Csc405 Net

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA, DELTA STATE
FACULTY OF SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
COURSE CODE: CSC405
COURSE TITLE: Net-Centric Computing

CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
CSC405
NET-CENTRIC COMPUTING
Course Team G. C. OMEDE (Ph.D.) (Developer/Writer) – DELSU.
i
CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
Course Aim
The aim of the course is to furnish you with full knowledge on inter-networking. It teaches how systems
connect one with the other, communication modes, two or more systems processing, a single but
divided large tasks, together simultaneously, transmission technologies and much more.
Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set out, the course has a set of objectives. Each unit has specific objectives which
are included at the beginning of the unit.
You may wish to refer to them during your study to check on your progress. You should always look at
the unit objectives after completion of each unit. By doing so, you would know whether you have
followed the instruction in the unit.
Below are the comprehensive objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting these objectives, you
should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole. In addition to the aims earlier stated, this
course sets to achieve some objectives. Thus, after going through the course, you should be able to:
• Identify the configurations of Distributed systems

• Describe the standards of wireless technology
• Implement security schemes or ciphers on the network
• Explain the categories of networks
• Define the concept of Parallel Systems
• Classify parallel Programming Models  Describe Message Passing Programming  Explain the
concept of:
o Dependence Analysis o Open MP Programming o Evaluation of Programs
o Optimizations for Scalar Architectures and Models for Parallel Computing
• Dependence Analysis, Open MP Programming, Evaluation of Programs, Optimizations for
Scalar Architectures and Models for Parallel Computing.
• Explain the concepts of Distributed systems:
o Characterization of Distributed systems o system models o distributed
objects and o remote method invocation
• Implement the concept of Distributed transactions:
o Explain flat & nested distributed transactions and concurrency  Explain
Service-oriented architectures: o Identify the characteristics of SOAs, Hadoop
and Spark
• Define Mobile and wireless computing o Enumerate the Technologies for Wireless
Communication o Explain wireless cellular systems o Appreciate wireless network technologies
• Discuss Wireless Application Protocols: Mobile IP, WAP, SMS, Bluetooth
• Implement the Frameworks for mobile application development (e.g Ionic, React Native,
Xamarin, Adobe PhoneGap, J2ME)  Define Cloud computing:
o Explain the cloud computing technologies, infrastructure, and architecture
• Discuss Cloud computing development models (public, private, community and hybrid cloud),
service models (SaaS, PaaS, IaaS). Improve their data privacy through hardware protection
i
CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
Course Summary:
Overview of Net-centric computing:
Net-centric computing is the concept of using interconnected computer networks to
deliver computing services to clients or end-users. It involves a distributed computing
environment where applications and data are hosted on multiple servers across the
network.
Some of the key components of net-centric computing include network protocols,
network security, cloud computing, and web services.
The benefits of net-centric computing are numerous, including better scalability, easier
maintenance, and improved flexibility. With net-centric computing, organizations can
deliver services to a wider audience, regardless of location.
In conclusion, net-centric computing is an essential aspect of modern computing, as it
allows organizations to leverage the power of the internet and interconnected networks
to provide better services to their clients. Understanding the principles and technologies
involved in net-centric computing is crucial for any aspiring computer science
professional.
Introduction to Net-centric computing:
Net-centric computing refers to a computing architecture that supports the exchange of
data and applications between computers connected to the internet. In a net-centric
computing environment, computers can communicate with each other and share
resources such as hardware, software, and data. This technology enables users to
access data and applications from any location and from any device with an internet
connection. Net-centric computing has contributed to the development of cloud
computing, which relies on the internet as a means of delivering services to end-users.
This technology has revolutionized the way we work, communicate, and access
information, making it an essential component of modern-day computing.
Types of Coding:
Machine coding: Machine coding is the process of writing computer code directly in the
machine language of the computer's processor. It is the lowest-level programming
language, and the code is written in binary form consisting of 0s and 1s.
High-level coding: High-level coding is a programming language that is closer to natural

language, and is easier to read, write and understand than machine code. High-level
languages like Python, Java, Ruby, and C++ are widely used in software development.
Low-level coding: Low-level coding is a programming language that is closer to machine

code, and is more difficult to read, write and understand than high-level languages.
Assembly language is a low-level programming language that allows for direct
manipulation of hardware resources in the computer.
Front-end coding: Front-end coding is the process of creating the user-facing interface of
a website or web application using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. It is focused on the
visual presentation and user experience of a website.
Back-end coding: Back-end coding is the process of building the server-side logic of a
website or web application. It involves programming languages like PHP, Ruby, Python,
and Java, and is focused on database management, data processing, and server-side
tools.
ii
CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
Full-stack coding: Full-stack coding is the process of designing, developing, and
maintaining both the front-end and back-end aspects of a website or web application. It
requires the knowledge of multiple programming languages and helps developers build
scalable and efficient digital products.
System Binary:
In computer science, a system binary refers to an executable file that is part of the
operating system. These files are essential for the functioning of the operating system
and perform various system-level functions. They are usually located in predefined
directories on the system, such as /bin, /usr/bin, or /sbin.
Examples of system binaries include utilities for managing files and directories (such as
ls and mkdir), systems daemons (such as init and systemd), and low-level tools for
managing hardware (such as fdisk and lspci).
System binaries are often written in low-level programming languages such as C, which
allows them to interact with the operating system and hardware at a low level. They are
typically owned by the root user and have restricted permissions to ensure the security
and integrity of the operating system.
Some basic codes and their constructions:

Hello World Program:
The "Hello, World!" program is the most basic program you can write. Here's how you
can write it in Python:
Copy and try code

print("Hello, World!")
Here, the print() function is used to output the string "Hello, World!" to the console.
If-else statement:
An if-else statement allows your program to make decisions based on certain conditions.
Here's an example in Python:
Copy and try code

age = 20
if age >= 18:

print("You are eligible to vote!")
else:
print("You are not eligible to vote!")
In this example, if the age variable is greater than or equal to 18, the program will output
"You are eligible to vote!". Otherwise, it will output "You are not eligible to vote!".
For Loop:
A for loop is used to repeatedly execute a block of code. Here's an example of a Python
for loop:
Copy and try code

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange"]
for fruit in fruits:

iii
CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
print(fruit)
In this example, the fruits list contains three elements. The for loop iterates over each
element in the list, and the print() function is used to output each element to the console.
While Loop:
A while loop is similar to a for loop, but it continues to execute a block of code as long as
a certain condition is true. Here's an example of a Python while loop:
Copy and try code

count = 0
while count < 5:

print(count)
count += 1
In this example, the count variable is initialized to 0. The while loop checks if count is
less than 5, and if it is, it outputs the value of count to the console and increments count
by 1. This process continues until count is no longer less than 5.
Basic communication system:

A basic communication system consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and a channel
through which the message is transmitted. The transmitter is responsible for encoding
(modulating) the message into a signal that can be transmitted over the channel. The
receiver receives and decodes (demodulates) the signal to recover the original message.
The channel can be wired or wireless and can introduce noise, interference, or
attenuation that can affect the quality of the transmitted signal. Communication systems
can be analog or digital, depending on the type of signals used to represent the
message. Examples of basic communication systems include voice communication over
telephone lines, radio broadcasting, and satellite communication.
Information measure:
Information measure refers to the quantity of information conveyed by a message or
signal. It is a way to quantify the amount of uncertainty that is resolved when a message
is received. Typically, information measure is expressed in bits, which represent the
amount of information required to distinguish between two possible outcomes with equal
probability. The more bits required to distinguish between outcomes, the more
information is conveyed by the message. Information measure is used in a variety of
fields including information theory, communication systems, probabilistic modeling, and
machine learning.
Entropy capacity of discrete noiseless channels:

The entropy capacity of a discrete noiseless channel is the maximum rate at which
information can be transmitted over the channel with arbitrarily small error probability. It
is defined as the supremum of the mutual information between the input and output of
the channel, where the supremum is taken over all possible probability distributions of
the inputs. The mutual information is a measure of the amount of information that can be
transmitted over the channel, and it is equal to the difference between the entropy of the
input and the conditional entropy of the output given the input. The entropy capacity is a
fundamental limit on the amount of information that can be transmitted over a noisy
channel, and it is a key concept in information theory.
Entropy capacity of continuous Gaussian noise channels:

iv
CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
The entropy capacity of a continuous Gaussian noise channel is given by the formula:
C = ½ log(1 + P/σ^2)
where P is the transmit power and σ^2 is the noise power. This formula represents the
maximum rate at which information can be transmitted reliably over the channel,
measured in bits per second.
Matching the source to the channel means designing a source code that is efficient in
terms of compression and can be effectively transmitted over the channel. In the context
of continuous Gaussian channels, this involves choosing a source distribution that
maximizes the rate of information transmission (i.e., the entropy) subject to the
constraints of the channel capacity.
In practice, this can be achieved through techniques such as rate-distortion theory, which
seeks to minimize the distortion between the original source signal and the compressed
version transmitted over the channel, subject to the constraints of the channel capacity.
This allows for efficient communication of information over the channel while minimizing
errors and maximizing the quality of the received signal.
v
CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Net-Centric Computing Fundamentals……………………………………1

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Computing……………………………………… 2
Unit 2 Mobile and Wireless Computing ……………………….…………………... 9
Unit 3 Network Security ….………………………………………………………. 15
Unit 4 Client/ Server Computing (Web Application) ……………………………..
Unit 5 Building Web Application
Module 2 Parallel Systems …………..………………………………………………. 25

Unit 1 Introduction to Parallel Systems ……………………………………………26
Unit 2 Parallel Programming Models ……………………………………………..
Unit 3 Message Passing Programming ……………………………………………. 37
Unit 4 Dependence Analysis ………………………………………………………. 46
Unit 5 Open MP Programming …………..………………………………………… 55
Unit 6 Evaluation of Programs ………………………………………………….
Unit 7 Optimizations for Scalar Architecture ……………………………………
Unit 8 Models for Parallel Computing …………………………………………..
Module 3 Distributed Systems ………………………………………………………. 62

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Transactions…………………………………….63
Unit 2 Characterization of Distributed Systems…………..………………………… 72
Unit 3 Systems Models……...………………..……………………………………. 84
Unit 4 Distributed Objects…………………………………………………….…… 94
Unit 5 Remote Method Invocation ………………………………………………….
Unit 6 Using UML for Component Based Design ………………………………….
Module 4 Distributed Transactions …………….……………………………………102

Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Transactions…………………………………… 103
Unit 2 Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions ……………………………………110
Unit 3 Concurrency………….…………………………………………………….. 121
vi
CSC405 COURSE GUIDE
Characteristics of Service Oriented Architecture (Hadoop & Spark)……… 128
Unit 4
Module 5 Mobile & Cloud Computing ………………………………………………..
Unit 1 Introduction to Mobile & Cloud Computing ……………………………….
Unit 2 Technologies for Wireless Communications ………………………………..
Unit 3 Wireless Cellular Systems ……………………………………………………
Unit 4 Overview of Wireless LAN, IEEE 802.11, Personal Area Network & Bluetooth
Unit 5 High Speed Wireless Networks: HiperLAN

…………………….
vii
CIT421 Net-Centric Computing
Module 1: Net-Centric Computing Fundamentals
Introduction of Module
Overview of Net-centric computing:

Net-centric computing is the concept of using interconnected computer networks to deliver
computing services to clients or end-users. It involves a distributed computing environment where
applications and data are hosted on multiple servers across the network.
Some of the key components of net-centric computing include network protocols, network security,
cloud computing, and web services.
The benefits of net-centric computing are numerous, including better scalability, easier
maintenance, and improved flexibility. With net-centric computing, organizations can deliver
services to a wider audience, regardless of location.
In conclusion, net-centric computing is an essential aspect of modern computing, as it allows
organizations to leverage the power of the internet and interconnected networks to provide better
services to their clients. Understanding the principles and technologies involved in net-centric
computing is crucial for any aspiring computer science professional.
Introduction:
Net-Centric or network centred computing is an ongoing area in the twenty-first century with a great
interest among software engineers as it is an enabling technology for modern distributed
computing systems and applications. Today, Net-Centric applications have invaded the lives of
people in many ways. Net-Centric Computing (NCC) is a distributed environment where
applications and data are downloaded from servers and exchanged with peers across a network.
Net-centric Computing focuses on large-scale distributed computing systems and applications that
communicate through open, wide-area networks like the Internet. General examples of large-scale
network-centric systems are the World-Wide Web and Computational Grids. For several years,
major changes are being brought to the world by universal networking capabilities, such as the
Internet. Today’s technology solutions represent the convergence of computing power, networking
capability and the information, data or knowledge that forms the content of these solutions. At the
centre these solutions net-centric computing lies. Net-centric computing refers to an emerging
technology architecture and an evolutionary stage of client/server computing. It is a common
architecture built on open standards that supports in different ways for different people to
collaborate and to reach different information sources. The evolutionary nature of net-centric
computing links technological capabilities and strategic opportunities, helping people in facing
today’s new problems and providing the flexibility to meet tomorrow’s challenges.
8
CSC405 Net-Centric Computing
Unit 1: Introduction to Distributed Computing
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed Computing
3.2 Web 2.0 Technologies
3.3 Service Orientation
3.4 Virtualization
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
9

