EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR

OF ALUMINUM, SILICON CARBIDE AND ZIRCONIA METAL

MATRIX COMPOSITE

ABSTRACT
As the manufacturing sector increasingly favours the use of lightweight
materials, research into aluminum-based Silicon carbide composites is
becoming more significant. The study's findings include the development and
mechanical evaluation of hybrid aluminium matrix composites. The aluminium
alloy was fortified by the addition of silicon carbide (SiC) and zirconia (Zr)
particles. Al matrix composites were produced by a casting procedure.
Researchers have paid close attention to metal matrix composites (MMCs) for
possible applications in the aerospace and automotive industries due to their
high strength-to-weight ratios and outstanding resilience to temperature. In this
research, an attempt was made to use the Casting Method to produce a
composite material consisting of Silicon Carbide and Zirconia based on
Aluminium. The various alloy samples were crafted using a composition of Al
(at a 90% concentration), Silicon Carbide, and Zirconia. Examining mechanical
characteristics including hardness, impact strength, and corrosion testing is the
focus of this study. Impact and hardness were used as measures of success.
After that, a morphological investigation of the structure would be conducted
using a light optical microscope.
Keywords: Metal matrix composite, Aluminum, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia,
Mechanical properties, Tensile strength, Hardness, Impact resistance,
Microstructural analysis, Stir casting.

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Better-for-the-environment composites are thermally and biodegradably
superior. Automotive and aerospace industries favour aluminium composites.
Aluminium composites have better mechanical, metallurgical, and tribological
properties. Metal matrix composite production prices and technology depend on
processing methods and efficiency (MMC). Hybrid metal matrix composites
(HMMC) outperformed particle-reinforced and aluminium cast alloys.
Aluminium matrix composites are resistant and strong in many applications.
Aluminium boron carbide composites are used to make neutron absorbers and
armour plates. These composites are strong and wear-resistant. Boron carbide's
hardness makes it perfect for reinforcing applications. Zirconia is lighter and
stronger than other ash. Zirconia reinforces structures and is environmentally
friendly. Zirconia in the precipitator has a density of 2.0–2.5 gms/cc, compared
to 1.0 in the cenosphere. Sand allows for massive casts. Sand casting will make
aluminium composites because it's cheap. The method's low cost influenced this
choice. Stirring molten material promotes wettability, equiaxed fine grain
structure, and particle distribution throughout the matrix. Composting and
squeeze casting together generate a casting with less porosity and better quality.
ALFA composites, also known as aluminium Zirconia composites, improve
material characteristics, save money, and help the environment. Aluminium
Zirconia composites reduced energy, cost, and pollutants. Pistons and brake
rotors use aluminium Zirconia composites most. Also important are pistons.
ALFA composites make manifolds, brackets, housings, home extruded parts
and garden tool covers. These composites contain little Zirconia. Zirconia
reinforcement improves hardness, yield strength, and compression strength.
Zirconia composites lose ductility as the reinforcing component and particle
size increase. The brittle ceramic phase increases localised fractures and
embrittlement at the matrix-reinforcing particle contact. Localised fractures
increase. Cavities may nucleate and grow during plastic straining of reinforcing
particles, causing ductility loss. Processes formed these voids. The
microstructure and chemical composition of aluminium Zirconia composites are
determined by the chemical interaction between the matrix and reinforcing
particles. HMMC from aluminium zirconia produces aluminium oxide, silicon
oxide, ferric oxide, and magnesium oxide as byproducts. HMMC creation
involves this. Aluminium Zirconia composites outperformed cast aluminium
alloy in tribological characteristics. Few research have used zirconia content in
aluminium matrix at 17%. Zirconia makes composites denser and stronger, thus
more should be added. Zirconia particles and aluminium oxide improve tensile
and compressive characteristics. Strontium improves wear resistance in
aluminium boron carbide stir cast composites with 10% reinforcement.
Strontium increased the wear resistance of aluminium boron carbide
composites. Boron carbide improves matrix mechanical properties in Al-Si-Mg
alloys. Aluminium matrix contained equally distributed boron carbide particles.
The impact of boron carbide particles with a diameter of 20 micrometres and
different weight fractions of the alloy AL2024 (5%, 4%, 3%, 3%, and 2%) cast
by sand casting. Trials showed that A359/B4C/8p composites were rigid and
strong. Inhomogeneous particle and porosity distribution make casting ALFA
composites difficult. Other issues exist. The observed non-homogeneous
distribution is due to the poor wettability of boron carbide particles compared to
the aluminium matrix. Controlling process parameters and establishing robust
design helped solve these issues. Potassium flurotitanate (K2TiF6) was added to
improve wettability. At their interaction, titanium carbide and titanium diboride
form a reaction layer. Coated boron carbide and Zirconia particles improve
wettability. Wear characteristics depend on Zirconia particle size and
composition. Tribological parameters affected Al-Si/12p/FA/15p composites in
previous experiments. Increased load and sliding velocity accelerate wear.
Zirconia particles increased, degrading the material's tribological characteristics.
Silicon carbide increases Al-SiC-Zirconia composite wear rate and hardness.
Silicon carbide increases wear resistance. AA6351/FA composites and
examined the effects of load, sliding velocity, and reinforcement content using
grey relational analysis and ANOVA. Load affected wear rate more than sliding
velocity or reinforcing content. ALFA composites with a small particle size
range had far better tribological behaviour than those with a wide range. Pin or
chamber heating can be used for high-temperature pin on disc wear testing.
Each method may work. Pin heating is preferred because it quickly reaches high
temperatures with little energy. Researchers examined how load, sliding speed,
and temperature affected stainless steel wear and found that higher temperatures
increase frictional coefficient and surface finish. Load, sliding speed, and
sliding distance all affected Al-Al2O3/9p/Gr/3p composites, but sliding distance
had the greatest impact. Temperature, stress, and sliding velocity affected the
tribological properties of AA2024/SiC/10p composites. Composites with 120
micron reinforcing particles were tested at 30, 60, and 90 degrees Celsius. Load
and temperature affected wear more than sliding velocity. Al6063/TiB2
composites were tested for high-temperature tribological behaviour under
various loads and temperatures. Composite wear rates increased significantly
when temperatures were elevated. Titanium diboride also boosts wear
resistance. Based on the literature review, wear-resistant high-temperature
composite materials need additional study. This project examined the high-
temperature tribological behaviour of aluminium boron carbide and zirconia.
Assess how SiC and ZrO2 particle concentrations affect the mechanical
properties of the aluminium matrix composite, such as tensile strength,
hardness, and impact resistance.Analyse the composite's microstructure,
particularly reinforcement particle distribution and aluminium matrix
interaction.Compare the mechanical properties of the aluminium matrix
composite with pure aluminium. SiC and ZrO2 particles improve mechanical
qualities. Assess the aluminium matrix composite for high-strength, wear-
resistant, and thermally stable applications. Give numerical modelling and
simulation studies optimising metal matrix composite performance
experimental data and insights. Tensile, hardness, and impact tests will evaluate
the mechanical properties of the aluminium matrix composite. These attributes
will be examined when SiC and ZrO2 particle concentrations change.Optical
and SEM will study the composite's microstructure. To determine how SiC and
ZrO2 particles distribute in the aluminium matrix, their mechanical behaviour
will be examined.Aluminium matrix composite findings will be compared to
pure aluminium and other related materials. Quantitatively evaluate SiC and
ZrO2 particle increases.This study can illuminate the uses of aluminium matrix
composites enhanced with SiC and ZrO2 particles. The findings can help
develop high-performance composite materials for automotive, aerospace, and
other industries that require mechanical strength, wear resistance, and thermal
stability.

