ETHICS  Eternal Law - the plan of God in

creating all creatures.

CHAPTER 4: FRAMEWORKS AND  St. Thomas Aquinas refers to eternal
PRINCIPLES BEHIND OUR MORAL law as “the exemplar of divine
DISPOSITIONS wisdom as directing all actions and
movements.”
 St Augustine defines it as “the divine
Norm - a standard of measurement. reason or will of God commanding
Norms of Morality - the criteria of that the natural order of things be
judgment about the sorts of persons we preserved and forbidding that it be
ought to be and the sorts of actions we ought disturbed.”
to perform” (Richard M. Gula:1)  The concept of Eternal law is
Moral norms - the criteria for judging the inferred from the order and harmony
quality of character. of the created universe.

Types of norms: Attributes of Eternal Law

1. Eternal Divine Law (objective) - the 1. Eternal law is eternal (endless) and
ultimate and absolute norm of morality. unchangeable.
2. Human Reason (subjective) - related to 2. Eternal law is absolutely universal.
the person’s conscience
2. The Natural Law: The Remote Norm of
I. Law as the object norm of morality Morality
- Natural law refers to the operational
A. General Notion of Law - a norm which tendencies of the human nature - the
governs nature and actions of things. chemical, biological, physiological,
psychological, and rational
Law of Nature – principles that governs the properties of man as an organism.
natural phenomena of the world. (e.g.
biological system of humans) a. Attributes of Natural Law
Natural Law - free acts of rational beings. I. It is universal.
II. It is obligatory.
B. Moral Law Defined III. It has its proper sanctions.
- an ordinance of reason for the IV. It is knowable or recognizable.
common good, promulgated by one V. It is unchangeable.
who has the care of the community.
- a kind of imposition which b. The Contents of Natural Law
necessities obedience on the part of i. Formal norms - relate to
the subjects. formation of character, what kind
of person we ought to be.
Essential Elements for a Law to be ii. Material norms - relate to
Reasonable: actions, what actions we ought to
1. It must be just. do.
2. It must be honest. iii. Outlines of Natural law:
3. It must be possible of fulfillment. • Fundamental principles in their general
4. It must be relatively permanent. applications
5. It must be promulgated(publicize) • General moral principles which sustain and
6. It must be directed to common good. preserve the basic relations
7. It must be promulgated by one who of man to God, to himself and to neighbors
has the care of the community. • Applications of the general principles of
morality to specific situations in life and
society
C. Division of Law • Remote conclusions derived by a process
of reasoning
1. The Eternal Law: The Ultimate Norm of
Morality: 3. Human Positive Law and the Moral
Law
 - Human positive law is derived from 2. Erroneous of False conscience -
the natural law and promulgated for mistakes the good as bad and what is
the common good by a human bad is good.
agency. a. Invincibly erroneous
conscience - kind of
judgment where the error
Meaning of Conscience could not have been avoided.
• Cum’ (together) and ‘Scientia b. Vincibly erroneous
’(to know) conscience - kind of
• Second norm of morality judgment where the error
- Conscience is the choice of a could have been avoided if
particular good in a given situation. the person exerted diligence
People refer to conscience as “the on his part.
voice of God” – a whisper of c. Perplexed conscience - when
admonition. faced with two alternative
options, fears that’s in is
B. Conscience as an Act of Intellect presenting both choices.
(Judgment of Reason) d. Pharisaical conscience -
1. It is an act of practical judgment of Imagines grave sins as small
reason deciding upon an individual ones and magnifies little
action as good and to be performed offenses as serious.
or as evil and to be avoided.
2. Conscience can only be applied to • Firmness in its judgment of the
intellect. morality of the act
3. Only the intellect can detect the 1. Certain Conscience - sure whether
rightness or wrongness of our something is good or bad, right or
actions. wrong, moral or immoral.
2. Doubtful Conscience - unsure
C. Conscience as a Practical Moral whether something is good or bad,
Judgment right or wrong, moral or immoral.
1. Deals itself with the moral quality of 3. Scrupulous Conscience - very
a person’s concrete act, dictating the cautious or extremely fearful to the
person to perform what is good and extent that the person refuses to act.
to refrain from doing what is bad or 4. Lax Conscience – takes what is
evil. wrong or sinful very lightly, even
2. Extension of the natural law which considering it as something good and
guides man. okay.
F. Principles Governing Conscience

