problems in real
variables, stochastic problems, multi-targets and parallel
implementations. It has also been used to produce near-optimal
solutions to the travelling salesman problem. They have an
advantage over simulated annealing and genetic algorithm
approaches of similar problems when the graph may change
dynamically; the ant colony algorithm can be run continuously and
adapt to changes in real time. This is of interest in network routing Knapsack problem: The ants prefer
and urban transportation systems. the smaller drop of honey over the
more abundant, but less nutritious,
The first ACO algorithm was called the ant system[26] and it was sugar
aimed to solve the travelling salesman problem, in which the goal is
to find the shortest round-trip to link a series of cities. The general
algorithm is relatively simple and based on a set of ants, each making one of the possible round-trips along
the cities. At each stage, the ant chooses to move from one city to another according to some rules:

1. It must visit each city exactly once;

2. A distant city has less chance of being chosen (the
visibility);
3. The more intense the pheromone trail laid out on an
edge between two cities, the greater the probability that
that edge will be chosen;
4. Having completed its journey, the ant deposits more
pheromones on all edges it traversed, if the journey is
short;
5. After each iteration, trails of pheromones evaporate. Visualization of the ant colony
algorithm applied to the travelling
salesman problem. The green lines
are the paths chosen by each ant.
The blue lines are the paths it may
take at each point. When the ant
finishes, the pheromone levels are
represented in red.
Scheduling problem
Sequential ordering problem (SOP) [35]
Job-shop scheduling problem (JSP)[36]
Open-shop scheduling problem (OSP)[37][38]
Permutation flow shop problem (PFSP)[39]
Single machine total tardiness problem (SMTTP)[40]
Single machine total weighted tardiness problem (SMTWTP)[41][42][43]
Resource-constrained project scheduling problem (RCPSP)[44]
Group-shop scheduling problem (GSP)[45]
Single-machine total tardiness problem with sequence dependent setup times
(SMTTPDST)[46]
Multistage flowshop scheduling problem (MFSP) with sequence dependent
setup/changeover times[47]
Assembly Sequence Planning (ASP) problems[48]

Vehicle routing problem

Capacitated vehicle routing problem (CVRP)[49][50][51]
Multi-depot vehicle routing problem (MDVRP)[52]
Period vehicle routing problem (PVRP)[53]
Split delivery vehicle routing problem (SDVRP)[54]
Stochastic vehicle routing problem (SVRP)[55]
Vehicle routing problem with pick-up and delivery (VRPPD)[56][57]
Vehicle routing problem with time windows (VRPTW)[58][59][60][61]
Time dependent vehicle routing problem with time windows (TDVRPTW)[62]
Vehicle routing problem with time windows and multiple service workers (VRPTWMS)

Assignment problem
Quadratic assignment problem (QAP)[63]
 Generalized assignment problem (GAP)[64][65]
Frequency assignment problem (FAP)[66]
Redundancy allocation problem (RAP)[67]

Set problem
Set cover problem (SCP)[68][69]
Partition problem (SPP)[70]
Weight constrained graph tree partition problem (WCGTPP)[71]
Arc-weighted l-cardinality tree problem (AWlCTP)[72]
Multiple knapsack problem (MKP)[73]
Maximum independent set problem (MIS)[74]

Device sizing problem in nanoelectronics physical design

Ant colony optimization (ACO) based optimization of 45 nm CMOS-based sense amplifier
circuit could converge to optimal solutions in very minimal time.[75]
Ant colony optimization (ACO) based reversible circuit synthesis could improve efficiency
significantly.[76]

Antennas optimization and synthesis

To optimize the form of antennas, ant colony algorithms can be
used. As example can be considered antennas RFID-tags based on
ant colony algorithms (ACO),[78] loopback and unloopback
vibrators 10×10[77]

Image processing
The ACO algorithm is used in image processing for image edge
detection and edge linking.[79][80]
Loopback vibrators 10×10,
Edge detection: synthesized by means of ACO
algorithm[77]
The graph here is the 2-D image and the ants traverse from one
pixel depositing pheromone. The movement of ants from one pixel
to another is directed by the local variation of the image's intensity
values. This movement causes the highest density of the pheromone
to be deposited at the edges.