CHAPTER – 2
2.1 Literature Survey
Shalaby E A, Churyumov A Y, Solonin A N, et al. Preparation and
characterization of hybrid A359/(SiC+Si3N4) composites synthesized by
stir/squeeze casting techniques. Materials Science and Engineering: A,
2016, 674: 18-24. [1] As a result of their excellent mechanical and tribological
properties, aluminium matrix composites, also known as AMC, are utilised in a
variety of advanced engineering applications, including those in the automotive
and aerospace industries, as well as lightweight high strength applications, to
satisfy the requirements of newly emerging industries. Casting Al7075 that was
reinforced with B4C composites exhibited an improvement in the material's
hardness and tensile qualities.
Baradeswaran A, Perumal A E. Influence of B4C on the tribological and
mechanical properties of Al 7075–B4C composites. Composites Part B:
Engineering, 2013, 54: 146-152.[2] Aluminum matrix composites, also known
as AMC, are utilised in a variety of advanced engineering applications as a
result of their excellent mechanical and tribological properties. These
applications include those in the automotive and aerospace industries, as well as
applications requiring lightweight high strength, to satisfy the requirements of
newly emerging industries. Casting Al7075 that had been strengthened with
B4C composites resulted in an increase in the material's hardness as well as its
tensile strength.
Surappa M K. Aluminium matrix composites challenges and opportunities.
Sadhana, 2003, 28(1-2): 319-334. [3] Aluminum matrix composites, or AMCs
for short, find use in many cutting-edge engineering applications due to their
superior mechanical and tribological qualities. Some examples of these uses can
be found in the automotive and aerospace sectors, but they also have wide
applicability in other areas where lightweight high strength is required to meet
the needs of newer, more technologically advanced sectors. An improvement in
hardness and tensile strength was observed after casting B4C-reinforced
Al7075.
Zhang X F, Wang D J, Xie G. Manufacturing of aluminum/fly ash
composite with liquid reactive sintering technology. Acta Metallurgica
Sinica English Letters, 2009, 15(5): 465-470.[4] Aluminum fly ash composites
were produced by a technology known as liquid reactive sintering powder
metallurgy, which utilized fly ash particles as intensifying stages in the
manufacturing procedure. It was discovered that increasing the volume
proportion of fly ash particles in aluminium composites led to increases in the
material's hardness, modulus, and resistance to wear.
Dinaharan I, Kalaiselvan K, Murugan N. Influence of rice husk ash
particles on microstructure and tensile behavior of AA6061 aluminum
matrix composites produced using friction stir processing. Composites
Communications, 2017, 3: 42-46.[5] Using friction stir processing, the
manufacture and characterisation of AA6061/18vol.% rice husk ash in AMC
was accomplished. The rice husk ash particles that had been broken up showed
evidence of strong interfacial adhesion with the aluminium matrix. Rice husk
ash particles were used as a reinforcement in the composite material, which
resulted in an increase in the tensile strength of the material.
Kumar G V, Rao C S P, Selvaraj N, et al. Studies on Al6061-SiC and
Al7075-Al2O3 metal matrix composites. Journal of Minerals and Materials
Characterization and Engineering, 2010, 9(1): 43-55.[6] The mechanical
characteristics and wear behaviour of metal matrix composites made of Al6061-
SiC and Al7075-Al2O3 were compared. Microhardness, tensile strength, and
density of the composites are all increased thanks to the addition of the hard
ceramic particles that serve as reinforcement.
Senthilvelan T, Gopalakannan S, Vishnuvarthan S, et al. Fabrication and
characterization of SiC, Al2O3 and B4C reinforced Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy
(Al7075) metal matrix composites: A study. Advanced Materials Research,
2013, 622: 1295-1299.[7] The mechanical properties of Al7075 metal matrix
composites that have been stir cast and are reinforced with 10% volume
fractions of B4C, SiC, and Al2O3. According to the author, when compared to
other particle reinforced composites, the Al7075 reinforced composite with B4C
provided superior mechanical capabilities.
Baradeswaran A, Perumal A E. Study on mechanical and wear properties
of Al 7075/Al2O3/graphite hybrid composites. Composites Part B:
Engineering, 2014, 56: 464-471.[8] the wear and mechanical properties of
hybrid composites consisting of graphite, aluminium oxide, and aluminium
7075. It was found that increasing the percentage of reinforced particles in the
material's weight led to an increase in the mechanical properties that the
material possessed.
Alaneme K K, Sanusi K O. Microstructural characteristics mechanical and
wear behaviour of aluminium matrix hybrid composites reinforced with
alumina, rice husk ash and graphite. Engineering Science and Technology,
an International Journal, 2015, 18(3): 416-422.[9] The mechanical and wear
properties of aluminium matrix hybrid composites that were reinforced with
graphite particles, rice husk ash, and alumina were investigated. The findings
demonstrated that an increase in the weight percentage of rice husk ash and
graphite resulted in a decrease in the hardness of the composites. The graphite
component played a significant influence in the wear resistance of the material,
but at the same time, it diminished the mechanical capabilities of the aluminium
alloy while simultaneously increasing the graphite weight percentage.
Reddy P S, Kesavan R, Ramnath B V. Investigation of mechanical
properties of aluminium 6061-silicon carbide, boron carbide metal matrix
composite. Silicon, 2018, 10(2): 495-502.[10] when compared to aluminium in
its purest form, the hybrid composite possesses superior mechanical qualities.
For the production of the hybrid composite, the stir casting method was utilized,
and the material employed was Al 6061 with varying proportions of silicon
carbide and boron carbide. Because of the high concentration of carbides that
were present in the hybrid composite, it had superior tensile and flexural
strengths, in addition to a higher level of hardness.
2.2 Research Gap
Scientific investigation requires identifying research gaps. Metal matrix
composites (90% aluminium, 5% silicon carbide, and 5% zirconia) have several
fascinating features, but additional research is needed.
Particle distribution optimisation, which examines how particle
distribution strategies affect composite mechanical and corrosion properties,
may have research gaps. Powder metallurgy and stir casting could improve
performance by uniformly distributing SiC and ZrO2 particles in the aluminium
matrix.
How to better link the aluminium matrix-SiC/ZrO2 reinforcement
interface is another fascinating topic. Surface treatments that improve interface
bonding could improve the composite's mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance.
Microstructural Analysis: More research can examine the composite's
microstructure. This method may involve analysing intermetallic phases,
secondary phases, and reinforcing particle distribution, size, and shape at nano
and micro sizes. Such investigations provide microstructure-property link and
optimisation direction.
Another unanswered question is how environmental variables affect
composite corrosion. Temperature, humidity, corrosive chemicals, and
industrial environments can be used to test the composite's corrosion resistance.
Research on the composite's behaviour can enlighten its many uses.
Research into the composite's long-term stability and durability is essential.
This may include testing the composite's resistance to cyclic loading,
temperature cycling, and other stressors. Understanding the composite's long-
term performance helps explain its usefulness and dependability.
 Comparative Analysis: Comparing the composite to other metal matrix
composites or conventional materials like aluminium alloys reveals its pros and
cons. Comparing the composite's mechanical, corrosion resistance, and
microstructure behaviour to related materials can progress the field.
A thorough literature review is needed to identify research gaps or unsolved
problems that your study can address.

CHAPTER – 3
3.1 Aim & Objective
1) To identify the strength of composite materials from below composition
by using Finite Element Analysis (Ansys).
Aluminium 90%, Silicon Carbide 5%, Zirconia 5%
2) To Perform casting technique of the composition
3) To identify the mechanical behavior such as impact, hardness,
microstructural of casted aluminium Metal Matrix Composite
4) To identify the Corrosion behavior of the best composition of Metal
Matrix material
5) To compare with casted aluminium alloy and to enrich the strength
characteristics of silicon carbide and zirconia when reinforced with
aluminium.
3.2 Scope of the Project
 The following may be included in a project that investigates the
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and microstructure behaviour of a
metal matrix composite composed of 90% aluminium, 5% silicon carbide, and
5% zirconia:
Project work may include preparing the metal matrix composite by
mixing in the appropriate amounts of aluminium, silicon carbide, and zirconia.
The final qualities of the composite will be affected by the production method
selected (powder metallurgy, stir casting, etc.).
Mechanical Property Characterization: This research can analyse the
hardness and impact resistance of the composite. To measure the composite's
performance in comparison to pure aluminium, one may conduct hardness tests
(such as the Vickers or Rockwell hardness) and impact testing (such as the
Charpy or Izod impact tests).
Salt spray testing, electrochemical measurements (such as
potentiodynamic polarisation or electrochemical impedance spectroscopy), and
immersion tests can all be used to learn more about the composite's corrosion
behaviour. The goal would be to test the composite's corrosion resistance
against that of pure aluminium in a variety of settings.
Microstructural Analysis
Microscopy methods, such as Light optical microscopy, can be used to
examine the composite's microscopic structure. Analysing the size, shape, and
distribution of the SiC and ZrO2 particles within the aluminium matrix is
possible using this method. The strength of the matrix's interfacial bond with the
reinforcements can also be revealed.
Mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and microstructure of the
composite may be optimised by experimenting with various processing
parameters (such as particle size, composition, reinforcement distribution, and
manufacturing techniques). The conditions best suited to producing the desired
characteristics can be determined through this optimisation procedure.
 The project's conclusion should be grounded in a thorough examination
of the experimental data gathered throughout the project's mechanical,
corrosion, and microstructural characterization phases. Conclusions about the
composite's performance and its possible applications can then be derived from
the data. Suggestions for future developments or research topics may also be
broached.
3.3 Methodology