1. A certain conscience must always be

D. Conscience as the Proximate Norm of obeyed.
Morality 2. erroneous conscience must be
1. Allows a person to have a followed.
direct and personal access in 3. lax conscience has the general and
his conscience. grave obligation to reform this state
2. Must conform to a higher of mind.
norm (eternal divine law). 4. perplexed type of conscience, when
making choices has to ‘postpone any
E. Kinds of Conscience action.’
According to the conscience’s: 5. doubtful conscience, one may never act.
• Harmony or disharmony with objective
truth G. Conscience vs. Civil Authority
1. Correct or True Conscience - • Whenever there is a conflict between
judges the good as good and evil as civil authority (state law) and divine
evil. law (natural moral law), the person
has to obey God rather than men.
 - Emotivism is the most popular form
Conformity and Non-conformity of non-cognitivist theory. It submits
• The conformity or non-conformity of that moral judgments are mere
a human act with the norms expressions of our emotions and
constitutes morality. We recall the feelings.
definition of Aristotle of the good as
that which fits the function. Universalism Vs Relativism
a. MORAL UNIVERSALISM -
Moral Pretension theorizes that moral facts and
• It is, however, possible for a person principles apply to everybody in all
to do good without having a good places.
character. - Also called ‘moral objectivism’

Definition of Framework b. MORAL RELATIVISM - submits

• Framework is defined as a basic that different moral facts and
structure underlying a system or a principles apply to different persons
concept. In ethics, it refers to “a set or group of individuals.
of assumptions, concepts, values and
practice that constitutes a way of 3. Empiricism Vs Rationalism Vs
viewing reality.” Intuitionism
a. MORAL EMPIRICISM - a meta-
• Meta-ethics - the branch of ethics ethical stance which states that moral
that studies the nature of morality. facts are known through observation
and experience.
b. MORAL RATIONALISM - contends
that moral facts and principles are
Classifications of Meta-ethics: knowable a priori (using logic and
• Semantic classifications: reason to form conclusion before
1. Cognitivism (moral realism, ethical experience), that is, by reason alone
subjectivism) vs Non-cognitivism and without reference to experience.
c. MORAL INTUITIONISM - submits
• Substantial classifications: that moral truths are knowable by
2. Moral universalism vs Moral realism intuition that is by immediate
• Epistemological classifications: instinctive knowledge without
3. Empiricism vs Rationalism vs reference to any evidence.
Intuitionism
B. Normative Ethics
COGNITIVISM - moral judgments convey - Normative Ethics is the branch of
propositions, that is, they are ‘truth bearers’ ethics that studies how man ought to
or they are either true or false; right and act, morally speaking.
wrong are matters of
fact. Classifications of Normative Ethics
• Moral realism claims that the 1. Deontology is an ethical system that
existence of moral facts and the truth bases morality on independent moral
(or falsity) of moral judgments are rules or duties. The term came from
independent of people’s thoughts and the Greek word deon which means
perceptions. ‘duty’, implying the foundational
• Ethical subjectivism, on the other nature of man’s duties or obligations.
hand, holds that the truth (or falsity)
of ethical propositions are dependent Deontology – guided by a
on the attitudes or standards of a individuals own personal sense of
person or group of persons. morality.
Subjectivism is obviously contrary to
moral realism. 2. Teleology - refers to moral system
that determines the moral value of
b. NON-COGNITIVISM denies that moral actions by their outcomes or results.
judgments are either true or false. From the Greek word ‘telos’, which
 means ‘end,’ teleology takes into • Inclination - feeling that pushes us to
account the end result of the action select a particular option or make a
as the exclusive consideration of its particular decision.
morality.

