Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in the dictionaries,
what we have called contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the
dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the
primary meaning. What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning is practically the
interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. The contextual
meaning depends on the dictionary meaning to a greater or lesser extent. When the dictionary-
acknowledged meaning is carried to a degree that it causes an unexpected turn in the recognized
logical meaning, we register a stylistic device.

The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and
frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative
meaning of the word. Hence the term transferred should be used signifying the development of
the semantic structure of the word. In this case we do not perceive two meanings. When we
perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device
in which the two meanings interact. When the word realizes the primary logical and derivative
meanings simultaneously, we register a stylistic device.

Classification of Lexical Stylistic Devices (I.R.Galperin)

Lexical stylistic devices are classified according to three principles:

1. The interaction of different types of lexical meaning.

a) dictionary and contextual: metaphor, metonymy, irony;

b) primary and derivative (zeugma, pun, semantically false chain);

c) logical and emotive (epithet, oxymoron);

d) logical and nominal (antonomasia).

2. Intensification of a feature (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis).

3. Peculiar use of set expressions (cliches, proverbs, epigrams, quotations, allusions).

I. The Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning

1. Interaction of Dictionary and Contextual Logical Meaning

 The relation between dictionary and contextual meanings may be maintained along
different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol - referent relations, or
on opposition. Thus, the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second,
metonymy and on the third, irony.

A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based
on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts or
objects. Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives,
verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech, as in prepositions. Metaphor
as any stylistic device can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus,
metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, are quite unpredictable, are called genuine
metaphors. E.g., Through the open window the dust danced and was golden. He is a lion.
Life’s…. a poor player. (“Macbeth”) Those which are commonly used in speech and are
sometimes fixed in the dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors or
dead metaphors e.g., a flight of fancy, floods of tears.

Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigour, their primary meaning is re-
established alongside the new derivative meaning. This is done by supplying the central image
created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word. E.g.,
“Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down.”

The verb “to bottle up” is explained as “to keep in check”, to conceal, to restrain,
repress. So, the metaphor can be hardly felt. But it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb
“to cork down”. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged. Stylistic function of a
metaphor is to make the description concrete, to express the individual attitude.

Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual
meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two
concepts which these meanings represent on proximity (contiguity). So, metonymy is based on
the substitution of one object for another. E.g., “London” instead of “the British Parliament”,
“the White House” instead of “the US President”.

The proximity (contiguity) may be revealed:

1) Between the symbol and the thing it denotes; crown, scepter;(crown stands for king or
queen).

2) In the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument; e.g. His
pen is rather sharp.

3) In the relation between the container and the thing it contains; e.g. He drank one more cup.

4) The concrete is put for the abstract; e.g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics).
5) A part is put for the whole; e.g., the crown - king, a hand - worker.

Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective attitude. Metonymy in many
cases is trite. e.g., “to earn one's bread”, “to keep one's mouth shut”.

Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings -
dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal
meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. Irony is based on the opposition of what is said
to what is meant.

E.g., “The garden bore witness to a love of growing plants which extended to many types
commonly known as weeds. (J.Wain). Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day).

2. Interaction of Primary and Derivative Logical Meanings

Primary and derivative meanings are characterized by their relative stability and are fixed
in dictionaries thus constituting the semantic structure of the word. When these two meaning are
realized simultaneously, we register a stylistic device. There are special SDs which make a word
materialize distinct dictionary meanings. They are zeugma and the pun. Zeugma is the use of a
word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the
context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred. So, it
is a figure of speech in which a word applies to two other words of which it semantically suits
only one (e.g., with weeping eyes and heart). Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy
and into the middle of the room. John lost his coat and his temper.

Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning
when two meanings clash. It is an interesting literary device that uses one word to refer to two or
more different things, in more than one way (John and his license expired. He broke Ann’s Car
and heart.)

The pun is another S.D. based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word
or a phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only
reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two semantically
different meanings of grammatically homogeneous members with the help of a verb which is
made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct and indirect). “Killing time with a book was
not much better than killing pheasants and time with a gun.”

The pun (play on words) is based on simultaneous realization of two meanings of a

polysemantic word or the usage of two homonyms in the same context. It creates a play on
words. A pun is often seen as a form of joke and adds a double meaning.