1.0 Introduction
A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked computers,
which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another from any
system in order to appear as a single system to the end-user. The computers that are in a
distributed system can be physically together and connected by a local network, or they can be
geographically distant and connected by a wide area network. A distributed system can consist of
any number of possible components, such as mainframes, personal computers, workstations,
minicomputers, and so on. Common use cases of a distributed systems are electronic banking
systems, massive multiplayer online games, and sensor networks.
1.1 Functionality
There are two general ways that distributed systems function:
a. Each component of the system works to achieve a common goal and the enduser
views results as one combined unit.
b. Each component has its own end-user and the distributed system facilitates
sharing resources or communication services.
1.2 Architectural models
Distributed systems generally consist of four different basic architectural models:
a. Client-server — Clients contact the server for data, then format it and display it to
the end-user.
b. Three-tier — Information about the client is stored in a middle tier rather than on
the client, to simplify application deployment.
c. n-tier — Generally used when the server needs to forward requests to additional
enterprise services on the network.
d. Peer-to-peer — There are no additional nodes used to provide services or
manage resources. Responsibilities are uniformly distributed among components
in the system, known as peers, which can serve as either client or server.
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Explain the concept of distributed systems
• Describe the Architectural Models of Distributing Computing
• Explain the term Service Orientation
• Describe the concept, Virtualization
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed computing

Distributed Computing is a much broader technology that has been around for more than three
decades now. Distributed computing is computing over distributed autonomous computers that
communicate only over a network. Distributed computing systems are usually treated differently
10
from parallel computing systems or shared-memory systems, where multiple computers share a
common memory pool that is used for communication between the processors. Distributed memory
systems use multiple computers to solve a common problem, with computation distributed among
the connected computers (nodes) and using messagepassing to communicate between the nodes.
Example of distributed computing is the grid computing where the nodes may belong to different
administrative domains. Another example is the network-based storage virtualization solution which
used distributed computing between data and metadata servers.
Figure 1: Distributed Computing Systems

Distributed computing, however, can include heterogeneous computations where some nodes may
perform a lot more computation, some perform very little computation and a few others may
perform specialized functionality (like processing visual graphics).
One of the main advantages of using distributed computing is that efficient scalable programs can
be designed so that independent processes are scheduled on different nodes and they
communicate only occasionally to exchange results – as opposed to working out of a shared
memory with multiple simultaneous accesses to a common memory.
It is obvious that cloud computing is also a specialized form of distributed computing, where
distributed Software as a Service (SaaS) applications utilize thin clients (such as browsers) which
offload computation to cloud-hosted servers (and services).
Distributed computing, virtualization, service orientation, and Web 2.0 form the core technologies
enabling the provisioning of cloud services from anywhere on the globe. Distributed computing is a
foundational model for cloud computing because cloud systems are distributed systems. Besides
administrative tasks mostly connected to the accessibility of resources in the cloud, the extreme
dynamism of cloud systems—where new nodes and services are provisioned on demand—
constitutes the major challenge for engineers and developers.
3.2 Web 2.0 technologies
Web 2.0 technologies constitute the interface through which cloud computing services are
delivered, managed, and provisioned. Besides the interaction with rich interfaces through the Web
browser, Web services have become the primary access point to cloud computing systems from a
programmatic standpoint.
3.3 Service Orientations
11

Service orientation is the underlying paradigm that defines the architecture of a cloud computing
system. Cloud computing is often summarized with the acronym XaaS meaning, Everything-as-a-
Service—that clearly underlines the central role of service orientation Infrastructure-as-a-Service
solutions provide the capabilities to add and remove resources, but it is up to those who deploy
systems on this scalable infrastructure to make use of such opportunities with wisdom and
effectiveness.
Platform-as-a-Service solutions embed into their core offering algorithms and rules that control the
provisioning process and the lease of resources. These can be either completely transparent to
developers or subject to fine control. Integration between cloud resources and existing system
deployment is another element of concern.
3.4 Virtualization
Virtualization is another element that plays a fundamental role in cloud computing. This technology
is a core feature of the infrastructure used by cloud providers. Virtualization concept is more than
40 years old, but cloud computing introduces new challenges, especially in the management of
virtual environments, whether they are abstractions of virtual hardware or a runtime environment
Discussion
Which of the security infrastructure is most critical and why?
1. Describe two Service Orientations
Answer
Infrastructure-as-a-Service solutions provide the capabilities to add and remove resources, but it is
up to those who deploy systems on this scalable infrastructure to make use of such opportunities
with wisdom and effectiveness.
Platform-as-a-Service solutions embed into their core offering algorithms and rules that control the
provisioning process and the lease of resources. These can be either completely transparent to
developers or subject to fine control. Integration between cloud resources and existing system
deployment is another element of concern.
5.0 Conclusion
Distributed computing is computing over distributed autonomous computers that communicate only
over a network. Distributed computing systems are usually treated differently from parallel
12
computing systems or shared-memory systems, where multiple computers share a common
memory pool that is used for communication between the processors
6.0 Summary
Virtualization is another element that plays a fundamental role in cloud computing. Platform as-a-
Service solutions embed into their core offering algorithms and rules that control the provisioning
process and the lease of resources. Infrastructure-as-a-Service solutions provide the capabilities to
add and remove resources, but it is up to those who deploy systems on this scalable infrastructure
to make use of such opportunities with wisdom and effectiveness.

Moving To The Cloud | ScienceDirect
Unit 2: Mobile & Wireless Computing

Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mobile and Wireless Computing
3.1.1 Mobile Computing
3.2 Mobile Communications
3.3 Mobile Hardware
3.4 Mobile Software
3.5 Mobile Classification
3.6 Advantages
3.7 Security Issues
3.8 Current Trends
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be

transported during normal usage. Mobile computing involves mobile communication, mobile
hardware, and mobile software.
13

• Define Wireless Communication

• Classify Mobile and Cloud Computing
• Mention 5 mobile hardware
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Mobile & Wireless Computing
3.1.1 Mobile Computing
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer
or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link
Mobile computing involves human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be
transported during normal usage
Figure 2: Internet with Mobile Devices

3.2 Mobile communication
• The mobile communication refers to the infrastructure put in place to ensure that
seamless and reliable communication goes on
• These would include devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals
necessary to facilitate and support the stated services
14
• The data format is also defined at this stage
• This ensures that there is no collision with other existing systems which offer the
same service.
• the media is unguided/unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is basically radio
wave-oriented
That is, the signals are carried over the air to intended devices that are capable of receiving and
sending similar kinds of signals.
3.3 Mobile hardware
• mobile devices or device components that receive or access the service of mobility
• They would range from portable laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc's, Personal Digital
Assistants
•
Figure 3: Mobile Hardware