The following are the steps involved in edge detection using Unloopback vibrators 10×10,
ACO:[81][82][83] synthesized by means of ACO
algorithm[77]
Step 1: Initialization. Randomly place ants on the image

where . Pheromone matrix are initialized

with a random value. The major challenge in the initialization process is determining the heuristic matrix.
There are various methods to determine the heuristic matrix. For the below example the heuristic matrix was
calculated based on the local statistics: the local statistics at the pixel position .

where is the image of size ,

is a normalization factor, and

can be calculated using the following functions:

The parameter in each of above functions adjusts the functions’ respective shapes.

Step 2: Construction process. The ant's movement is based on 4-connected pixels or 8-connected pixels.
The probability with which the ant moves is given by the probability equation

Step 3 and Step 5: Update process. The pheromone matrix is updated twice. in step 3 the trail of the ant
(given by ) is updated where as in step 5 the evaporation rate of the trail is updated which is given by:

where is the pheromone decay coefficient

Step 7: Decision process. Once the K ants have moved a fixed distance L for N iteration, the decision
whether it is an edge or not is based on the threshold T on the pheromone matrixτ. Threshold for the below
example is calculated based on Otsu's method.

Image edge detected using ACO: The images below are generated using different functions given by the
equation (1) to (4).[84]
 Edge linking:[85] ACO has also proven effective in edge linking algorithms.

Other applications
Bankruptcy prediction[86]
Classification[87]
Connection-oriented network routing[88]
Connectionless network routing[89][90]
Data mining[87][91][92][93]
Discounted cash flows in project scheduling[94]
Distributed information retrieval[95][96]
Energy and electricity network design[97]
Grid workflow scheduling problem[98]
Inhibitory peptide design for protein protein interactions[99]
Intelligent testing system[100]
Power electronic circuit design[101]
Protein folding[102][103][104]
System identification[105][106]

Definition difficulty
With an ACO algorithm, the shortest path in a graph, between two
points A and B, is built from a combination of several paths.[107] It
is not easy to give a precise definition of what algorithm is or is not
an ant colony, because the definition may vary according to the
authors and uses. Broadly speaking, ant colony algorithms are
regarded as populated metaheuristics with each solution represented
by an ant moving in the search space.[108] Ants mark the best
solutions and take account of previous markings to optimize their
search. They can be seen as probabilistic multi-agent algorithms
using a probability distribution to make the transition between each
iteration.[109] In their versions for combinatorial problems, they use
an iterative construction of solutions.[110] According to some
authors, the thing which distinguishes ACO algorithms from other
relatives (such as algorithms to estimate the distribution or particle
swarm optimization) is precisely their constructive aspect. In
combinatorial problems, it is possible that the best solution
eventually be found, even though no ant would prove effective. Thus, in the example of the Travelling
salesman problem, it is not necessary that an ant actually travels the shortest route: the shortest route can be
built from the strongest segments of the best solutions. However, this definition can be problematic in the
case of problems in real variables, where no structure of 'neighbours' exists. The collective behaviour of
social insects remains a source of inspiration for researchers. The wide variety of algorithms (for
optimization or not) seeking self-organization in biological systems has led to the concept of "swarm
intelligence",[11] which is a very general framework in which ant colony algorithms fit.