- Have you ever seen him at the bar?

- Thousand times. He was a drunkard.

The pun is more independent. Like any S.D. it must depend on a context. But the context
may be of a more extended character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive
prose.

- Did you miss my lecture?

- Not at all.

Pun seems to be more varied and resembles zeugma in its humorous effect only.

Semantically false chain is a variety of zeugma consisting of a number of homogeneous

members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the same verb. It is based on the effect of
defeated expectancy and produces a humorous effect.

Ex.: “Babbitt respected bigness in anything: in mountains, jewels, muscles, wealth of words”.
(S.L.)

3. Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meaning

Interjections and Exclamatory Words. Interjections are words we use when we

express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional
symbols of human emotions. In traditional grammars the interjection is regarded as a part of
speech. But there is another view which regards the interjection as a sentence.

However, a close investigation proves that interjection is a word with strong emotive
meaning. E.g., Oh, where are you going to, all you Big Steamers?

The interjection oh, by itself may express various feelings such as regret, despair,
disappointment, sorrow, surprise and many others. Interjections can be divided into primary and
derivative. Primary interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning (Ah, Oh).
Derivative interjections – (Well; fine; alas; gosh; well). Interjections such as: Heavens! Good
gracious! God knows! Bless me! are exclamatory words generally used as interjections. It must
be noted that some adjectives and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections - such as
Terrible! Awfully! Great! Wonderful! Splendid! These adjectives acquire strong emotional
colouring and are equal in force to interjections.

Epithet: a word (a group of words) carrying an expressive (emotive) characterization of

an object described: “Full many a glorious morning have I seen..."(Sh.)

The epithet is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive
word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader some
of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and
evaluation of these features or properties.
Classification of Epithets
From the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided into:

1) Simple (adjectives, nouns, participles): e.g. He looked at them in animal panic.

2) Compound: e.g., apple - faced man;

3) Sentence and phrase epithets: e.g. It is his do - it – yourself attitude.

4) Reversed epithets - composed of 2 nouns linked by an of phrase: e.g., “a shadow of a

smile”.

According to I.R.Galperin, epithets semantically can be:

1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects
they describe: dark forest; careful attention.

2) unassociated with the noun, epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes
the reader: smiling sun, voiceless sounds.

According to another classification of epithets (V.A. Kucharenko):

1) Tautological epithets: “green grass”

2) Evaluative epithets: “a pompously majestic female”

3) Descriptive epithets: “an unnaturally mild day”

4) Metaphorical epithets: “the smiling sun”

5) Metonymical epithets: “the sleepless pillow”

Oxymoron is a conjunction of seemingly contradictory notions, when two words in a

phrase contradict one other. It is a combination of two words in which the meaning is opposite in
sense: e.g., speaking silence, cold fire, living death. “And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true”
(A.Tennison). Sweet sorrow; pleasantly ugly face; deafening silence.

Trite oxymoron. E.g., awfully beautiful.

Close to oxymoron is paradox - a statement that is absurd on the surface. E.g., War is
peace. The worse - the better.

If the primary meaning of a qualifying word is changed the stylistic effect of oxymoron is
lost. In oxymoron the logical meaning holds fast because there is no true word combination.
 4. Interaction of Logical and Nominal Meaning

ANTONOMASIA is a SD based on the usage of a common noun instead of a proper name and
vice versa to characterize the person simultaneously with naming him – the so called “speaking
names»: Lady Teasle, Miss Sharp, Mister Logic. Every Caesar has his Brutus.

Antonomasia is the result of interaction between logical and nominal meaning of a word.
As in other stylistic devices based on the interaction of lexical meanings, the two kinds of
meanings must be realized in the word simultaneously. The phrase antonomasia is derived
from the Greek phrase antonomazein meaning “to name differently.”
Definition:
1. the use of a proper name to designate a member of a class (such as a Solomon for
a wise ruler).
2. the use of an epithet or title in place of a proper name (such as the
Bard for Shakespeare)

1) When the proper name of a person, who is famous for some reasons, is put for a person having
the same feature. e.g., Her husband is an Othello.