3.4 Mobile Software
• Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware
• It deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications
• This is the engine of the mobile device
• It is the operating system of the appliance
• Its the essential component that operates the mobile device
15
Figure 4: Mobile Software
• Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing ensures that users are
not tied or pinned to a single physical location, but are able to operate from
anywhere. It incorporates all aspects of wireless communications
3.5 Mobile Classification
• Mobile computing is not only limited to mobile phones, but there are various gadgets
available in the market that are built on a platform to support mobile computing
• They are usually classified in the following categories:
 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
• The main purpose of this device is to act as an
electronic organizer or day planner that is
portable, easy to use and capable of sharing
information with your computer systems.
• PDA is an extension of the PC, not a
replacement
• These systems are capable of sharing
information with a computer system through a
process or service known as synchronization
• Both devices will access each other to check for
changes or updates in the individual devices
• The use of infrared and Bluetooth connections
enables these devices to always be synchronized.
Figure 5: Personal Data Assistant
• With PDA devices, a user can browse the internet, listen to audio clips, watch
video clips, edit and modify office documents, and many more services
• The device has a stylus and a touch sensitive screen for input and output
purposes
 Smartphones
• It combines the features of a PDA with that of a mobile phone or camera
phone
• It has a superior edge over other kinds of mobile phones.
16
• Smartphones have the capability to run multiple programs concurrently
• These phones include high-resolution touch screens, web browsers that can:
• access and properly display standard web pages rather than just
mobileoptimized sites
• high-speed data access via Wi-Fi and high speed cellular broadband.
• The most common mobile Operating Systems (OS) used by modern
smartphones include:
a. Google's Android
b. Apple's iOS
c. Nokia's Symbian
d. RIM's BlackBerry OS
e. Samsung's Bada
f. Microsoft's Windows Phone, and embedded Linux distributions such as Maemo
and MeeGo. Such operating systems can be installed on different phone models,
and typically each device can receive multiple OS software updates over its
lifetime.
Figure 6: Smart Phones
 Tablet PC and iPads

• This mobile device is larger than a mobile phone or a PDA and integrates
into a touch screen and is operated using touch sensitive motions on the
screenThey are often controlled by a pen or by the touch of a finger
• They are usually in slate form and are light in weight. Examples would
include ipads, Galaxy Tabs, Blackberry Playbooks etc.
• They offer the same functionality as portable computers
• They support mobile computing in a far superior way and have enormous
processing horsepower
• Users can edit and modify document files, access high speed internet,
stream video and audio data, receive and send e-mails, attend/give
17

lectures and presentations among its very many other functions •
They have excellent screen resolution and clarity
Figure 7: Ipads & PCs
3.6 Advantages
• Location Flexibility
• This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a connection
established
• A user can work without being in a fixed position
• Their mobility ensures that they are able to carry out numerous tasks at the same
time and perform their stated jobs.
• Saves Time
• The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to the
office and back, has been slashed
• One can now access all the important documents and files over a secure channel
or portal and work as if they were on their computer
• It has enhanced telecommuting in many companies
• It has also reduced unnecessary incurred expenses
• Enhanced Productivity
• Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location they find
comfortable
• This in turn enhances their productivity level
• Ease of Research
• Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to the
field and search for facts and feed them back into the system
18
• It has also made it easier for field officers and researchers to collect and feed data
from wherever they are without making unnecessary trips to and from the office to
the field
• Entertainment
• Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on-the-go using mobile
computing
• It's easy to access a wide variety of movies, educational and informative material
• With the improvement and availability of high speed data connections at
considerable cost, one is able to get all the entertainment they want as they
browse the internet for streamed data
• One is able to watch news, movies, and documentaries among other
entertainment offers over the internet
• This was not possible before mobile computing dawned on the computing world.
• Streamlining of Business Processes
• Business processes are now easily available through secured connections
• Looking into security issues, adequate measures have been put in place to ensure
authentication and authorization of the user accessing the services
• Some business functions can be run over secure links and sharing of information
between business partners can also take place
• Meetings, seminars and other informative services can be conducted using video
and voice conferencing
• Travel time and expenditure is also considerably reduced
3.7 Security Issues
• Mobile computing has its fair share of security concerns as any other technology
• Due to its nomadic nature, it's not easy to monitor the proper usage
• Users might have different intentions on how to utilize this privilege
• Improper and unethical practices such as hacking, industrial espionage, pirating, online
fraud and malicious destruction are some but few of the problems experienced by mobile
computing
• Another big problem plaguing mobile computing is credential verification
• As other users share username and passwords, it poses as a major threat to security
• This being a very sensitive issue, most companies are very reluctant to implement mobile
computing to the dangers of misrepresentation
• The problem of identity theft is very difficult to contain or eradicate
• Issues with unauthorized access to data and information by hackers, is also an enormous
problem
19

• Outsiders gain access to steal vital data from companies, which is a major hindrance in
rolling out mobile computing services.
• No company wants to lay open their secrets to hackers and other intruders, who will in turn
sell the valuable information to their competitors
• It's also important to take the necessary precautions to minimize these threats from taking
place
• Some of those measures include:
• Hiring qualified personnel.
• Installing security hardware and software
• Educating the users on proper mobile computing ethics
• Auditing and developing sound, effective policies to govern mobile computing
• Enforcing proper access rights and permissions
• In the absence of such measures, it's possible for exploits and other unknown threats to
infiltrate and cause irrefutable harm
• These may be in terms of reputation or financial penalties
• In such cases, it's very easy to be misused in different unethical practices.
• If these factors aren’t properly worked on, it might be an avenue for constant threat
• Various threats still exist in implementing this kind of technology
3.8 Current Trends
• These are the list of the current mobile technologies starting from 5G technologies which is
the hottest mobile technology available in the market.
• 5G
• In telecommunications, 5G is the fifth generation technology standard for broadband
cellular networks, which cellular phone companies began deploying worldwide in
2019, and is the planned successor to the 4G networks which provide connectivity
to most current cellphones. 5G networks are predicted to have more than 1.7
billion subscribers worldwide by 2025, according to the GSM Association.[1] Like its
predecessors, 5G networks are cellular networks, in which the service area is
divided into small geographical areas called cells. All 5G wireless devices in a cell
are connected to the Internet and telephone network by radio waves through a
local antenna in the cell. The main advantage of the new networks is that they will
have greater bandwidth, giving higher download speeds, eventually up to 10
gigabits per second (Gbit/s).[2] In addition to 5G being faster than existing
networks, 5G can connect more different devices, and even if people are in
crowded areas, the servers will be more unified, improving the quality of Internet
services.[3] Due
20
to the increased bandwidth, it is expected the networks will increasingly be used
as general internet service providers (ISPs) for laptops and desktop computers,
competing with existing ISPs such as cable internet, and also will make possible
new applications in internet-of-things (IoT) and machine-to-machine areas
• 4G
• 4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding
3G, and preceding 5G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in
IMT Advanced. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web
access, IP telephony, gaming services, highdefinition mobile TV, video
conferencing, and 3D television.
• The first-release WIMAX standard was commercially deployed in South Korea in
2006 and has since been deployed in most parts of the world.
• The first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard was commercially deployed
in Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden in 2009, and has since been deployed
throughout most parts of the world. It has, however, been debated whether first-
release versions should be considered 4G LTE. The 4G wireless cellular standard
was defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and specifies the
key characteristics of the standard, including transmission technology and data
speeds.
• 3G or third generation
• 3G mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for mobile phones and
mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International
Telecommunication Union. Application services include wide-area wireless voice
telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all in a mobile
environment.
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system
that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the
Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites
• The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial
users around the world
• In addition, GPS is the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system,
weather, and location services.
• Long Term Evolution (LTE)
• LTE is a standard for wireless communication of high-speed data for mobile
phones and data terminals
• It is based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA network technologies, increasing
the capacity and speed using new modulation techniques
• It is related with the implementation of fourth Generation (4G) technology
21