Teleology deems an action as • duty or obligation - we ought to do

morally right if its favourable despite our inclination or taste to do
consequences are greater than its otherwise.
adverse outcomes.
2. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES
3. VIRTUE ETHIICS
- a moral system, places emphasis on
TWO KINDS OF IMPERATIVES:
developing good habits of character,
like kindness and generosity, and
1. Categorical imperatives - specify
avoiding bad character traits, or vices
actions we ought to take regardless
such as greed or hatred.
of whether doing so would enable us
to get anything we want.
- Virtue-based theories give
importance to moral education which
2. Hypothetical imperatives - identify
molds individuals to
actions we ought to take, but only if
habitually act in a virtuous manner.
we have some particular goal.
- Virtue ethics is a broad term for
Formula of Universality and the Law of
theories that emphasize the role of
Nature: “Act only on that maxim through
character and virtue in moral
which you can at the same time will that it
philosophy rather than either doing
should become a universal law”
one’s duty or acting in order to bring
about good consequences.
The Second Formulation: The Formula of
Humanity; “Act in such a way that you
c. Applied Ethics - philosophically
treat humanity, whether in your own person
examines specific, controversial
or in the person of any other, never merely
moral issues.
as a means to an end, but always at the same
time as an end”.
Module 9: Deontology (Kantian Ethics),
Teleology (Utilitarianism) and Justice as
3. STRENGHT of Duty-Based Ethics
Fairness
–
A strength is that a lot of our moral
Deontology - Kantian Ethics
experience and practice takes the
form of following rules.
• Immanuel Kant is an avid defender
of deontological theory. The German
Duty-Based Ethics are concerned with what
Enlightenment philosopher.
people do, not the consequences of their
action.
o Do the right thing.
1. Good Will - A good will is one that
o Do it because it is the right thing to
habitually will wills rightly.
do.
• Kant believes that one of the o Don’t do wrong things.
functions of and capacities of our o Avoid them because they are wrong.
reason is to produce a will which is
good not as a means to some further The strengths and weaknesses of Duty-
end, but good in itself. For him, it is based ethics
the good will which is the highest Strengths:
good and the condition of all other o Real of duty, free from utility.
goods. o Respect for persons.
o Golden rule – do unto others, express
in national terms.
 o Reason based. Rule Utilitarianism - the principle of utility
Weaknesses: that is used to decide the validity of rules of
o Hyper-rationally and lack of conduct.
emotions.
o The irrelevance of inclination.
o Overly formal and universal.
o Inflexibility.
o Supererogation.
Act vs. Rule
1. It offers a paradox.
Act: I think it’s okay if it causes more
• there are times when the maximum
happiness or prevents pain in some way
welfare of a society is forbidden.
Rule: I think we should make rules that
2. It can be applied in non-realistic
from our experience show increase
situations - One form of deontology
happiness and follow those rules.
involves divine commands.
It is founded by Jeremy Bentham but
3. It is a matter of subjective opinion - The
systematized and modified by John Stewart
definition of right and wrong from a
Mill.
person’s deontological perspective.
Bentham’s Utilitarianism: Principle of
4. It eliminates the idea of self-defense -
Utility
Deontological ethics dictate that all forms of
o people act in their own interest.
violence are wrong.
o nothing else but pleasure is
5. It could take people at risk - all ethics intrinsically good.
were absolute and because ethics are based o gives no importance to the quality of
on the action, a better choice would be to do pleasures.
nothing.

4. Right Theory - the notion that in

order for a society to be efficacious,
government must approach the
making and enforcement of laws
with the right intentions in respect to
the end goal of the society that it
governs.

• Legal rights - denote all the rights

found within existing legal codes.

• Moral rights - plain contrast are

rights that exist prior to and
independently from their legal
counterparts.

Utilitarianism - a teleological ethical

system judges the rightness of an act in
terms of an external goal or purpose.

Act Utilitarianism - the principle of utility

is applied directly to every alternative act in
a situation of choice.