Stigmergy algorithms
There is in practice a large number of algorithms claiming to be "ant colonies", without always sharing the
general framework of optimization by canonical ant colonies.[111] In practice, the use of an exchange of
information between ants via the environment (a principle called "stigmergy") is deemed enough for an
algorithm to belong to the class of ant colony algorithms. This principle has led some authors to create the
term "value" to organize methods and behavior based on search of food, sorting larvae, division of labour
and cooperative transportation.[112]

Related methods
Genetic algorithms (GA)
These maintain a pool of solutions rather than just one. The process of finding superior
solutions mimics that of evolution, with solutions being combined or mutated to alter the
pool of solutions, with solutions of inferior quality being discarded.
Estimation of distribution algorithm (EDA)
An evolutionary algorithm that substitutes traditional reproduction operators by model-
guided operators. Such models are learned from the population by employing machine
learning techniques and represented as probabilistic graphical models, from which new
solutions can be sampled[113][114] or generated from guided-crossover.[115][116]
Simulated annealing (SA)
A related global optimization technique which traverses the search space by generating
neighboring solutions of the current solution. A superior neighbor is always accepted. An
inferior neighbor is accepted probabilistically based on the difference in quality and a
temperature parameter. The temperature parameter is modified as the algorithm
progresses to alter the nature of the search.
Reactive search optimization
Focuses on combining machine learning with optimization, by adding an internal feedback
loop to self-tune the free parameters of an algorithm to the characteristics of the problem, of
the instance, and of the local situation around the current solution.
Tabu search (TS)
Similar to simulated annealing in that both traverse the solution space by testing mutations
of an individual solution. While simulated annealing generates only one mutated solution,
tabu search generates many mutated solutions and moves to the solution with the lowest
fitness of those generated. To prevent cycling and encourage greater movement through
the solution space, a tabu list is maintained of partial or complete solutions. It is forbidden
to move to a solution that contains elements of the tabu list, which is updated as the
solution traverses the solution space.
Artificial immune system (AIS)
Modeled on vertebrate immune systems.
Particle swarm optimization (PSO)
A swarm intelligence method.
Intelligent water drops (IWD)
 A swarm-based optimization algorithm based on natural water drops flowing in rivers
Gravitational search algorithm (GSA)
A swarm intelligence method.
Ant colony clustering method (ACCM)
A method that make use of clustering approach, extending the ACO.
Stochastic diffusion search (SDS)
An agent-based probabilistic global search and optimization technique best suited to
problems where the objective function can be decomposed into multiple independent
partial-functions.

History
Chronology of ant colony optimization algorithms.

1959, Pierre-Paul Grassé invented the theory of stigmergy

to explain the behavior of nest building in termites;[117]
1983, Deneubourg and his colleagues studied the
collective behavior of ants;[118]
1988, and Moyson Manderick have an article on self-
organization among ants;[119]
1989, the work of Goss, Aron, Deneubourg and Pasteels
on the collective behavior of Argentine ants, which will
give the idea of ant colony optimization algorithms;[120]
1989, implementation of a model of behavior for food by
Ebling and his colleagues;[121]
1991, M. Dorigo proposed the ant system in his doctoral
thesis (which was published in 1992[7]). A technical report
extracted from the thesis and co-authored by V. Maniezzo Chronology of ACO algorithms
and A. Colorni[122] was published five years later;[26]
1994, Appleby and Steward of British Telecommunications
Plc published the first application to telecommunications networks[123]
1995, Gambardella and Dorigo proposed ant-q,[124] the preliminary version of ant colony
system as first extension of ant system;.[26]
1996, Gambardella and Dorigo proposed ant colony system [125]
1996, publication of the article on ant system;[26]
1997, Dorigo and Gambardella proposed ant colony system hybridized with local search;[27]
1997, Schoonderwoerd and his colleagues published an improved application to
telecommunication networks;[126]
1998, Dorigo launches first conference dedicated to the ACO algorithms;[127]
1998, Stützle proposes initial parallel implementations;[128]
1999, Gambardella, Taillard and Agazzi proposed macs-vrptw, first multi ant colony system
applied to vehicle routing problems with time windows,[58]
1999, Bonabeau, Dorigo and Theraulaz publish a book dealing mainly with artificial ants[129]
2000, special issue of the Future Generation Computer Systems journal on ant
algorithms[130]
2000, Hoos and Stützle invent the max-min ant system;[28]
2000, first applications to the scheduling, scheduling sequence and the satisfaction of
constraints;
 2000, Gutjahr provides the first evidence of convergence for an algorithm of ant colonies[131]
2001, the first use of COA algorithms by companies (Eurobios (http://www.eurobios.com/)
and AntOptima (http://www.antoptima.com/));
2001, Iredi and his colleagues published the first multi-objective algorithm[132]
2002, first applications in the design of schedule, Bayesian networks;
2002, Bianchi and her colleagues suggested the first algorithm for stochastic problem;[133]
2004, Dorigo and Stützle publish the Ant Colony Optimization book with MIT Press [134]
2004, Zlochin and Dorigo show that some algorithms are equivalent to the stochastic
gradient descent, the cross-entropy method and algorithms to estimate distribution[34]
2005, first applications to protein folding problems.
2012, Prabhakar and colleagues publish research relating to the operation of individual ants
communicating in tandem without pheromones, mirroring the principles of computer network
organization. The communication model has been compared to the Transmission Control
Protocol.[135]
2016, first application to peptide sequence design.[99]
2017, successful integration of the multi-criteria decision-making method PROMETHEE into
the ACO algorithm (HUMANT algorithm).[136]