• WiMAX
• WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless
communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data
rates, with the latest update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations
• It is a part of a fourth generation or 4G wireless-communication technology
• WiMAX far surpasses the 30-metre wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi Local
Area Network (LAN), offering a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of
about 50 km
• WiMAX offers data transfer rates that can be superior to conventional cablemodem
and DSL connections, however, the bandwidth must be shared among multiple
users and thus yields lower speed in practice
• Near Field Communication
• Near Field Communication (NFC) is a set of standards for smartphones and
similar devices to establish radio communication with each other by touching them
together or bringing them into close proximity, usually no more than a few
centimeters
• Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data
exchange, and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-
Fi. Communication is also possible between an NFC device and an unpowered
NFC chip, called a "tag"
3.9 Conclusion
• Today's computing has rapidly grown from being confined to a single location
• With mobile computing, people can work from the comfort of any location they wish to as
long as the connection and the security concerns are properly factored
• In the same light, the presence of high speed connections has also promoted the use of
mobile computing
• Being an ever growing and emerging technology, mobile computing will continue to be a
core service in computing, and Information and Communications Technology
Discussion
Why is the Mobile Software important in Mobile and Cloud Computing?
4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
1. Define Mobile Computing.
22
Answer
Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be
transported during normal usage.
2. Explain Near Field Communication as one of the current trends in Mobile Computing
Answer • Near Field Communication

• Near Field Communication (NFC) is a set of standards for smartphones and
similar devices to establish radio communication with each other by touching them
together or bringing them into close proximity, usually no more than a few
centimeters
• Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data
exchange, and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-
Fi. Communication is also possible between an NFC device and an unpowered
NFC chip, called a "tag"
5.0 Conclusion
Mobile and Wireless Computing has come to stay in every of our life endeavors ranging from
homes, commerce, education as well as finance. I doubt if we can recover from it.
6.0 Summary
Being an ever growing and emerging technology, mobile computing will continue to be a core
service in computing, and Information and Communications Technology

file:///C:/Tech-U%20Issues/CSC%20412-%20Netcetric%20Computing/CSC%20412-
Content/MOBILE%20AND%20WIRELESS%20COMPUTING.pdf
UNIT 3 Network Security

Contents
23

1.0 Introduction
3.0 Fundamentals of Network Security
3.1 Network Security
3.2 Data as the Life-Blood of Business
3.3 Three Keys Focuses of Network Security
3.4 Benefits of Network Security
3.5 Network Security Tools and Techniques
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The transmission of data from one point, A on the network to the other point, B is a great concern
and therefore, there is the need to deploy measure that can secure the transmission of data away
from unauthorized individuals. Hence, the need for network security.
At the end of this unit, students will able to
• Explain the concept of network
• Understand the importance of network security
• Identify and explain the network security tools and techniques.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Network Security
Network security is a term that describes the security tools, tactics and security policies designed to
monitor, prevent and respond to unauthorized network intrusion, while also protecting digital
assets, including network traffic. Network security includes hardware and software technologies
(including resources such as savvy security analysts, hunters, and incident responders) and is
designed to respond to the full range of potential threats targeting your network.
Network security is the defense you use to protect yourself against ever-increasing cybercrime.
It is predicted that by 2021, cybercrime damages will amount to an annual total world cost of $6
trillion, even outpacing the yearly cost of damages attributed to natural disasters. And on an
individual company level these damages can be just as catastrophic; the average cost of a
cyberattack is currently $1.67 million,2 with operational and productivity loss, along with negative
customer experience, being the primary consequences of suffering an attack.
3.2 Data as the Life-Blood of Businesses
24
Data is the lifeblood of any business. It supports business growth, carries vital resources and helps
the organization stay healthy. And if data is blood, then the network is the beating heart that pumps
it through the business system. But modern cyber threats are like vampires, doing everything
possible to get at the blood that keeps any business going.
In order to defend against these vampiric threats and save your business from potentially millions
of dollars in data loss, you need more than just a stake and some cloves of garlic; you need
effective, robust network security and network visibility.
3.3 The Three Key Focuses of Network Security
There are three key focuses that should serve as a foundation of any network security strategy:
protection, detection and response.
3.3.1 Protection entails any tools or policies designed to prevent network security intrusion.
3.3.2 Detection refers to the resources that allow you to analyze network traffic and quickly identify
problems before they can do harm.
3.3.3 Response is the ability to react to identified network security threats and resolve them as
quickly as possible.
3.4 Benefits of Network Security

Network security tools and devices exist to help organizations protect, not only its sensitive
information, but also its overall performance, reputation and even its ability to stay in business.
Continued operational ability and an intact reputation are two key benefits of effective network
security.
Companies that fall prey to cyberattacks often find themselves crippled from the inside out, unable
to deliver services or effectively address customer needs. Similarly, networks play a major role in
internal company processes, and when they come under attack, those processes may grind to a
halt, further hampering an organization’s ability to conduct business or even resume standard
operations. But perhaps even more damaging is the detrimental effect that a network breach can
have on your business’s reputation.
Given the rising tide of identity theft and other dangers related to the theft of personal information,
many customers are already hesitant when it comes to sharing data with businesses. And if a
cyberattack should occur, many of these customers are likely to withdraw in favor of more secure
alternatives. The loss or corruption of valuable data, along with a significant disruption to customer
services and internal process, topped off with reputational injury that may persist long after other
damages have been repaired — it’s not hard to see what’s at stake when it comes to network
security.
In fact, it’s been suggested that 66 percent of SMBs would have to shut down (either temporarily or
permanently) after experiencing a data breach. And even larger, more established businesses may
be unable to reclaim their former standing.
On the other hand, reliable tools in network security software and hardware, coupled with the right
policies and strategies, can help ensure that when cyberattacks occur, their impact will be minimal.
3.5 Network Security Tools and Techniques

Enterprises’ network face threats of all shapes and sizes, and thus should be prepared to defend,
identify and respond to a full range of attacks. But the reality is that the biggest danger to most
companies are not fly-by-night threat actors, but rather attackers that are well-funded and are
targeting specific organizations for specific reasons. For that reason, your network security strategy
needs to be able to address the various methods these actors might employ.
25