Literature
Review

Selection of
Research Area

Material
Selection

Casting

Machining

Impact Testing Hardness

Corrosion Micro-Structure
Comparisons of results

Conclusion

Reference
 CHAPTER – 4
Material’s : An Overview

4.1 ALUMINIUM ALLOY

Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the

predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper,magnesium,
manganese, silicon and zinc. There are two principal classifications, namely
casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the
categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminium is
used for wrought products, for example rolled plate, foils and extrusions. Cast
aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting point,
although they generally have lower tensile strengths than wrought alloys. The
most important cast aluminium alloy system isAl–Si, where the high levels of
silicon (4.0–13%) contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium
alloys are widely used in engineering structures and components where light
weight or corrosion resistance is required.
Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been very important in
aerospace manufacturing since the introduction of metal skinned aircraft.
Aluminium-magnesium alloys are both lighter than other aluminium alloys and
much less flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of
magnesium.
Aluminium alloy surfaces will formulate a white, protective layer of
corrosion aluminium oxide if left unprotected by anodizing and/or correct
painting procedures. In a wet environment, galvanic corrosion can occur when
an aluminium alloy is placed in electrical contact with other metals with more
negative corrosion potentials than aluminium, and an electrolyte is present that
allows ion exchange. Referred to as dissimilar metal corrosion this process can
occur as exfoliation or intergranular corrosion. Aluminium alloys can be
improperly heat treated. This causes internal element separation and the metal
corrodes from the inside out. Aircraft mechanics deal daily with aluminium
alloy corrosion.
Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum
Association. Many organizations publish more specific standards for the
manufacture of aluminium alloy, including the Society of Automotive
Engineers standards organization, specifically its aerospace standards
subgroups.
4.1.1 Overview
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering
structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by
names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN andISO). Selecting the
right alloy for a given application entails considerations of its tensile strength,
density,ductility, formability, workability, weldability, and corrosion resistance,
to name a few. Aluminium alloys are used extensively in aircraft due to their
high strength-to-weight ratio. On the other hand, pure aluminium metal is much
too soft for such uses, and it does not have the high tensile strength that is
needed for airplanes and helicopters.
4.1.2 Aluminium alloys versus types of steel

Aluminium alloys are Al-rich alloys. Copper, magnesium, manganese,

silicon, and zinc alloy. Casting and wrought alloys can be heat-treated or not.
Rolled plate, foils, and extrusions employ 85% of aluminium. Due to their low
melting point, cast aluminium alloys are cheaper than wrought alloys, although
they have lower tensile strengths. The most important cast aluminium alloy
system is Al–Si, where high silicon contents (4.0–13%) improve casting.
Lightweight or corrosion-resistant engineering structures and components use
aluminium alloys.
 Since metal-skinned aircraft, aerospace manufacturing has relied on
aluminium alloys. Aluminium-magnesium alloys are lighter and less
combustible than high-magnesium alloys.

If not anodized or painted, aluminium alloy surfaces will form a white

corrosion-resistant layer of aluminium oxide. When an aluminium alloy is
electrically connected to metals with larger negative corrosion potentials than
aluminium and an electrolyte that enables ion exchange, galvanic corrosion can
occur in a moist environment. Dissimilar metal corrosion might be exfoliation
or intergranular. Heat-treating aluminium alloys can go wrong. Internal element
separation causes internal metal corrosion. Aluminium alloy corrosion affects
aircraft mechanics daily.

The Aluminium Association registers alloys. The Society of Automotive

Engineers' aerospace standards subgroups publish more detailed aluminium
alloy manufacturing standards.

4.1.3 Heat sensitivity considerations

Consider the metal's heat sensitivity. Aluminium melts without blazing
red, complicating even simple workshop heating procedures. Blow torch
forming can reverse heat treating, therefore avoid it. Internal damage is not
visible. Like welding heat-treated, high-strength link chain, torch heat destroys
strength. Discard the harmful chain.
When warmed, aluminium creeps under internal tensions, causing
delayed distortions. Overheated aluminium vehicle cylinder heads can deform
or shatter years later, while incorrectly welded aluminium bicycle frames can
twist out of alignment from welding stress. Thus, the aircraft industry uses
rivets, fasteners, or adhesives to link parts without heat.
Overheated aluminium can be annealed by heat-treating and cooling it in
an oven. Heat-treating welded bicycle frames can misalign a considerable
portion of these pieces. Cooled pieces can be bent into alignment if the
misalignment is not severe. If the frame is rigidly built (see above), bending will
require massive force.
Rocketry uses aluminium, even in combustion chambers where gases can
reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine's nozzle's thermally critical throat
region was made of regeneratively cooled aluminium, which prevented it from
melting even under massive heat flux.
4.1.4 Household wiring
Main article: Aluminium wire

Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared with
copper in the 1960s, aluminium was introduced at that time for household
electrical wiring in North America, even though many fixtures had not been
designed to accept aluminium wire. But the new use brought some problems:

 The greater coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium causes the wire to

expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal screw connection,
eventually loosening the connection.
 Pure aluminium has a tendency to "creep" under steady sustained pressure
(to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again loosening the
connection.
 Galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical
resistance of the connection.

All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn
resulted in some fires. Builders then became wary of using the wire, and many
jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes, in new construction. Yet
newer fixtures eventually were introduced with connections designed to avoid
loosening and overheating. At first they were marked "Al/Cu", but they now
bear a "CO/ALR" coding.
Another way to forestall the heating problem is to crimp the aluminium wire to
a short "pigtail" of copper wire. A properly done high-pressure crimp by the
proper tool is tight enough to reduce any thermal expansion of the aluminium.
Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in
combination with aluminium terminations.

4.1.5 Alloy designations

Wrought and cast aluminium alloys use different identification systems.

Wrought aluminium is identified with a four digit number which identifies the
alloying elements.

Cast aluminium alloys use a four to five digit number with a decimal
point. The digit in the hundreds place indicates the alloying elements, while the
digit after the decimal point indicates the form (cast shape or ingot).

4.1.6 Wrought alloys

The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted

naming scheme for wrought alloys. Each alloy is given a four-digit number,
where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements.

 1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99%

aluminium content by weight and can be work hardened.
 2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to
strengths comparable to steel. Formerly referred to as duralumin, they
were once the most common aerospace alloys, but were susceptible
to stress corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series
in new designs.
 3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work hardened.
 4000 series are alloyed with silicon. They are also known as silumin.
 5000 series are alloyed with magnesium.
  6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon, are easy to machine,
and can be precipitation hardened, but not to the high strengths that 2000
and 7000 can reach.
 7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to the
highest strengths of any aluminium alloy.
 8000 series is a category mainly used for lithium alloys
4.1.7 Cast alloys

The Aluminum Association (AA) has adopted a nomenclature similar to that of

wrought alloys. British Standard and DIN have different designations. In the
AA system, the second two digits reveal the minimum percentage of
aluminium, e.g. 150.x correspond to a minimum of 99.50% aluminium. The
digit after the decimal point takes a value of 0 or 1, denoting casting and ingot
respectively.[1] The main alloying elements in the AA system are as follows:

 1xx.x series are minimum 99% aluminium

 2xx.x series copper
 3xx.x series silicon, copper and/or magnesium
 4xx.x series silicon
 5xx.x series magnesium
 7xx.x series zinc
 8xx.x series tin
 9xx.x other elements
4.1.8 Named alloys

 Alclad aluminium sheet formed from high-purity aluminium surface layers

bonded to high strength aluminium alloy core material
 Birmabright (aluminium, magnesium) a product of The Birmetals Company,
basically equivalent to 5251
 Duralumin (copper, aluminium)
 Hindalium (aluminium, magnesium, manganese, silicon) product of
Hindustan Aluminium Corporation Ltd, made in 16ga rolled sheets for
cookware
 Pandalloy Pratt&Whitney proprietary alloy, supposedly having high strength
and superior high temperature performance.
 Magnalium
 Magnox (magnesium, aluminium)
 Silumin (aluminium, silicon)
 Titanal (aluminium, zinc, magnesium, copper, zirconium) a product
of Austria Metall AG. Commonly used in high performance sports products,
particularly snowboards and skis.
 Y alloy, Hiduminium, R.R. alloys: pre-war nickel-aluminium alloys, used in
aerospace and engine pistons, for their ability to retain strength at elevated
temperature.
4.1.9 Automotive alloys

6111 aluminium and 2008 aluminium alloy are extensively used for external
automotive body panels, with5083 and 5754 used for inner body panels. Hoods
have been manufactured from 2036, 6016, and 6111 alloys. Truck and trailer
body panels have used 5456 aluminum.

Automobile frames often use 5182 aluminium or 5754 aluminium formed

sheets, 6061 or 6063 extrusions.