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sfran/Asignaturas/EvaluacionFinEconProyec/2%20OptimizingDiscounted.pdf)", IEEE
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95. D. Picard, A. Revel, M. Cord, "An Application of Swarm Intelligence to Distributed Image
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99. Zaidman, Daniel; Wolfson, Haim J. (2016-08-01). "PinaColada: peptide–inhibitor ant colony
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93%2Fbioinformatics%2Fbtw133). ISSN 1367-4803 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1367-480
3). PMID 27153578 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27153578).
100. Xiao. M.Hu, J. ZHANG, and H. Chung, "An Intelligent Testing System Embedded with an Ant
Colony Optimization Based Test Composition Method (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/do
cument/5061647/)", IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics--Part C:
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101. J. ZHANG, H. Chung, W. L. Lo, and T. Huang, "Extended Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm
for Power Electronic Circuit Design (http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.
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103. A. Shmygelska, R. A. Hernández and H. H. Hoos, "An ant colony optimization algorithm for
the 2D HP protein folding problem (ftp://nozdr.ru/biblio/kolxo3/Cs/CsLn/Ant%20Algorithms,%
203%20conf.,%20ANTS%202002(LNCS2463,%20Springer,%202002)(ISBN%2035404414
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104. M. Nardelli; L. Tedesco; A. Bechini (March 2013). "Cross-lattice behavior of general ACO
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emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1216890).
105. L. Wang and Q. D. Wu, "Linear system parameters identification based on ant system
algorithm," Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Control Applications, pp. 401-406, 2001.
106. K. C. Abbaspour, R. Schulin, M. T. Van Genuchten, "Estimating unsaturated soil hydraulic
parameters using ant colony optimization (https://www.ars.usda.gov/arsuserfiles/20360500/p
df_pubs/P1797.pdf)," Advances In Water Resources, vol. 24, no. 8, pp. 827-841, 2001.
107. Shmygelska, Alena; Hoos, Holger H. (2005). "An ant colony optimisation algorithm for the 2D
and 3D hydrophobic polar protein folding problem" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC555464). BMC Bioinformatics. 6: 30. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-6-30 (https://doi.org/10.1
186%2F1471-2105-6-30). PMC 555464 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC555
464). PMID 15710037 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15710037).
108. Fred W. Glover, Gary A. Kochenberger, Handbook of Metaheuristics, [3] (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=P-HpBwAAQBAJ&dq=aco+algorithms+with+guaranteed+convergence+to+
the+optimal+solution+metaheuristics&pg=PA276), Springer (2003)
109. "Ciad-Lab |" (http://www.multiagent.fr/extensions/ICAPManager/pdf/LauriCharpillet2006.pdf)
(PDF).
110. WJ Gutjahr, ACO algorithms with guaranteed convergence to the optimal solution, [4] (https://
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113. Pelikan, Martin; Goldberg, David E.; Cantú-Paz, Erick (July 1999). "BOA: The Bayesian
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Proceedings of the 1st Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation -
Volume 1. pp. 525–532. ISBN 9781558606111.
114. Pelikan, Martin (2005). Hierarchical Bayesian optimization algorithm : toward a new
generation of evolutionary algorithms (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-23774-7.
115. Thierens, Dirk (11 September 2010). "The Linkage Tree Genetic Algorithm". Parallel
Problem Solving from Nature, PPSN XI. pp. 264–273. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-15844-5_27 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-15844-5_27). ISBN 978-3-642-15843-8.
S2CID 28648829 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28648829).
116. Martins, Jean P.; Fonseca, Carlos M.; Delbem, Alexandre C. B. (25 December 2014). "On the
performance of linkage-tree genetic algorithms for the multidimensional knapsack problem".
Neurocomputing. 146: 17–29. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2014.04.069 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2
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117. P.-P. Grassé, La reconstruction du nid et les coordinations inter-individuelles chez