Here are 14 different network security tools and techniques designed to help you do just that:
1. Access control
If threat actors cannot access your network, the amount of damage they will be able to do
will be extremely limited. But in addition to preventing unauthorized access, be aware that
even authorized users can also be potential threats. Access control allows you to increase
your network security by limiting user access and resources to only the parts of the
network that directly apply to individual users’ responsibilities.
2. Anti-malware software
Malware, in the form of viruses, trojans, worms, keyloggers, spyware, etc. are designed to
spread through computer systems and infect networks. Anti-malware tools are a kind of
network security software designed to identify dangerous programs and prevent them from
spreading. Anti-malware and antivirus software may also be able to help resolve malware
infections, minimizing the damage to the network.
3. Anomaly detection
It can be difficult to identify anomalies in your network without a baseline understanding of
how that network should be operating. Network anomaly detection engines (ADE) allow
you to analyze your network, so that when breaches occur, you’ll be alerted to them
quickly enough to be able to respond.
4. Application security
For many attackers, applications are a defensive vulnerability that can be exploited.
Application security helps establish security parameters for any applications that may be
relevant to your network security.
5. Data loss prevention (DLP)
Often, the weakest link in network security is the human element. DLP technologies and
policies help protect staff and other users from misusing and possibly compromising
sensitive data or allowing said data out of the network.
6. Email security
As with DLP, email security is focused on shoring up human-related security weaknesses.
Via phishing strategies (which are often very complex and convincing), attackers persuade
email recipients to share sensitive information via desktop or mobile device, or
inadvertently download malware into the targeted network. Email security helps identify
dangerous emails and can also be used to block attacks and prevent the sharing of vital
data.
7. Endpoint security
The business world is becoming increasingly bring your own device (BYOD), to the point
where the distinction between personal and business computer devices is almost
nonexistent. Unfortunately, sometimes the personal devices become targets when users
rely on them to access business networks. Endpoint security adds a layer of defense
between remote devices and business networks.
8. Firewalls
Firewalls function much like gates that can be used to secure the borders between your
network and the internet. Firewalls are used to manage network traffic, allowing authorized
traffic through while blocking access to non-authorized traffic.
9. Intrusion prevention systems
26
Intrusion prevention systems (also called intrusion detection) constantly scan and analyze
network traffic/packets, so that different types of attacks can be identified and responded to
quickly. These systems often keep a database of known attack methods, so as to be able
to recognize threats immediately.
10. Network segmentation
There are many kinds of network traffic, each associated with different security risks.
Network segmentation allows you to grant the right access to the right traffic, while
restricting traffic from suspicious sources.
11. Security information and event management (SIEM)
Sometimes simply pulling together the right information from so many different tools and
resources can be prohibitively difficult — particularly when time is an issue. SIEM tools and
software give responders the data they need to act quickly.
12. Virtual private network (VPN)
VPN tools are used to authenticate communication between secure networks and an
endpoint device. Remote-access VPNs generally use IPsec or Secure Sockets Layer
(SSL) for authentication, creating an encrypted line to block other parties from
eavesdropping.
13. Web security
Including tools, hardware, policies and more, web security is a blanket term to describe the
network security measures businesses take to ensure safe web use when connected to an
internal network. This helps prevent web-based threats from using browsers as access
points to get into the network.
14. Wireless security
Generally speaking, wireless networks are less secure than traditional networks. Thus,
strict wireless security measures are necessary to ensure that threat actors aren’t gaining
access.
Discussion
What tools can be used to secure the network? Discuss
4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercise
Identify and explain the benefits of network security?
5.0 Conclusion
Network security tools and devices exist to help your organization protect not only its sensitive
information, but also its overall performance, reputation and even its ability to stay in business.
6.0 Summary
Protection entails any tools or policies designed to prevent network security intrusion.
27

Detection refers to the resources that allow you to analyze network traffic and quickly identify
problems before they can do harm.
Response is the ability to react to identified network security threats and resolve them as quickly as
possible.

Application Intelligence |Application Visibility | Gigamon
28
UNIT 4 Client-Server Computing
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Fundamentals of Client Server Computing
3.1 Client Server Computing
3.2 Characteristics of Client Server Computing
3.3 Difference Between Client Server and Peer-to-Peer Computing
3.4 Advantages of Client Server Computing
3.5 Disadvantages of Client Server Computing
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
There are two configurations of networks: Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer networks. In client
server, the client requests resources while the server serves same. In Peer-to-peer configuration,
each node is free to communicate with others or not. The nodes under this configuration are not
over-seen by any node or the other, they relate in a workgroup
• Explain the concept of Client Server category of networks.
• Describe a client
Identify the differences between the Client-Server and the Peer-to-peer configuration of
•
networks
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Client Server Computing

In client-server computing, the clients requests a resource and the server provides that resource. A
server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is in contact with only one server.
Both the client and server usually communicate via a computer network but sometimes they may
reside in the same system.
29
Figure 8: Client-Server Computing

3.2 Characteristics of Client Server Computing
The salient points for client server computing are as follows:
• The client server computing works with a system of request and response. The client
sends a request to the server and the server responds with the desired information.
• The client and server should follow a common communication protocol so they can easily
interact with each other. All the communication protocols are available at the application
layer.
• A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a time. So it uses a
system based to priority to respond to the requests.
• Denial of Service (DoS) attacks hindera servers’ ability to respond to authentic client
requests by inundating it with false requests.
• An example of a client server computing system is a web server. It returns the web pages
to the clients that requested them.
3.3 Difference between Client Server and Peer to Peer Computing

The major differences between client server computing and peer to peer computing are as follows:
 In client server computing, a server is a central node that services many client nodes. On the
other hand, in a peer to peer system, the nodes collectively use their resources and communicate
with each other.
• In client server computing the server is the one that communicates with the other nodes. In
peer to peer to computing, all the nodes are equal and share data with each other directly.
• Client Server computing is believed to be a subcategory of the peer to peer computing.
3.4 Advantages of Client Server Computing

The different advantages of client server computing are −
• All the required data is concentrated in a single place i.e. the server. So it is easy to protect
the data and provide authorisation and authentication.
30
• The server need not be located physically close to the clients. Yet the data can be
accessed efficiently.
• It is easy to replace, upgrade or relocate the nodes in the client server model because all
the nodes are independent and request data only from the server.
• All the nodes i.e clients and server may not be build on similar platforms yet they can
easily facilitate the transfer of data.
3.5 Disadvantages of Client Server Computing
The different disadvantages of client server computing are −
• If all the clients simultaneously request data from the server, it may get overloaded.
This may lead to congestion in the network.
• If the server fails for any reason, then none of the requests of the clients can be fulfilled.
This leads of failure of the client server network.
• The cost of setting and maintaining a client server model are quite high.
Discussion
What makes the Client Server configuration peculiar from the Peer-to-peer ? Discuss
1. Discuss the advantages of client Server computing
2. Identify the characteristics of client server computing?
5.0 Conclusion
Client server and peer-to-peer computing are unique one from the other and so, have their
advantages and disadvantages. The choice of either is dependent on the intention of creating your
network.
6.0 Summary
 In client server computing the server is the one that communicates with the other nodes. In
peer to peer to computing, all the nodes are equal and share data with each other directly.
A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a time.
So it uses a system based to priority to respond to the requests.
Andrew S., T., & David J., W. (2011). COMPUTER NETWORKS (M. Horton, H. Michael, D.
Tracy, & H. Melinda (eds.); fifth). Pearson Education.
Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal: Libraries
and the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2007.0017
Pande, J. (2017). Introduction to Cyber Security ( FCS ). http://uou.ac.in
31

Stewart, J. M., Tittel, E., & Chapple, M. (2011). CISSP: Certified Information Systems Security
Professional Study Guide. Wiley.
32
UNIT 5 Building Web Applications
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Fundamentals Building a Web Applications
3.1 Building a Web Application
3.1.1 A Web app
3.2 Prerequisites for Building a Web Application
3.3 Steps to Building a Web Application
3.3.1 Source an Idea
3.3.2. Do Market Research
3.3.3 Define your Web App Functionality
3.3.4 Sketch Your Web Application
3.3.5 Plan Your Web App Workflow
3.3.6 Wire-framing/ Prototyping Your Web Application
3.3.7 Seek Early Validation
3.3.8 Before Starting the Development Stage
3.3.9 Architect and Build Your Database
3.3.9.1 A Database
3.3.9.2 Database Types
3.3.10 Build the Front End
3.3.10.1 A Front End
3.3.11 Build Your Back-End
3.3.12 Host Your Web Application
3.3.13 Deploy Your Web Application
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
33

A Web app
An interactive computer program, built with web technologies (HTML, CSS, JS), which stores
(Database, Files) and manipulates data (CRUD), and is used by a team or single user to perform
tasks over the internet. The HTML and the CSS serves as the front-end to receive data from the
user while the database, programming like Javascript and PHP serves as the back-end.