Wheels have been cast from A365.0 aluminium or formed 5xxx sheet
4.2 SILICON CARBIDE
Carborundum (SiC) is a silicon-carbon compound having the chemical
formula SiC. It's the uncommon mineral moissanite. Abrasive silicon carbide
powder has been mass-produced since 1893. Sintering silicon carbide grains
creates strong ceramics used in bulletproof vests, vehicle brakes, and clutches.
Silicon carbide was first employed as LEDs and detectors in early radios in
1907, and today it is frequently used in high-temperature/high-voltage
semiconductor circuits. Synthetic moissanite can be carved from large Lely-
grown silicon carbide crystals. Plant SiO2 can make high-surface-area silicon
carbide.

4.2.1 Early production

Fig: 4.1 A replication of H.J. Round's LED experiments

J. J. Berzelius's reduction of potassium fluorosilicate by potassium

(1810); Charles Mansuète Despretz's (1792–1863) passing an electric current
through a carbon rod embedded in sand (1849); Robert Sydney Marsden's
(1856–1919) dissolution of silica in molten silver in a graphite crucible (1881);
Albert Colson's heating silicon under a stream of ethylene (1882); and In 1890,
Edward Goodrich Acheson began mass production. Acheson melted clay
(aluminium silicate) and powdered coke (carbon) in an iron bowl to make fake
diamonds. He termed the blue crystals Carborundum, thinking they were a
novel carbon-aluminum composite like corundum. Henri Moissan identified the
uncommon SiC mineral in Arizona's Canyon Diablo meteorite rock samples in
1893. Moistanite was named for him. Moissan also synthesised SiC by
dissolving carbon in molten silicon, melting calcium carbide and silica, and
reducing silica with carbon in an electric furnace. Moissan claimed Acheson
discovered SiC in 1903.Acheson patented silicon carbide powder production on
February 28, 1893.Acheson invented the electric batch furnace used to make
SiC today and founded The Carborundum Company to make bulk SiC for
abrasives.The company resolved with the Electric Smelting and Aluminium
Company in 1900 after a judge accorded its founders "priority broadly" "for
reducing ores and other substances by the incandescent method". Acheson
found hard, blue-black crystals while trying to dissolve carbon in liquid
corundum (alumina). He felt they were a composite of carbon and corundum,
ergo carborundum. He may have termed it "carborundum" after corundum,
another hard material (9 on the Mohs scale).
SiC was initially an abrasive. E-applications followed. In 1907, Henry
Joseph Round applied a voltage to a SiC crystal and observed yellow, green,
and orange fluorescence at the cathode, creating the first LED. Silicon carbide
was employed as a detector in early radios . O. V. Losev replicated such trials in
1923 in the USSR.
4.2.2 Natural occurrence

Fig: 4.2 Moissanite single crystal (≈1 mm in size)

Natural moissanite occurs in extremely low concentrations in several
varieties of meteorite, corundum deposits, and kimberlite. Almost all moissanite
jewellery, which contains silicon carbide, is man-made. In 1893, a little piece of
the Canyon Diablo meteorite was discovered in Arizona, and the material was
dubbed moissanite in 1905 after its discoverer, Dr. Ferdinand Henri Moissan. It
was first thought that Moissan's sample of naturally occurring SiC might have
been tainted by silicon carbide saw blades already on the market, hence his
discovery was met with scepticism.
Silicon carbide may be hard to get by on Earth, but it's surprisingly
common throughout the cosmos. Primitive (unaltered) meteorites have been
recovered with samples of this type of stardust, which is abundant in the vicinity
of carbon-rich stars. Beta-polymorph silicon carbide makes up nearly all of the
silicon carbide in space and meteorites. Anomalous isotope ratios of carbon and
silicon in SiC grains identified in the carbonaceous chondrite meteorite
Murchison indicate an extrasolar origin; 99% of these SiC grains originate near
carbon-rich asymptotic giant branch stars. The infrared spectra of these stars
reveal that SiC is abundant in their environments.

4.2.3 Production

Because of the rarity of natural moissanite, most silicon carbide is

synthetic. It is used as an abrasive, and more recently as a semiconductor and
diamond simulant of gem quality. The simplest manufacturing process is to
combine silica sand and carbon in an Acheson graphite electric resistance
furnace at a high temperature, between 1600 and 2500 °C. Fine SiO 2 particles in
plant material (e.g. rice husks) can be converted to SiC by heating in the excess
carbon from the organic material.[14] The silica fume, which is a byproduct of
producing silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloys, also can be converted to SiC by
heating with graphite at 1500 °C.[15]

Fig: 4.3 Synthetic SiC crystals ~3 mm in diameter

 Fig: 4.4 Synthetic SiC Lely crystals

Distance from the graphite resistor heat source affects the quality of the
material generated in the Acheson furnace. The purest crystals are colourless,
pale yellow, and green, and they can be found in close proximity to the resistor.
Crystals are less pure and seem bluer and blacker the further they are from the
resistor. Common contaminants reduce the electrical conductivity of SiC;
examples include nitrogen and aluminium.

Using the so-called Lely technique, SiC powder is sublimated in an argon

environment at 2500 °C and redeposited as flake-like single crystals, with
dimensions of up to 22 cm2.

Due of the high growth temperature, the resulting single crystals are of a
high quality 6H-SiC phase. With a section 81 times larger than the standard
Lely method, the single crystals produced by a modified Lely process utilising
induction heating in graphite crucibles can reach a diameter of 4 inches (10 cm).
Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is typically used to create cubic SiC,
however it is a more expensive method. Gas and liquid phase methods can be
used to generate both homoepitaxial and heteroepitaxial SiC layers. The
polymer poly(methylsilyne) can be thermally decomposed into pure silicon
carbide at low temperatures in an inert atmosphere. The polymer can be shaped
in a variety of ways before being thermally transformed into the ceramic,
making the pyrolysis procedure preferable to the CVD process.

The crystalline forms of silicon carbide number in the hundreds. SiC's

polymorphism is defined by a broad group of polytypes, or crystalline structures
with comparable structures. They're both forms of the same chemical substance,
but in the third dimension, these compounds are distinct from one another. As
such, they can be conceptualized as a series of layers.

The most common polymorph is alpha silicon carbide (-SiC), which crystallises
into a hexagonal lattice (like Wurtzite) at temperatures above 1700 °C. A zinc
blende crystal structure (like diamond) is generated at temperatures below 1700
°C to create the beta modification (-SiC). Although the beta form has had
limited commercial application up until recently, it is increasingly being
considered as a support for heterogeneous catalysts because of its greater
surface area compared to the alpha form.

4.2.4 TABLE FOR PROPERTIES OF MAJOR SIC POLYTYPES

PROPERTIES OF MAJOR SIC POLYTYPES

Polytype 3C (β) 4H 6H (α)

Zinc blende
Crystal structure Hexagonal Hexagonal
(cubic)

2 4 C46v-
Space group T d-F43m C 6v-P63mc
P63mc

Pearson symbol cF8 hP8 hP12

3.0730; 3.0730;
Lattice constants (Å) 4.3596
10.053 15.11

Density (g/cm3) 3.21 3.21 3.21

Bandgap (eV) 2.36 3.23 3.05

Bulk modulus (GPa) 250 220 220

Thermal conductivity (W cm−1K−1) 3.6 3.7 4.9

@ 300K (see [28] for temp.
dependence)

Pure SiC is colorless. The brown to black color of industrial productresults from
iron impurities. The rainbow-like luster of the crystals is caused by a
passivation layer of silicon dioxide that forms on the surface.

The high sublimation temperature of SiC (approximately 2700 °C) makes

it useful for bearings and furnace parts. Silicon carbide does not melt at any
known pressure. It is also highly inert chemically. There is currently much
interest in its use as a semiconductor material in electronics, where its high
thermal conductivity, high electric field breakdown strength and high maximum
current density make it more promising than silicon for high-powered devices.
SiC also has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (4.0 × 10−6/K) and
experiences no phase transitions that would cause discontinuities in thermal
expansion.

4.2.5 Electrical conductivity

Silicon carbide is a semiconductor, which can be doped n-type by

nitrogen or phosphorus and p-type by aluminium, boron, gallium or beryllium.
Metallic conductivity has been achieved by heavy doping with boron,
aluminium or nitrogen. Superconductivity has been detected in 3C-SiC:Al, 3C-
SiC:B and 6H-SiC:B at the same temperature of 1.5 K. A crucial difference is
however observed for the magnetic field behavior between aluminium and
boron doping: SiC:Al is type-II, same as Si:B. On the contrary, SiC:B is type-I.
In attempt to explain this difference, it was noted that Si sites are more
important than carbon sites for superconductivity in SiC. Whereas boron
substitutes carbon in SiC, Al substitutes Si sites. Therefore, Al and B "see"
different environment that might explain different properties of SiC:Al and
SiC:B.
 USES

Abrasive and cutting tools

Fig: 4.5 Cutting disks made of SiC

In the arts, silicon carbide is a popular abrasive in modern lapidary

due to the durability and low cost of the material. In manufacturing, it is used
for its hardness in abrasive machining processes such as grinding, honing,
water-jet cutting and sandblasting. Particles of silicon carbide are laminated to
paper to create sandpapers and the grip tape on skateboards.