Belicositermes natalensis et Cubitermes sp. La théorie de la Stigmergie : Essai
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41-80, 1959.
118. J.L. Denebourg, J.M. Pasteels et J.C. Verhaeghe, Probabilistic Behaviour in Ants : a Strategy
of Errors? (https://web.archive.org/web/20181006194827/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ca
ac/71608a5e6b0907a8a99bba30d72d9a304152.pdf), Journal of Theoretical Biology,
numéro 105, 1983.
119. F. Moyson, B. Manderick, The collective behaviour of Ants : an Example of Self-Organization
in Massive Parallelism, Actes de AAAI Spring Symposium on Parallel Models of Intelligence,
Stanford, Californie, 1988.
120. S. Goss, S. Aron, J.-L. Deneubourg et J.-M. Pasteels, Self-organized shortcuts in the
Argentine ant (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Serge_Aron/publication/301232811_Self
-Organized_Shortcuts_in_the_Argentine_Ant/links/59967b5daca27283b11d9070/Self-Orga
nized-Shortcuts-in-the-Argentine-Ant.pdf), Naturwissenschaften, volume 76, pages 579-581,
1989
121. M. Ebling, M. Di Loreto, M. Presley, F. Wieland, et D. Jefferson,An Ant Foraging Model
Implemented on the Time Warp Operating System, Proceedings of the SCS Multiconference
on Distributed Simulation, 1989
122. Dorigo M., V. Maniezzo et A. Colorni, Positive feedback as a search strategy, rapport
technique numéro 91-016, Dip. Elettronica, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, 1991
123. Appleby, S. & Steward, S. Mobile software agents for control in telecommunications
networks, BT Technol. J., 12(2):104–113, April 1994
124. L.M. Gambardella and M. Dorigo, "Ant-Q: a reinforcement learning approach to the traveling
salesman problem", Proceedings of ML-95, Twelfth International Conference on Machine
Learning, A. Prieditis and S. Russell (Eds.), Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 252–260, 1995
125. L.M. Gambardella and M. Dorigo, "Solving Symmetric and Asymmetric TSPs by Ant
Colonies", Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Evolutionary Computation, ICEC96,
Nagoya, Japan, May 20–22, pp. 622-627, 1996;
126. R. Schoonderwoerd, O. Holland, J. Bruten et L. Rothkrantz, Ant-based load balancing in
telecommunication networks (https://web.archive.org/web/20170902102027/https://pdfs.sem
anticscholar.org/f09e/03c5d759c7ca04e443d496e23c981f1b4a5d.pdf), Adaptive Behaviour,
volume 5, numéro 2, pages 169-207, 1997
127. M. Dorigo, ANTS’ 98, From Ant Colonies to Artificial Ants : First International Workshop on
Ant Colony Optimization, ANTS 98, Bruxelles, Belgique, octobre 1998.
128. T. Stützle, Parallelization Strategies for Ant Colony Optimization, Proceedings of PPSN-V,
Fifth International Conference on Parallel Problem Solving from Nature, Springer-Verlag,
volume 1498, pages 722-731, 1998.
129. É. Bonabeau, M. Dorigo et G. Theraulaz, Swarm intelligence, Oxford University Press, 1999.
130. M. Dorigo, G. Di Caro et T. Stützle, Special issue on "Ant Algorithms (https://www.academia.
edu/download/30765111/FGCS-Editorial-final.pdf)", Future Generation Computer Systems,
volume 16, numéro 8, 2000
131. W.J. Gutjahr, A graph-based Ant System and its convergence (http://iridia.ulb.ac.be/~mdorig
o/ACO/downloads/ants5.pdf), Future Generation Computer Systems, volume 16, pages 873-
888, 2000.
132. S. Iredi, D. Merkle et M. Middendorf, Bi-Criterion Optimization with Multi Colony Ant
Algorithms (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/3-540-44719-9_25), Evolutionary Multi-
Criterion Optimization, First International Conference (EMO’01), Zurich, Springer Verlag,
pages 359-372, 2001.
133. L. Bianchi, L.M. Gambardella et M.Dorigo, An ant colony optimization approach to the
probabilistic traveling salesman problem (http://hcot.ir/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/An-Ant-C
olony-Optimization-Approach-to-the-Probabilistic-Traveling-Salesman-Problem.pdf), PPSN-
VII, Seventh International Conference on Parallel Problem Solving from Nature, Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Allemagne, 2002.
134. M. Dorigo and T. Stützle, Ant Colony Optimization, MIT Press, 2004.
135. B. Prabhakar, K. N. Dektar, D. M. Gordon, "The regulation of ant colony foraging activity
without spatial information ", PLOS Computational Biology, 2012. URL:
http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002670
136. Mladineo, Marko; Veza, Ivica; Gjeldum, Nikola (2017). "Solving partner selection problem in
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rg/10.1080%2F00207543.2016.1234084). S2CID 114390939 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:114390939).