2) A common noun is used instead of a proper name, e.g. I agree with you Mr. Logic, e.g. My
Dear Simplicity.

3) Speaking names: both naming and characterizing the personage under discussion – Lady
Teasle, Mr. Surface, Mr. Snake.

II. Intensification of a Feature

(Lexico-Syntactical SD in V.A. Kukharenko’s classification)

Simile. The intensification of some feature of the concept is realized in a device called
simile. Similes set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely
alien to each other. The simile gives rise to a new understanding of the object. The properties of
an object maybe viewed from different angles, i. e. its state, its actions, and manners.
Accordingly, similes may be based on adjective - attributes, adverb - modifiers, verb - predicates
etc. It is a type of figurative language which is used to compare one thing against another.

Similes have formal elements in their structure: connective words such as like, as, such
as, as if, seem. E.g. Her smile was as bright as the sun in the sky. She was twittering like a bird.
 Periphrasis - is a round - about way of speaking used to name some object or
phenomenon. Longer phrase is used instead of a shorter one. Some periphrases are traditional.
E.g. The fair sex (women). My better half. Our feathered friends (birds).

Periphrases are divided into:

1. Logical - based on inherent properties of a thing.

E.g., Instrument of destruction, the object of administration.

2. Figurative - based on imagery: metaphor, metonymy.

E.g., To tie a knot - to get married; in disgrace of fortune - bad luck.

Euphemistic periphrases are used to avoid some unpleasant things, or taboo things.
E.g., To pass away - to die.

Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration, the aim of which is to intensify

one of the features of the object in question to such a degree as to show its utter absurdity. Like
many SDs, hyperbole may lose its quality as a SD through frequent repetition and become a unit
of the language as a system, reproduced in speech in its unaltered from. E.g., A thousand
pardons, scared to death, immensely obliged.

Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical assessment of
the utterance. This is achieved, as in case with other devices, by awakening the dichotomy of
thought and feeling where thought takes the upper hand though not to the detriment of feeling.

Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement not meant to be taken literally to express a highly

emotional attitude towards the thing described: “He was all starch and vinegar.” (D.) “The girls
were dressed to kill” (J.Br.) She is extremely rich. She is bathing in money. I nearly died
laughing when he told me that joke.

Litotes is a device in which an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary. Usually,

litotes presupposes double negation. One through a negative particle (no, not), the other -
through a word with negative meaning. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker
concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling. So it is a figure of speech used to
emphasize something by negating its opposite, often in the form of double negation; it frequently
has the effect of an understatement.

Litotes is a trope in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative or vice versa: “It was not
without a certain wild pleasure I ran before the wind (Jane Eyre). E.g. It's not a bad thing - It's a
good thing.
E.g. He is no coward. - He is a brave man.
E.g. He was not without taste.
Structural patterns of litotes:
1) The presence of the key-element “not”. “It is not unreasonable.”
2) The key-element “too” + “not”. “I am not too sure.”
3) The key-element “rather, pretty, scarcely, etc…”

III. The Use of Set Expressions

A cliche is generally defined as an expression that has become hackneyed and trite. It has lost its
precise meaning by constant reiteration. It is an element of an artistic work, saying, or idea that
has become overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect, even to the point of
being trite, especially when at some earlier time it was considered meaningful or novel. A cliché
is a kind of stable word combination which has become familiar and which has been accepted as
a unit of language. E.g., rosy dreams of youth; rosy spectacles; red with anger;
white with fear; green with envy; quiet as a mouse; etc.

Proverbs and sayings are facts of language. They are collected in special dictionaries. They
have typical features: rhyme, rhythm, alliteration. Proverbs are brief statements showing in a
condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional
phraseological symbols for abstract ideas. They are usually image bearing and didactic. Proverbs
are expressions of culture that are passed from generation to generation. They are characterized
by their brevity.
E.g., Never say never. First come, first served. Out of sight, out of mind. Actions speak louder
than words.