In 1982 an exceptionally strong composite of aluminium oxide and

silicon carbide whiskers was discovered. Development of this laboratory-
produced composite to a commercial product took only three years. In 1985, the
first commercial cutting tools made from this alumina and silicon carbide
whisker-reinforced composite were introduced by the Advanced Composite
Materials Corporation (ACMC) and Greenleaf Corporation
4.2.6 Structural material

Trauma plates in bulletproof vests are made of silicon carbide. Silicon

carbide was the subject of various European, Japanese, and American high-
temperature gas turbine research programmes in the 1980s and 1990s. The
turbine blades and nozzle vanes made of nickel superalloy were what these parts
were designed to replace. However, due to its poor impact resistance and
brittleness, it was never used in any commercially viable applications.

Silicon carbide, together with alumina and boron carbide, is used in

bulletproof vest ceramic plates and composite armour such as Chobham.
Pinnacle Armor's Dragon Skin has discs made of silicon carbide.

When ceramics, glass fusing, or glass casting are being fired in a high
temperature kiln, silicon carbide is employed as a support and shelving material.
When compared to its alumina counterparts, SiC kiln shelves are much more
portable and long-lasting.

Automobile parts
Fig: 4.6 The Porsche Carrera GT's carbon-ceramic (silicon carbide) disc brake

Silicon-infiltrated carbon-carbon composite is used for high performance

"ceramic" brake discs, as it is able to withstand extreme temperatures. The
silicon reacts with the graphite in the carbon-carbon composite to become
carbon-fiber-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC). These discs are used on some
road-going sports cars, including the Porsche Carrera GT, the Bugatti Veyron,
the Chevrolet Corvette ZR1, Bentleys, Ferraris, Lamborghinis, and some
specific high performance Audis.[37] Silicon carbide is also used in a sintered
form for diesel particulate filters.

4.2.7Electric systems

SiC was first used in electricity in lightning arresters in electrical grids.

These components have to show high resistance up until a certain voltage
threshold VT is reached, and then they have to decrease to a lower level and
stay there until the applied voltage drops below VT again.

SiC's voltage-dependent resistance was discovered early on, leading to

the use of SiC pellet columns coupled to high-voltage power lines. The SiC
column will conduct when the line voltage is high enough from a lightning
strike, diverting the strike electricity to the earth rather than the power line.
These SiC columns were found to conduct strongly at typical power-line
voltages, necessitating the addition of a spark gap in series with them. When the
voltage of the power line conductor is increased by lightning, the spark gap is
ionised and rendered conductive, thereby linking the SiC column between the
power conductor and the ground.

As a result of material failure or contamination by dust or salt, spark gaps

used in lightning arresters often fail to strike an arc when necessary or to turn
off thereafter. The initial intent of using SiC columns in a lightning arrester was
to do away with the spark gap. As a form of lightning protection, gapped silicon
carbide (SiC) arresters were marketed under names like GE and Westinghouse.
Columns of zinc oxide pellets, known as no-gap varistors, have largely replaced
the gapped SiC arrester.

Electronic circuit elements

Fig: 4.7 Ultraviolet LED

4.2.8 Power electronic devices

Silicon carbide is a semiconductor that has shown promise for rapid,

high-temperature, and/or high-voltage devices in both laboratory and early
mass-production settings. Schottky diodes were the first high-power switching
devices available, followed by Junction-gate FETs and MOSFETs. We are
currently working on thyristors and bipolar transistors.The removal of defects
such as edge dislocations, screw dislocations (both hollow and closed core),
triangle defects, and basal plane dislocations has been a key challenge for the
commercialization of SiC.As a result, devices built using SiC crystals had
subpar reverse blocking capability at first. However, scientists have been slowly
but surely working on strategies to improve this. Development of SiC-based
power MOSFETs and insulated-gate bipolar transistors has been impeded by
issues with the interface of SiC with silicon dioxide as well as poor crystal
quality. Nitridation has significantly decreased the flaws that were creating the
interface issues, however the process is still unknown.The first 1200 V rated
commercial JFETs appeared on the market in 2008, and the first 1200 V rated
commercial MOSFETs appeared in 2011. Companies began incorporating the
bare chips into their power modules even before they began manufacturing SiC
switches and SiC Schottky diodes (also Schottky barrrier diodeSDB) in the
ubiquitous TO-247 package. PFC circuits and IGBT power modules are two
common applications for SiC SBD diodes.

4.2.9 LEDs

The history of SiC LEDs is quite remarkable: the first LED action was
demonstrated in 1907 using SiC and the first commercial LEDs were again
based on SiC. Yellow LEDs made from 3C-SiC were manufactured in the
Soviet Union in the 1970s, and blue ones (6H-SiC) worldwide in the 1980s. The
production was soon stopped because gallium nitride showed 10–100 times
brighter emission. This difference in efficiency is due to the unfavorable
indirect bandgap of SiC, whereas GaN has a direct bandgap which favors light
emission. However, SiC is still one of the important LED components – it is a
popular substrate for growing GaN devices, and it also serves as a heat spreader
in high-power LEDs.

4.2.10 Astronomy

The low thermal expansion coefficient, high hardness, rigidity and

thermal conductivity make silicon carbide a desirable mirror material for
astronomical telescopes. The growth technology (chemical vapor deposition)
has been scaled up to produce disks of polycrystalline silicon carbide up to 3.5
meters in diameter, and several telescopes (like the Herschel Space Telescope)
are already equipped with SiC optics.

4.2.11 Thin filament pyrometry

Image of the test flame and glowing SiC fibers. The flame is about 7 cm
tall. Silicon carbide fibers are used to measure gas temperatures in an optical
technique called thin filament pyrometry. It involves the placement of a thin
filament in a hot gas stream. Radiative emissions from the filament can be
correlated with filament temperature. Filaments are SiC fibers with a diameter
of 15 micrometers; about one fifth that of a human hair. Because the fibers are
so thin, they do little to disturb the flame and their temperature remains close to
that of the local gas. Temperatures of about 800–2500 K can be measured.[48][49]

Heating elements

References to silicon carbide heating elements exist from the early 20th
century when they were produced by Acheson's Carborundum Co. in the U.S.
and EKL in Berlin. Silicon carbide offered increased operating temperatures
compared with metallic heaters. Silicon carbide elements are used today in the
melting of non-ferrous metals and glasses, heat treatment of metals, float glass
production, production of ceramics and electronics components, igniters in pilot
lights for gas heaters, etc.

Nuclear fuel particles

Silicon carbide is an important material in TRISO-coated fuel particles, the type

of nuclear fuel found in high temperature gas cooled reactors (such as the
Pebble Bed Reactor). A layer of silicon carbide gives coated fuel particles
structural support and is the main diffusion barrier to the release of fission
products.

Nuclear fuel cladding

Silicon carbide composite material has been investigated for use as a

replacement for Zircaloy cladding in light water reactors. The composite
consists of SiC fibers wrapped around a SiC inner layer and surrounded by an
SiC outer layer. Problems have been reported with the ability to join the pieces
of the SiC composite.

Jewelry

Fig: 4.8 A moissanite ring

As a gemstone used in jewelry, silicon carbide is called "synthetic moissanite"

or just "moissanite" after the mineral name. Moissanite is similar to diamond in
several important respects: it is transparent and hard (9-9.5) on the Mohs scale
(compared to 10 for diamond), with a refractive index between 2.65 and 2.69
(compared to 2.42 for diamond). Moissanite is somewhat harder than common
cubic zirconia. Unlike diamond, moissanite can be strongly birefringent. This
quality is desirable in some optical applications, but not in gemstones. For this
reason, moissanite jewels are cut along the optic axis of the crystal to minimize
birefringent effects. It is lighter (density 3.21 g/cm 3 vs. 3.53 g/cm3), and much
more resistant to heat than diamond. This results in a stone of higher luster,
sharper facets and good resilience. Loose moissanite stones may be placed
directly into wax ring moulds for lost-wax casting; unlike diamond, which burns
at 800 °C, moissanite remains undamaged by temperatures up to 1800 °C.
Moissanite has become popular as a diamond substitute, and may be
misidentified as diamond, since its thermal conductivity is much closer to that
of diamond than any other diamond substitute. Many thermal diamond-testing
devices cannot distinguish moissanite from diamond, but the gem is distinct in
its birefringence and a very slight green or yellow fluorescence under ultraviolet
light. Some moissanite stones also have curved string-like inclusions, which
diamonds never have.

