A quick review of the previous

course and introduction to the

current course

Dr. Ashraf E. Abdel-Salam

A quick review of the previous course
In chapter(1):-,
we discussed the rock cycle, the origin of soil by weathering, the
particle size
distribution in a soil mass, the shape of particles, and clay
minerals. Some important
points include the following:
1. Rocks can be classified into three basic categories: (a)
igneous, (b) sedimentary, and (c) metamorphic.

2. Soils are formed by chemical and mechanical weathering of

rocks.
3. Based on the size of the particles, soil can be classified as
gravel, sand, silt, and
clay. According to the Unified Soil Classification System, which
is now universally
accepted, the grain-size limits of gravel, sand, and fines (silt
and clay) are as follows:
Gravel 76.2 mm–4.75 mm
Sand 4.75 mm–0.075 mm
Fines (silt and clay) 0.075 mm
4. Clays are flake-shaped microscopic and submicroscopic
particles of mica, clay minerals,
and other minerals.
5. Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates.
6. Clay particles carry a net negative charge on their surfaces.
When water is added, a diffuse double layer of water is
developed around the clay particles that is responsible
for providing plasticity to clay soils.
7. Mechanical analysis is a process of determining the size
range of particles present in a soil mass. It consists of two
parts—sieve analysis (for particles 0.075 m) and hydrometer
analysis (for particles 0.075 mm)
8. In a sieve analysis
Weight–Volume Relationships
In this chapter, we discussed weight–volume relationships of
soils. Following is a summary of the subjects covered:

Volume relationships consist of void ratio (e), porosity (n), and

degree of saturation (S)
Weight relationships consist of moisture content (w) and unit
weight (ɣd, ɣb, ɣsat , ɣ sub )
Plasticity and Structure of Soil
Following is a summary of the materials presented in this chapter.
• The consistency of fine-grained soils can be described by three
parameters: the liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit. These
are referred to as Atterberg limits.
• The liquid (LL), plastic (PL), and shrinkage (SL) limits are,
respectively, the moisture
contents (%) at which the consistency of soil changes from liquid
to plastic stage, plastic to semisolid stage, and semisolid to solid
stage.
• Plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit (LL)
and the plastic limit (PL) .
• Liquidity index of soil (LI) is the ratio of the difference between
the in situ moisture content (%) and the plastic limit to the
plasticity index
LI = w - PL / LL- PL
• Activity, A, is defined as the ratio of plasticity index to the
percent of clay-size fraction by weight in a soil
• The structure of cohesionless soils can be single grained or
honeycombed.
Soils with honeycombed structure have large void ratios that may
break down under heavy load and dynamic loading.
• Dispersion, nonsalt flocculation, and salt flocculation of clay
soils were discussed in Section 4.8. Also discussed in this section
is the structure of fine-grained soil as it relates to the
arrangement of peds and micropore spaces and the arrangement
of domains and clusters with silt-size particles.
Classification of Soil
In this chapter we have discussed the following:
1. Textural classification is based on naming soils based
on their principal components such as sand, silt, and
clay-size fractions determined from particle-size
distribution.
2. The AASHTO soil classification system is based on
sieve analysis (i.e., percent finer than No. 10, 40, and
200 sieves), liquid limit, and plasticity index .
Soils can be classified under categories
• A-1, A-2, and A-3 (granular soils)
• A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 (silty and clayey soils)
3. Unified soil classification is based on sieve analysis (i.e.,
percent finer than No. 4 and No. 200 sieves), liquid limit, and
plasticity index .Ituses classification symbols such as
• GW, GP, GM, GC, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-GC, GC-GM,
SW,SP, SM, SC, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC, and SC-SM
(for coarse-grainedsoils)
• CL, ML, CL-ML, OL, CH, MH, and OH (for fine-grained soils)
4. In addition to group symbols, the group names under the
Unified classification system can be determined using Figures
5.4, 5.5, and 5.6. The group name is primarily based on percent
retained on No. 200 sieve, percent of gravel (i.e., percent
retained on No. 4 sieve), and percent of sand (i.e., percent
passing No. 4 sieve but retained on No. 200 sieve).
Soil Compaction
In this chapter, we have discussed the following:
• Standard and modified Proctor compaction tests are conducted
in the laboratory to
determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction [γ(max)] and
optimum moisture
content (wopt)
• γ d(max) and wopt are functions of the energy of compaction E.
• Several empirical relations have been presented to estimate
γ d(max) and wopt for cohesionless and cohesive soils .
Also included in this section is an empirical relationship to
estimate the relative density of compaction (Dr) with known
median grain size (D50) and energy of compaction (E).
• For a given energy of compaction (E) in a cohesive soil, the
hydraulic conductivity and unconfined compression strength,
swelling, and shrinkage characteristics are functions of molding
moisture content.
• Field compaction is generally carried out by rollers such as
smooth-wheel, rubber tired, Sheeps foot, and vibratory .
• Control tests to determine the quality of field compaction can be
done by using the sand cone method, rubber balloon method,
and nuclear method.
• Vibro flotation, dynamic compaction, and blasting are special
techniques used for large-scale compaction in the field .
 Permeability
Following is a summary of the important subjects covered in this
chapter.
• Darcy’s law can be expressed as
v = k * i
discharge hydraulic hydraulic
velocity conductivity gradient
• Seepage velocity (vs) of water through the void spaces can be
given as
vs = discharge velocity / porosity of soil