• Explain the concept of an App
• Enumerate the prerequisite for building a web application
• Describe the steps for building a web application
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Building a Web Application (app)
3.1.1 A Web app
An interactive computer program, built with web technologies (HTML, CSS, JS), which stores
(Database, Files) and manipulates data (CRUD), and is used by a team or single user to perform
tasks over the internet.
3.2 Prerequisites for Building a Web Application
To make a data-centric web app from the bottom-up, it is advantageous to understand:
1. Backend language (e.g. Python, Ruby) - control how your web app works
2. Web front end (HTML, CSS, Javascript) - for the look and feel of your web app
3. DevOps (Github, Jenkins) - Deploying / hosting your web app
If you do not have any experience with the points above, you need not worry. You have two
options:
1. Learn the points above - there are lots of resources online to help you. I’d recommend
Codecademy .
2. Use a web app builder like Budibase - As a builder, Budibase will remove the need to learn
a backend language. On top of that, Budibase will also take care of a lot of your DevOps
tasks such as hosting.
3.3 Building a Web Application

3.3.1 Step 1 – Source an idea
Before making a web app, you must first understand what you intend on building, and more
importantly, the reason for it.
Your idea should stem from solving someone’s problem. Ideally, your own problem. It is
important that developer choose an idea which interests him /her. Ask yourself:
• How much time do I have to build this app?
• What am I interested in?
34
• What apps do I enjoy using?
• What do I like about these apps?
• How much time/money will this app save or generate for me (as a user)?  How much
will it improve my life
3.3.2 Step 2 – Market Research

Once you have chosen your idea(s), it is important to research the market to see:
1. If a similar product exists
2. If a market exists
The number 1 reason start-ups fail, is the failure to achieve product-market fit.
“Product/market fit means being in a good market with a product that can satisfy that market.” To
quickly find out if a similar web app exists, use the following tools to search for your idea:
1. Google
2. Patent and trademark search
3. Betalist
4. Product hunt
If a similar product exists, do not worry. This can be a sign a market for your new idea exists.
Your future competitors have laid the groundwork, educated the market. It’s time for you to swoop
in and steal the thunder.
If a similar product does not exist, it is a possibility you have struck lucky. On the other hand, it is a
possibility someone before has ventured down this path and hit a dead-end.
Nobody wants to experience that, so it is important to dive deep into the market and source the
wisdom of:
1. Your Web App’s target market - Share your web app idea on forums related to your target
market. If you know anyone who works within your target market, explain your idea to
them. The more you talk and receive validation from your target market, the better.
2. Google Trends - A quick search of your web app idea will reveal relating trends.
3. SEO tool – I had recommend MOZ/Ahrefs. Google’s keyword planner will suffice. Write a
list of keywords relating to your web app. If it’s an ‘OKR tool’, use the tools to search ‘OKR
tool’, ‘OKR app’, and ‘objectives and key results software’. If the SEO tool indicates there
are lots of people searching for your keyword terms, this is a small indicator you have a
target market.
4. Social Media - Jump over to Twitter/Facebook groups and present your idea to your target
market.
5. Events - If there is a local event in your area attracting people from your target market, go
to it. Share your idea and record the feedback.
After completing the above steps, you should have enough information to understand if there’s a
market for your product. If there is a market for your product, and there’s also established
competition, it’s important to research them.
35

3.3.3 Step 3 - Define your web apps functionality
You have got your idea, you have validated the market, it is now time to list everything you want
your app to do.
A common mistake here is to get carried away. The more functionality you add, the longer it will
take to build your web app. Quite often, the longer a web app takes to build, the more frustration
you will experience.
Only define functionality which solves your target markets problems. Remember, your web app is a
work in progress and the first goal is version 1. It will still have cool features and delight your users,
but you must keep things simple.
For direction, I have included a list of basic functions required for a simple CRM app.
• Users can create an account
• Users can retrieve lost passwords
• Users can change their passwords
• Users can create new contacts
• Users can upload new contacts
• Users can assign a value to contacts
• Users can write notes under contacts
• Users can label a contact as a lead, customer, or associate
• Users can filter contacts by lead, customer, or associate
• Users can view the total value of leads, customers and associates
The above list will help you define your features. Once you’re done, roll up your sleeves. It’s time
to get creative! Moving from the Ideation stage, to design stage.
3.3.4 Step 4 - Sketch your web app

There are multiple stages of designing a web app.
The first stage is sketching using a notebook (with no lines) and pen/pencil
After step 1, 2 and 3, you should have an idea of what your web app is, who your users are, and
the features it will have. Sketch out the wireframe of your web apps UI (User Interface) - it does not
have to be exact - this is just a sketch. When sketching, consider the following:
• Navigation
• Branding
• Forms
• Buttons
• Any other interactive elements
Sketch different versions of your web app. Consider how your web app’s functionality will affect the
overall design. Annotate your sketch and outline how your app should work. Taking notes will help
you clarify and understand why you have designed certain elements at a later stage.
Overcomplicating the design at this stage will only lead to frustration.
36
3.3.5 Step 5 – Plan your web apps workflow

It is time to put yourself in the shoes of your user. Here, we are going to plan your web apps
workflow.
Now is the time to go back to step 2 and look at your market research. Take your list of competitors
and sign up to their free trials. Have a quick play around with their product. Write notes on what
you thought was good and what you thought was bad. Pay particular attention to the workflow.
After you have finished analysing your competitor’s web apps, it is time to write down different
workflows for your app. Consider the following points:
• How does a user signup
• Do they receive a verification email
• How does a user login
• How does a user change their password
• How does a user navigate through the app
• How does a user change their user settings
• How does a user pay for the app
• How does a user cancel their subscription
All of a sudden our one-page web app turns into a 10-page web app. Write a list of all the different
pages your web application will have. Consider the different states of pages. For example, the
homepage will have two states; logged in and logged out. Logged in users will see a different page
than logged out users.
3.3.6 Step 6 – Wireframing / Prototyping Your Web Application