Steel production

Fig: 4.9 Piece of silicon carbide used in steel making

Silicon carbide, dissolved in a basic oxygen furnace used for making steel, acts
as a fuel. The additional energy liberated allows the furnace to process more
scrap with the same charge of hot metal. It can also be used to raise tap
temperatures and adjust the carbon and silicon content. Silicon carbide is
cheaper than of a combination of ferrosilicon and carbon, produces cleaner steel
and less emissions due to low level of trace elements, has a low gas content, and
does not lower the temperature of steel.[55]

Catalyst support

The natural resistance to oxidation exhibited by silicon carbide, as well as the

discovery of new ways to synthesize the cubic β-SiC form, with its larger
surface area, has led to significant interest in its use as a heterogeneous catalyst
support. This form has already been employed as a catalyst support for the
oxidation of hydrocarbons, such as n-butane, to maleic anhydride.

Carborundum printmaking

Silicon carbide is used in carborundum printmaking – a collagraph printmaking

technique. Carborundum grit is applied in a paste to the surface of an aluminium
plate. When the paste is dry, ink is applied and trapped in its granular surface,
then wiped from the bare areas of the plate. The ink plate is then printed onto
paper in a rolling-bed press used for intaglio printmaking. The result is a print
of painted marks embossed into the paper.

Graphene production

Silicon carbide is used to produce epitaxial graphene by graphitization at high

temperatures. This is considered as one of the promising methods to synthesize
graphene at large scale for practical applicationsProperties of major SiC
polytypes Polytype 3C (β) 4H 6H (α) Crystal structure Zinc blende (cubic)
Hexagonal Hexagonal Space group T2d-F43m C46v-P63mc C46v-P63mc Pearson
symbol cF8 hP8 hP12 Lattice constants (Å) 4.3596 3.0730; 10.053 3.0730;
15.11 Density (g/cm3) 3.21 3.21 3.21 Bandgap (eV) 2.36 3.23 3.05 Bulk
modulus (GPa) 250 220 220 Thermal conductivity (W cm−1K−1)

benefits

1. Tailor-made coefficient of thermal expansion (eliminates thermal cycling

fatigue due to CTE mismatch).

2. High thermal conductivity (conducts heat almost like aluminum)

3. Light weight and strong (almost as light as aluminum but stronger, it is

excellent for aerospace, automotive and other mobile applications).

4. Precision surface treatment (surface roughness; hole-drilling; plating with

nickel, gold, silver, tin, etc.)
5.costeffectiveproduction

Applications:

1.Advanced Printed Circuit Board

2. Microelectronic packaging

3. Radiofrequency and microwave packaging

4. Optoelectronic packaging

Table of Typical Properties:

Density, g/cm3 2.95 - 3.00

Thermal Conductivity, W/m•K 170 - 200
Thermal Expansion Coefficient, E-6 K-1 tailor-made from 6.5 to 9.5
Electrical Resistivity, •cm 30 - 50
 Bending Strength, MPa 350 - 500
Elastic Modulus, GPa 200 – 230

4.3 ZIRCONIA
Zirconia can be found in three crystal structure. These are monolithic (m),
tetragonal (t) and cubic (c) structures. Monolithic structure is stable between
room temperature and 1170 0C while it turns to tetragonal structure above 1170
0C. Tetragonal structure is stable up to 2379 0C and above this temperature, the
structure turns to cubic structure.Zirconia (ZrO2) is a ceramic material with
adequate mechanical properties for manufacturing of medical devices. Zirconia
stabilized with Y2O3 has the best properties for these applications. When a
stress occurs on a ZrO2 surface, a crystalline modification opposes the
propagation of cracks. Compression resistance of ZrO2 is about 2000 MPa.
Zirconia is a crystalline dioxide of zirconium. Its mechanical properties are very
similar to those of metals and its color is similar to tooth color.
4.3.1Background
 The fundamental properties of zirconia ceramics which are of interest to
the engineer or designer are:
 High strength,
 High fracture toughness,
 High hardness,
 Wear resistance,
 Good frictional behavior,
 Non-magnetic,
 Electrical insulation,
 Low thermal conductivity,
 Corrosion resistance in acids and alkalis,
 Modulus of elasticity similar to steel,
  Coefficient of thermal expansion similar to iron.

4.3.2 Types of Zirconias

There are many different types of zirconias. These have evolved as researchers
and manufacturers sought to exploit the different properties of the various
phases. Some of the phases are stable at high temperatures and need to be
“frozen” in such that they can be used at room temperatures, while others
exploit toughening mechanisms that are only found in these and few other
materials. Some of these materials are listed below along with their typical
ABBREVIATIONS.
Tetragonal Zirconia Polycrystals TZP
Partially Stabilised Zirconia PSZ
Fully Stabilised Zirconia FSZ
Transformation Toughened Ceramics TTC
Zirconia Toughened Alumina ZTA
Transformation Toughened Zirconia TTZ
Materials (oxides) added to stabilise or toughen the zirconia will also be
noted as a prefix to the abbreviations listed in table 1. They will sometimes be
used in conjunction with numbers which indicate the amount of the stabilising
agent added. Typical examples include Y, Ce, Mg and A which correspond to
yttria (Y2O3), ceria (CeO2), magnesia (MgO) and alumina (Al2O3) respectively.
So a material denoted as 3Y-TZP would tetragonal zirconia polycrystal with an
addition of 3mol% Y2O3 as a stabiliser.

4.3.3 Property Comparison

Table lists properties for various grades of zirconia and has been
compiled from a variety of sources. However, as with most ceramic materials
properties are dependent on many factors such as starting powders and
fabrication techniques. Most ceramic fabrication techniques have been applied
to zirconias such as dry pressing, isostatic pressing, injection moulding,
extrusion and tape casting. Addition of impurities during processing may also
introduce flaws and degrade properties.

Table for Typical properties of various types of zirconia.

Ce- Mg-
Property Y-TZP ZTA 3Y20A
TZP PSZ
Density (g.cm-3) 6.05 6.15 4.15 5.75 5.51
Hardenss (HV30) 1350 900 1600 1020 1470
Bend Str. (MPa) 1000 350 500 800 2400
Compressive Str. (MPa) 2000 - - 2000 -
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 205 215 380 205 260
Poisson’s Ratio 0.3 - - 0.23 -
Fracture Toughness (MPa.m-
1/2
9.5 15-20 4-5 8-15 6
)
Thermal Exp. Co-Eff (x10-
6
10 8 8 10 9.4
°C-1)
Thermal Conductivity (W.m-
1
2 2 23 1.8 3
.K-1)

4.3.4 Yttria (Y2O3)

Melting point of yttria is 2410 0C. It is very stable in the air and cannot
be reduced easily. It can be dissolved in acids and absorbs CO2. It is used in
Nerst lambs as filament by alloyed with zirconia and thoria in small quantities.
When added to zirconia, it stabilizes the material in cubic structure. Primary
yttria minerals are gadolinite, xenotime and fergusonite. Its structure is cubic
very refractory.
 CHAPTER – 5
5.1 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE
A metal matrix composite, often known as an MMC, is a form of material
that is made up of a metal matrix that is then reinforced with one or more other
types of materials. The supplementary components, also known as
reinforcements, might take the form of fibres, particles, or whiskers, depending
on the particular application. In comparison to the base metal by itself, the
combination of the metal matrix and the reinforcements results in enhanced
mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties.
An MMC typically consists of a lightweight metal such as aluminium,
magnesium, or titanium as its metal matrix component. Reinforcements like this
can be manufactured from a wide variety of materials, such as metals, ceramics,
or carbon fibres, among others. The qualities of the composite that are sought
after should guide the selection of reinforcing materials.
Metal matrix composites offer various advantages over ordinary metals.
The following are some of the most important advantages:
 High tensile and flexural strengths: The addition of reinforcements
enhances the composite material's tensile and flexural strengths, making
it stiffer and stronger than the base metal by itself.
 MMCs typically display greater thermal conductivity and heat dissipation
capabilities compared to unreinforced metals, which contributes to their
overall improved thermal characteristics. Because of this, they are suited
for use in applications that need for effective management of heat.
 Increased resistance to wear The addition of reinforcements can greatly
improve the wear resistance and durability of the composite, making it
 ideal for applications that are subjected to conditions with high levels of
friction or abrasion.
 qualities that can be tailored: The qualities of an MMC can be modified
to fit the requirements of a certain application by selecting a different
type of reinforcement and a different amount of that reinforcement.
Because of this versatility, it is possible to customise based on the
particular mix of qualities that is required.
 Weight reduction: Despite having better characteristics, MMCs are
typically able to maintain a relatively low weight in comparison to
standard metals. This makes MMCs appealing for applications in where
reducing the amount of weight used is essential.
 Applications can be found for metal matrix composites in a wide variety
of fields. They find widespread application in a variety of industries,
including aerospace, automotive, defence, and electronics, among others.
Components of engines, braking discs, heat sinks, electrical contacts, and
structural components are just some of the specific applications in which
high strength and lightweight properties are desirable. Other applications
include heat sinks.