• Hydraulic conductivity is a function of viscosity (and hence

temperature) of water.
• Constant-head and falling-head types of tests are conducted to
determine the hydraulic conductivity of soils in the laboratory .
• There are several empirical correlations for hydraulic
conductivity in granular and
cohesive soil.
• For layered soil, depending on the direction of flow, an
equivalent hydraulic conductivity
relation can be developed to estimate the quantity of flow
• Hydraulic conductivity in the field can be determined by pumping
from wells
 Stresses in a Soil Mass
Construction of a foundation causes changes in the stress, usually
a net increase. The net stress increase in the soil depends on the
load per unit area to which the foundation is subjected, the depth
below the foundation at which the stress estimation is desired, and
other factors.
- The vertical stress (∆σz) produced at any point in a
homogeneous, elastic, and isotropic medium as a result of various
types of load applied on the surface of an infinitely large half-space
has been presented. The following table provides a list of the type
of loading and the corresponding relationships to determine vertical
stress
This chapter discusses the principles of estimation of vertical
stress increase in soil caused by various types of loading, based
on the theory of elasticity
• Determination of vertical stress increase at a certain depth due
to the application of
load on the surface. The loading type includes:
- Point load
- Vertical line load
- Horizontal line load
- Vertical strip load
- Linearly increasing vertical load on a strip
- Embankment loading
- Uniformly loaded circular area
- Uniformly loaded rectangular area
Settlement of Soil
This chapter discussed theories relating to the settlement of
foundations. Following is a summary of the topics covered.
• Total settlement of a foundation is the sum of elastic settlement
and consolidation settlement. Consolidation settlement has two
components—primary and secondary.
• Elastic settlement is primarily a function of the size (length and
width) and rigidity of the foundation, the modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio of the soil supporting the foundation, and the
intensity of the load applied.
• Consolidation is a time-dependent process of settlement of the
saturated clay layer(s) located below the groundwater table.
• Primary consolidation settlement can be calculated
• Empirical relationships for compression index and swell index
needed to estimate primary consolidation settlement
• Secondary consolidation settlement can be estimated
• The degree of consolidation at any time after load application is
a function of the nondimensional time factor Tv
• The coefficient of consolidation for a given loading range can be
obtained by using logarithm-of-time, square-root-of-time,
hyperbola, and early stage log-t methods
• Sand drains and prefabricated vertical drains may be used to
accelerate the consolidation process in the field
• Precompression is a technique to reduce postconstruction
settlement by application of a temporary surcharge on the ground
surface for a limited period of time. The surcharge is removed
when construction begins.
introduction to the current course
In this semester we will study the following
shear strength
Bearing Capacity

Foundation
slope stability

Earth pressure
dewatering system
Seepage system
 At the end of this semester you should know
The application of principles of soil mechanics. It
considers the following topics: the origin and nature of
soils; soil classification; the effective stress principle;
hydraulic conductivity and seepage; stress-strain-strength
behavior of cohesionless and cohesive soils and
application to lateral earth stresses; bearing capacity and
slope stability; consolidation theory and settlement
analysis; and laboratory and field methods for evaluation
of soil properties in design practice