Publications (selected)
M. Dorigo, 1992. Optimization, Learning and Natural Algorithms, PhD thesis, Politecnico di
Milano, Italy.
M. Dorigo, V. Maniezzo & A. Colorni, 1996. "Ant System: Optimization by a Colony of
Cooperating Agents (http://www.cs.unibo.it/babaoglu/courses/cas05-06/tutorials/Ant_Colony
_Optimization.pdf)", IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics–Part B, 26 (1):
29–41.
M. Dorigo & L. M. Gambardella, 1997. "Ant Colony System: A Cooperative Learning
Approach to the Traveling Salesman Problem (http://www.idsia.ch/~luca/acs-ec97.pdf)".
IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 1 (1): 53–66.
M. Dorigo, G. Di Caro & L. M. Gambardella, 1999. "Ant Algorithms for Discrete Optimization
(http://people.idsia.ch/~gianni/Papers/ArtificialLife-original.pdf)". Artificial Life, 5 (2): 137–
172.
E. Bonabeau, M. Dorigo et G. Theraulaz, 1999. Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial
Systems, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513159-2
M. Dorigo & T. Stützle, 2004. Ant Colony Optimization, MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-04219-3
M. Dorigo, 2007. "Ant Colony Optimization" (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Ant_Colony
_Optimization). Scholarpedia.
C. Blum, 2005 "Ant colony optimization: Introduction and recent trends (http://aisii.azc.uam.m
x/mcbc/Cursos/IntCompt/Lectura16.pdf)". Physics of Life Reviews, 2: 353-373
M. Dorigo, M. Birattari & T. Stützle, 2006 Ant Colony Optimization: Artificial Ants as a
Computational Intelligence Technique (https://web.archive.org/web/20120222061542/http://ir
idia.ulb.ac.be/IridiaTrSeries/IridiaTr2006-023r001.pdf). TR/IRIDIA/2006-023
Mohd Murtadha Mohamad,"Articulated Robots Motion Planning Using Foraging Ant
Strategy", Journal of Information Technology - Special Issues in Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 20,
No. 4 pp. 163–181, December 2008, ISSN 0128-3790 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x
0:jrnl&q=n2:0128-3790).
N. Monmarché, F. Guinand & P. Siarry (eds), "Artificial Ants", August 2010 Hardback 576
pp. ISBN 978-1-84821-194-0.
A. Kazharov, V. Kureichik, 2010. "Ant colony optimization algorithms for solving
transportation problems (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Asker_Kazharov/publication/2
25549674_Ant_colony_optimization_algorithms_for_solving_transportation_problems/links/
56e0268e08aec4b3333d0039.pdf)", Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences
International, Vol. 49. No. 1. pp. 30–43.
C-M. Pintea, 2014, Advances in Bio-inspired Computing for Combinatorial Optimization
Problem (https://www.springer.com/la/book/9783642401787), Springer ISBN 978-3-642-
40178-7
K. Saleem, N. Fisal, M. A. Baharudin, A. A. Ahmed, S. Hafizah and S. Kamilah, "Ant colony
inspired self-optimized routing protocol based on cross layer architecture for wireless sensor
networks", WSEAS Trans. Commun., vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 669–678, 2010. ISBN 978-960-474-
200-4
K. Saleem and N. Fisal, "Enhanced Ant Colony algorithm for self-optimized data assured
routing in wireless sensor networks", Networks (ICON) 2012 18th IEEE International
Conference on, pp. 422–427. ISBN 978-1-4673-4523-1
Abolmaali S, Roodposhti FR. Portfolio Optimization Using Ant Colony Method a Case Study
on Tehran Stock Exchange. (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Saina_Abolmaali2/publicat
ion/312523236_Portfolio_Optimization_using_ant_colony_method_a_case_study_on_Tehr
an_stock_exchange/links/5ad5cd24a6fdcc29358108d4/Portfolio-Optimization-using-ant-col
 ony-method-a-case-study-on-Tehran-stock-exchange.pdf) Journal of Accounting. 2018
Mar;8(1).