Certainly! Additional information regarding metal matrix composites can be

found as follows:
 Types of Reinforcements Metal matrix composites have the ability to
incorporate a wide variety of reinforcements, including the following:
 Continuous fibres High-strength fibres, such as carbon fibres or ceramic
fibres, are encased in a metal matrix to create a continuous fibre structure.
Continuous fiber-reinforced composites are widely utilised in a variety of
applications within the aerospace industry due to their high level of
strength and stiffness.
 Short fibres or whiskers are randomly or consistently spread throughout
the metal matrix. This type of fibre is referred to as a discontinuous fibre.
In comparison to the basic metal, the strength and wear resistance of
these composites are significantly improved.
 Particulates are introduced into the metal matrix in the form of ceramic,
metallic, or carbon particles. Particulate-reinforced composites have
improved hardness, thermal stability, and wear resistance over their
unreinforced counterparts.
 Hybrid reinforcements: It is also feasible to combine several types of
reinforcements in order to develop hybrid metal matrix composites with
qualities that are specifically matched to the application.
 Fabrication Techniques: Manufacturing metal matrix composites can be
accomplished by a variety of means, including the following:
 Powder metallurgy is the process of producing composite materials by
combining metal powders and reinforcement particles in a powder, then
compacting the mixture and sintering it.
 During the manufacturing process, reinforcements are generated within
the metal matrix by the use of chemical processes. This process is known
as in-situ synthesis.
 Infiltration of molten metal: This technique involves injecting molten
metal into a preform that already contains the reinforcement material.
This enables the metal to fill the void spaces and connect with the
reinforcement at the same time.
 Stir casting is a process in which reinforcements are stirred into molten
metal, and then the resulting mixture is allowed to cool and solidify to
produce a composite.
Solid-state processing: This refers to techniques such as hot pressing, hot
isostatic pressing (HIP), or diffusion bonding, in which the metal matrix and
reinforcements are solidified under conditions of high temperature and pressure.
Properties and Applications: The properties of metal matrix composites can
vary widely depending on the type of reinforcement and matrix material that is
used to make the composite. The following are some noteworthy properties and
applications:
MMCs provide great strength and stiffness while maintaining a low
weight, which contributes to their high strength-to-weight ratio. They find use
in the automotive and aerospace industries, as well as in athletic products.
Thermal management: Due to their high thermal conductivity and ability to
dissipate heat, MMCs are ideal for use as heat sinks, in electronic packaging,
and in high-temperature applications.
Wear resistance: MMCs with reinforced particles or fibres give enhanced wear
resistance, which makes them helpful in components prone to friction and
abrasion, such as brake pads, clutch plates, and bearings. Wear resistance can be
improved by using MMCs with reinforced particles or fibres.
Electrical conductivity: Because of their modifiable electrical conductivity,
metal matrix composites can be used for a variety of applications, including
electromagnetic shielding, electrical contacts, and connections.
Damping capacity: Certain multi-material composites (MMCs) have excellent
damping properties, which makes them suitable in applications where vibration
dampening is essential, such as precision machinery and aircraft constructions.
Research That Is Still Going On One Active Branch Of Research That Is Still
Going On Is The Research That Is Going On To Develop Metal Matrix
Composites. New reinforcing materials, cutting-edge production methods, and
the tailoring of material characteristics to a variety of uses are all being
investigated by researchers. This encompasses developments in
nanocomposites, functionally graded materials, and methods of additive
manufacturing for the creation of MMC.
Metal matrix composites are an adaptable and high-performance
alternative to traditional metals. They make it possible to produce materials with
improved qualities in order to fulfil the requirements of a variety of sectors.

5.2 IMPACT OF ZIRCONIA

Zirconia (ZrO2) and silicon carbide (SiC), when added to aluminium in a
metal matrix composite (MMC), can alter the material's properties and
performance in a number of ways. Some potential results are as follows:
Zirconia and silicon carbide are two examples of materials with high
tensile and compressive strengths. When integrated into an aluminium matrix,
they have the ability to greatly boost the composite's strength and hardness. The
mechanical properties are greatly enhanced due to the hard reinforcements' role
as obstacles for dislocation motion.
Improvements in wear resistance The already impressive wear resistance
of silicon carbide has been further enhanced. Combining SiC particles with an
aluminium matrix creates a composite that may be more resistant to wear,
abrasion, and erosion. This is useful in situations when the parts will come into
abrasive or sliding contact with one another.
Zirconia has excellent thermal properties, such as a low thermal
expansion coefficient and strong thermal stability. Zirconia benefits from these
qualities, which enhance its overall performance. By including zirconia particles
into the composite, the material's thermal stability and resistance to thermal
cycling may be enhanced. To boot, adding SiC to the mix can boost the
composite's thermal conductivity, which in turn improves its ability to dissipate
heat.
In order to improve its fracture toughness, zirconia is known to undergo a
phase change called transformation toughening. Zirconia can change from its
tetragonal phase to its monoclinic phase under stress. The energy is absorbed
and the fracture bends as a result. This technique boosts the composite's crack
propagation resistance and, in turn, increases its fracture toughness.
Customised electrical characteristics The electrical conductivity of the
composite may be altered by the addition of zirconia or silicon carbide. Despite
aluminum's excellent conductivity, the composite's electrical conductivity can
be lowered by using zirconia as an insulator. However, SiC particles may have a
minor effect on the electrical conductivity, depending on the amount of SiC
present and how it is dispersed throughout the matrix.
Challenges with processing include: Particles of zirconia and silicon
carbide can cause a variety of issues during MMC production and assembly.
Establishing a uniform dispersion and maintaining the particle-matrix bonding
is crucial for optimising the reinforcements' performance. Specialised
processing methods, such as powder metallurgy or solid-state processing, may
be required to assure the precise distribution of the particles and their capacity
to connect together.
The properties and functionality of an aluminum-based MMC reinforced
with zirconia and silicon carbide will differ depending on factors like the
reinforcements' size, shape, and volume percent, as well as the processing
methods employed. High-performance engineering components, aerospace
components, and automotive components are just some of the many uses that
might benefit from optimised composite materials.
5.3 SAND CASTING PROCESS

In the metal casting technique known as sand casting (or sand moulded
casting), sand is used to create the mould. In addition to describing the method
of production, the phrase "sand casting" can also be used to describe the
finished product. Foundries are the factories that make sand castings. The sand
casting method accounts for more than 70% of all metal casting production.
 Sand casting is inexpensive and durable enough to be used in steel
foundries. Mixing or naturally occurring with the sand provides a suitable
bonding material, typically clay. To make the aggregate moldable, wet the
mixture with water (or another suitable liquid) to increase the clay's strength and
plasticity. A flask is a frame or mould box structure used to hold sand during the
casting process. Sand is compacted around moulds, patterns, or is carved
directly into the sand to form the mould chambers and gate system.

There are six steps in this process:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