An epigram is a brief, witty, interesting, memorable, and sometimes surprising or satirical

statement coined by individuals. It originated from the Greek word epigramma, which means
“inscription,” or “to inscribe.” They have a literary-bookish air and synthesize wisdom and
experience. This is very common in poetry, but we also find it in prose, politics, and everyday
speech. Epigrams serve the same purpose as do maxims and proverbs. Writers use this literary
device to cause listeners and readers to think deeply about their statements. Examples of
epigrams:
“A word to the wise ain’t necessary; it’s the stupid ones who need all the advice.” – Bill Cosby
“Live simply, so that others may simply live.” – Mother Teresa
“I’m starting with the man in the mirror.” – Michael Jackson
“Remember that time is money.” – Benjamin Franklin

A quotation is a phrase or sentence taken from a work of literature or other piece of writring and
repeated in order to prove a point or support an idea. They are marked graphically - by inverted
commas: dashes, italics.

Allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological fact or

to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. The use of an allusion
presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing or person alluded to on the part of the reader or listener.
As a rule, no indication of the source is given.
Writers often utilize allusion as a literary device for an incidental mention of something or a
passing reference to create context. Greek and/or Roman mythology are commonly used as
sources for allusions in literature, directly or by implication, due to the familiarity most readers
have with classical myths, their stories, and characters.

Here are some examples of allusion to classical mythology:

 Achilles’ heel (alluding to the one weakness of Achilles)

 arrow of love (allusion to Cupid)
 carrying the weight of the world on your shoulders (allusion to Atlas)
 pushing a boulder uphill every day (allusion to Sisyphus)
 hot as Hades (alluding to the god of death / king of the underworld)
 looking like Venus (alluding to the goddess of beauty)
 Herculean effort (alluding to the strength of Hercules)
 opening Pandora’s box (alluding to Pandora’s myth of letting trouble into the world)
 protean form of management (alluding to Proteus who could change his shape)
 can’t stop staring at himself (allusion to Narcissus)

Famous examples of Biblical allusion

The Bible is another frequently referenced source for writers utilizing allusion as a literary
device. Here are some famous examples of Biblical allusion:

 garden (Eden, creation)

 snake (serpent, Satan)
 flood (Noah’s Ark)
 apple/fruit (tree of knowledge, temptation)
 cross (Christ, crucifixion)
 great patience (Job)
 fraternal competition (Cain and Abel)
 betrayal (Judas)
 generosity/philanthropy (Good Samaritan)

Examples of allusion in literature

Example 1: Nothing Gold Can Stay (Robert Frost)

Nature’s first green is gold,
Her hardest hue to hold.
Her early leaf’s a flower;
But only so an hour.
Then leaf subsides to leaf.
So Eden sank to grief,
So dawn goes down to day.
Nothing gold can stay.
In his poem, Frost makes an allusion to the “fall of man” and exile from Paradise by referring to
Eden and how it “sank to grief.” This allusion helps to connect the human experience to the
poet’s lament about the cycle of life and death, beginning and ending, in nature. The allusion to
Eden also provides an interesting context to the poem, in that the reader can infer that the fall of
man was a natural and possibly inevitable occurrence, adding to the appreciation of life in its
temporary existence.

Example 2: As I Lay Dying (William Faulkner)

While I waited for him in the woods, waiting for him before he saw me, I would think of him as
dressed in sin. I would think of him as thinking of me as dressed also in sin, he the more
beautiful since the garment which he had exchanged for sin was sanctified. I would think of the
sin as garments which we would remove in order to shape and coerce the terrible blood to the
forlorn echo of the dead word high in the air.

Faulkner’s novel relies heavily on the reader’s ability to deduce and infer plot elements and
character motivations. This is particularly true with Addie Bundren’s character, as she is limited
to narrating one chapter through death. In this passage, Addie remembers her adulterous affair
with Reverent Whitfield that produced her son Jewel. This passage is an allusion to Nathaniel
Hawthorne’s literary work The Scarlet Letter in which Hester Prynne conceived a child through
her affair with Reverend Dimmesdale.

Faulkner’s use of this allusion helps contextualize Addie’s character, her relationship with Jewel,
and the fractured structure of her family. However, Faulkner is relying on the reader to catch this
brief allusion to Hawthorne’s work, infer its significance and meaning, and apply that to his own
novel. If the reader misses or misinterprets Faulkner’s subtle allusion, then it is ineffective and
without meaning.