External links
Scholarpedia Ant Colony Optimization page (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Ant_colony
_optimization)
Ant Colony Optimization Home Page (https://web.archive.org/web/20131011081948/http://w
ww.aco-metaheuristic.org/)
"Ant Colony Optimization" - Russian scientific and research community (http://vk.com/ant_col
ony_optimization)
AntSim - Simulation of Ant Colony Algorithms (https://web.archive.org/web/2008061604464
5/http://www.nightlab.ch/antsim/)
MIDACO-Solver (http://www.midaco-solver.com/) General purpose optimization software
based on ant colony optimization (Matlab, Excel, VBA, C/C++, R, C#, Java, Fortran and
Python)
University of Kaiserslautern, Germany, AG Wehn: Ant Colony Optimization Applet (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20110719105224/http://ems.eit.uni-kl.de/index.php?id=156) Visualization
of Traveling Salesman solved by ant system with numerous options and parameters (Java
Applet)
Ant algorithm simulation (Java Applet) (http://www.djoh.net/inde/ANTColony/applet.html)
Java Ant Colony System Framework (https://github.com/ugochirico/Java-Ant-Colony-System
-Framework)
Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm Implementation (Python Notebook) (https://www.kaggle.c
om/code/jamesmcguigan/ant-colony-optimization-algorithm)

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