5.3.1 A Basic Overview

Casting is the method of making an object by pouring molten metal into a
mould. The object produced in this way is also known as a casting. Sand is used
to fill a mold's cavity for sand casting. In addition, any cores in the mould are
created from sand. In the space between the inner surface of the mould and the
outer surface of the core, the molten metal cools and solidifies. There you have
it: the standard procedure for making a sand casting.
5.3.2 Patternmaking
Making a pattern is the first stage in sand casting. The pattern is a scaled-
down version of the casting's exterior that accounts for finishing and shrinkage.
If the casting is to have hollow interior spaces, then extra patterns called cores
must be used. Wood, plastic, metal, and plaster are the most common materials
used to create patterns, but other materials or material combinations may be
used if the pattern needs to meet specialised criteria. The type of material used
to create the pattern depends on a number of factors, including the expected
number of castings from the mould and the desired characteristics of the final
casting.
5.3.3 Core making
The creation of the core is the next stage of the procedure. The inner
contours of the casting are created with the help of cores, which are forms that
are placed inside the mould. Typically, the core is formed by baking a sand
mixture that consists of sand, water, and organic adhesives known as binders.
This combination is then baked in order to make the core. This makes it
possible for the cores to be sturdy while also being able to collapse, which
enables them to be easily extracted from the finished casting. As a result of the
fact that cores are produced in moulds, they ask for a design and mould that is
referred to as a core box. The core pattern is constructed in the same manner as
the casting pattern, with the exception that the core box is fabricated from a
hardy material such as metal or wood. Sand is used to make the cores, hence the
mould itself can't be formed of sand like that either.
5.3.4 Molding
The process of creating moulds involves a number of steps and is referred
to as moulding. In horizontal casting, the mould is enclosed in a two-piece
frame known as a flask. This type of casting is done on a flat surface. The cope
is the name given to the upper half of the flask, and the drag is the name given
to the lower portion. At the beginning of the process, a flask is crammed full of
moulding sand around the pattern. Following the removal of the pattern, the
gating and runner arrangements are placed in the drag half of the mould cavity,
and the sprue is positioned in the cope section of the cavity. In order for the
molten metal to flow into the mould cavity, gating mechanisms are required to
be installed. In the event that they are required, cores are also inserted into the
drag section of the mould. After the cope (top) section of the mould has been
positioned on top of the drag (bottom) piece, the mould is then closed and
clamped together to complete the process. The process of creating moulds in big
automated moulding machines (Disamatics), which may be found at the
foundries owned and operated by Metal Technologies, merits its own in-depth
description.
5.3.5 Melting & Pouring
Melting is the preparation of the metal for casting, and its conversion
from a solid to a liquid state in a furnace. It is then transferred in a ladle to the
molding area of the foundry where it is poured into the molds. After the metal
has solidified, the molds are vibrated to remove the sand from the casting, a
process called shakeout.
5.3.6 Cleaning
When talking about castings, "cleaning" typically refers to the process of
removing any and all materials that will not be a part of the final casting. The
removal of the gating mechanisms from the casting is what is meant by "rough
cleaning." After the item has been released from the mould, the initial finishing
process involves removing any core sand or mould residue that may still be
present on the piece. During trimming, any excess metal will be removed. The
surface of the casting is cleaned in the last stages of the finishing process so that
it will have an improved appearance. In addition, the inspection of the casting
for flaws and conformity to quality standards takes place at this phase in the
process. This inspection may include non-destructive testing to assess whether
or not the part will operate satisfactorily for the application for which it was
designed.
 CHAPTER – 6
6.1. MECHANICAL TESTING

Fig(6.1). Test sample

Fig(6.2). Vickers Hardness Test

Fig(6.3). Vickers Hardness Test

Fig(6.4). Vickers Hardness Test

Fig(6.5). Vickers Hardness Test

Fig(6.6). Vickers Hardness Test

Fig(6.7). Vickers Hardness Test

Fig(6.8). Vickers Hardness Test

Fig(6.9). Impact Test

Fig(6.10). Impact Test

Fig(6.11). Impact Test

Fig(6.12) Tested sample

Fig(6.13). Light optical microscopy

Fig(6.14). Light optical microscopy

Fig(6.15). Light optical microscopy
 6.2 COMPARISON OF RESULTS

6.2.1 Vickers hardness test: (ASTM E92)

Table: Vickers hardness test

Test parameters Observed values

HV 5kg 50.7,51.2,51.8

Vickers Hardness (ASTM E92)

100 % Aluminium 90% aluminium -5% Silicon Carbide -
5% Zirconia
43 51.2

Fig (6.15) Vickers hardness test: (ASTM E92)

 Fig. Vickers hardness (ASTM E92)

6.2.2 Charpy impact test:(ASTM E23)

Table: Charpy impact test

Specimen size Notch Test Absorbed Energy- Averag

(mm) type Temperatur Joules e
e Parameters/unit
10×10×75 V 240C 20 58 36 38

Charpy impact (ASTM E23)

100 % Aluminium 90% aluminium -5% Silicon
Carbide - 5% Zirconia

34 39

Fig (6.16) Charpy impact (ASTM E23)

Micro examination:
Fig(6.17).Mag: 200x

Fig(6.18)Mag: 100x
 Fig(6.19)Mag: 50x

Fig(6.20)Mag: 20x

6.3 MICROSTRUCTURE INFERENCES

1. Using light optical microscopy, one can get several pieces of information
regarding the microstructure of a metal matrix composite (MMC) that is
composed of 90% aluminium, 5% silicon carbide (SiC), and 5% zirconia
(ZrO2).By utilising light optical microscopy, one is able to ascertain the
manner in which the SiC and ZrO2 particles are dispersed throughout the
aluminium matrix. A hallmark of a manufacturing process that has been
carried out successfully is the presence of a well-distributed network of
reinforcing elements. It is possible that improper processing or mixing led
to the clumping together of the particles if they are seen.
2. Analysis of particles with light microscopy can provide information about
the dimensions and contours of the particles' constituent parts. Particles of
SiC and ZrO2 may be seen scattered throughout the microstructure in
some places. Whether they are round, irregular, or elongated, the shape of
the reinforcements may provide insight into the production procedure as
well as the behaviour of the reinforcements.
3. Bonding at Interfaces: The SiC/ZrO2 particle-aluminum matrix interface
can be evaluated for how well it bonds the two materials together. At the
interface between the particle and the matrix, a well-bonded interface is
indicated when there are no cavities, fissures, or holes present. A strong
connection between the matrix and the reinforcements is necessary if one
want to achieve effective load transfer and high mechanical
characteristics.
4. When seen using a light microscope, the grain structure of the aluminium
matrix may be seen. The size, shape, and orientation of the aluminium
grains can provide insight into both the processing history of the material
and the likely grain development mechanisms that occurred during the
manufacturing process. imperfections and empty spaces: The use of light
microscopy makes it possible to detect the presence of void spaces,
porosity, and other imperfections within the MMC. It is possible that
 improper processing or an absence of particle-matrix bonding led to these
faults, which can have a detrimental effect on the mechanical
characteristics and performance of the composite.
5. The many phases of the MMC, as well as the transitions between those
phases, can be seen more clearly using light microscopy. Zirconia is
capable of undergoing phase changes between the tetragonal and
monoclinic phases, which can be observed as distinct areas or variations
to the material's texture. These transformations can take place.
6. Despite the fact that it has some restrictions when it comes to resolution
and the ability to make out finer details at the nanoscale, light optical
microscopy is nevertheless a valuable source of information regarding the
microstructure of MMCs. Light microscopy is one approach that can be
used to begin the process of characterization; however, additional
techniques, including as scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD),
can be utilised to get further information.
7. Netural salt spray

Netural salt spray ASTM -B- 117-2019

Test Parameter Specified value Observation
Test Duration (Hours) 24 Hrs 24 Hrs
Test starting date 27/03/23
(DD/MM/YY) 28/03/23
Test ending date 47.5-48.5
(DD/MM/YY) 14-18
Tower temperature Chamber
(*C) temperature(*
Air pressure (Psi) C)
Chamber temperature 15-30 Degree
 (*C) from vertical
Components loading in
chamber 4.80-5.30 %
Position (Degree of Nacl
Angle) 6.65-6.85
Concentration of 1.00-1.50
solution (%)
Ph value No white Rust
Volume of slat solution formation
collected(ml/hr) noticed up to
Test observation 24 Hrs.
CHAPTER – 7

7.1 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the impact resistance, hardness, corrosion resistance, and

microstructure behaviour of a casted aluminium alloy matrix composite can be
modified by adding 5% silicon carbide (SiC) and 5% zirconia (ZrO2). This is
what we learned:

The impact resistance of the cast aluminium alloy composite can be

improved by adding SiC and ZrO2. SiC's exceptional strength and toughness
allow it to better absorb and distribute impact energy than other materials.
ZrO2's phase change behaviour can help deflect cracks and absorb energy,
which both improve the composite's resistance to impact.

The toughness of the cast aluminium alloy composite can be greatly

improved by using SiC and ZrO2. The addition of hard elements like SiC and
ZrO2 improves hardness by impeding dislocation migration inside the matrix.
Particle size, dispersion, and bonding with the matrix of the casted aluminium
alloy will all play a role in the precise hardness enhancement.
 Resistance to Corrosion: The inclusion of SiC and ZrO2 can modify the
composite's corrosion behaviour. While aluminium alloys are naturally prone to
corrosion, these reinforcements can help provide a barrier that slows the
process. Corrosion resistance may also be affected by galvanic effects between
the composite's phases and the quality of the particle-matrix interface.

The distribution, size, and shape of the SiC and ZrO2 particles inside the
matrix characterise the microstructure of the casted aluminium alloy composite.
To maximise the composite's mechanical qualities, it is vital to achieve a
uniform distribution of the reinforcements. The grain structure of the cast
aluminium alloy and the quality of the particle-matrix bonding both play
important roles in influencing the overall behaviour of the composite.

The casting technique, casting parameters, particle size, particle-matrix

interface, and overall composite composition will all play a role in determining
the final properties and behaviour of a 90% aluminium, 5% SiC, 5% ZrO2
composite using a casted aluminium alloy. To completely understand the
performance and behaviour of this particular composite composition in a casted
aluminium alloy, it is necessary to conduct extensive testing and
characterization procedures, including as impact tests, hardness measurements,
corrosion investigations, and microstructural research.
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