Ok, it’s time to turn those sketches and that new-found understanding of your web application into
a wireframe/prototype. What is wireframing / prototyping
Wireframing is the process of designing a blueprint of your web application. Prototyping is taking
wireframing a step further, adding an interactive display.
The decision is to wireframe or prototype is up to you. If you have the time, I would have
recommended prototyping as it will make it easier to communicate your web app when seeking
validation.
You can prototype/wireframe using the following tools:
• Sketch (macOS)
• InVision Studio (macOs)
• Adobe XD (macOS, Windows)
• Figma (Web, macOS, Windows, Linux)
• Balsamiq (macOS, Windows, Web)
I recommend you create a design system / style guide first. You can find inspiration at UXPin.
Design systems improve design consistency. But it’s not required.
37

3.3.7 Step 7 – Seek early validation
You have now got a beautiful wireframe/prototype which visually describes your web app.
It is time to show your beautiful wireframe to the world. At this stage we want constructive
feedback.
Simply asking your friends would they use your new web app is not enough. You should start with
a small number of representative users. Go to your target market’s forums, watering holes, their
places of work and verify the problem with them, and present your solution. Try to build a rapport
with these representatives as they could become your customers.
I like to use this stage to test my sales pitch - the ultimate tokens of validation are pre-launch sales.
Takes notes and document all feedback. The learning from these meetings will help direct the
development of your MEP (Minimal Excellent Product).
Ok, now you have got great feedback and product validation. It is time to start building your web
app.
3.3.8 Before Starting the development stage.
Before we make our web app, I would like to share the following tips:
1. Attempt to get a small section of your app fully working. What we would call a “Complete
Vertical”. o Building the smallest possible section will allow you to piece all the bits
together, and iron out those creases early.
o You will get great satisfaction early by having something working - great
motivation. o Create things that you know you will throw away later - if it gets you
something working now.
2. At the start - expect things to change a lot as you learn and discover what you have not
thought about.
o Have faith that your app will stabilise. o Do not be afraid to make big
changes.
3. Spend time learning your tools.
o You may feel like you are wasting your time, reading, or experimenting with
“hello world”. Learning the correct way to do things will have a huge positive,
cumulative effect on your productivity over time. o Where possible, “Go with the grain”
of your tools. Realise that as soon as you step out of the normal flow / usage of your
toolset, you are on your own and could be in a deep time sink. There are always
exceptions to this of course!
4. Do not avoid issues that need to be fixed.
o Face your issues head on - they will never go away and will only grow in stature.
o However, If things are still likely to change - its best to spend as little time as
possible on things… It’s a tricky balance!
3.3.10 Step 8 – Architect and build your database

So, we know roughly our web application’s functionality, what it looks like, and the pages required.
Now it is time to determine what information we will store in our database.
38
3.3.10.1 A Database
A database is simply a collection of data! Data can be stored to disk, or in memory on a server, or
both. You could create a folder on your hard drive, store a few documents, and call it a database.
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a system that provides you with consistent APIs to
(most commonly):
• Create databases, update and delete databases
• Read and write data to databases

• Secure access to a database by providing levelled access to different areas and
functions What data you need to store and what your users need to do, will determine the type
of database required to run your web app.
3.3.10.2 Database types
There are many types of database for many different purposes. A web app will most commonly use
one of the following:
a. SQL
You should use a SQL database if your data is very relational. Your data is relational if you have
multiple, well defined record types that have relationships between them. For example, a
“Customer” may have many “Invoices” stored against their record. Typically, you would create a
Customer table and an Invoice table - which could be linked together by “Foreign Key” columns.
E.g. Customer.Id = Invoice.CustomerId.
SQL databases have an extremely powerful query language that allows you to present your data in
all sorts of useful ways.
They have been around for decades, are very well understood, and usually a safe choice. MySQL,
Postgresql, Microsoft SQLServer are some of the most common - along with many more modern
offerings.
The downside of SQL databases is that you must declare all your tables and columns up front.
There can be a lot of overhead to manage. If you have never used one before – you are in for a
pretty steep learning curve. However, there are plenty of learning resources available, and it is
always a great skill to have.
b. Document Database
You should use a document database if your data is not very relational. Document databases store
“documents”. Each record in your database is simply a big blob of structured data - often in JSON
format.
If you need to store relationships between your records, you will have to write code to manage this
yourself. However, many other aspects of using document databases are much simpler.
Your database can be “schemaless” - meaning that you do not have to declare your records’
definitions up front.
Generally speaking, the bar to entry to a document database is much lower. They also tend to be
much more scalable than SQL databases. They usually offer some querying capabilities, although
sometimes not as powerful as SQL. Examples of document databases are: MongoDb, CouchDb,
Firebase (serverless), Dynamo Db (AWS). Decide how to segregate your data Each of your clients
has their own, private dataset. One of the worst things that can happen to your app is for one
client’s data to be seen by another client.
Even if there is only a small amount of non-sensitive leaked data, and no damage is done, an event
like this will massively erode trust in the security of your app.
You must architect a solid strategy for segregating your clients’ data to make sure that this never
happens.
Broadly speaking, you have two options - Physical Separation and Logical Separation.
39

Physical separation
Every one of your clients has a separate database (although could share a database server with
others). This makes it much more difficult to make a mistake that leads to data leakage.
Pros:
• Most secure
• More scalable Cons:
• Managing, maintaining and upgrading is more complex
• Query all your clients’ data together is more difficult
For example, listing all Invoices in a database will only return Invoices for one of your clients.
In order to get another Client’s invoices, you need to connect to another database.
Since each of your client’s data is in its own database, you can easily spread them all across many
database servers, without the need for “sharding”. Your app will be much easier to scale this way.
The code you will need to write:
• When creating a new client, you need to create a new database and populate with any
seed data.
• You need to keep a record somewhere of all your clients, and how to connect to each
client’s database.
• If you need to upgrade your database (e.g. add a new table), you need to code to upgrade
each separately.
• If you need to query all your client’s data into one, you need to pull the data out of each
and aggregate it.
Logical separation
All of your clients are stored in one giant database.
Every time you need to get data for a single client, you must remember to include a filter for the
client. E.g. ‘select’ from customers where customerClientId = 1234” Pros:
• Easier to get started
• Easier to maintain and upgrade

• Can easily query all your clients’ data with one query Cons:
• Easy to make a mistake that will result in a data breach
• More difficult to scale
You now only have one database to manage. Setting this up and connecting to your database is
easy. Your speed to market increases.
When you need to upgrade your database, you can do so with a few clicks, or by typing a few
commands. It’s very easy to add new features.
As you gain more users, your database will grow to millions of rows. Put some effort into how your
database handles this extra volume and load. You will have to start tuning your queries.
When you’re under pressure, it is so easy to forget to include that “where clientId = 1234” filter.
Doing so could result in a business ending data breach.
Ensure your database is secured. You should look into best practices for securing your particular
database. Some databases come with a default administrator login, which people often forget to
change. This could leave your data open to the world.
40
From the start, you should create a login with “Just Enough” access. If your app only reads and
writes data, then it should authenticate to your database using a login with only data reading and
writing access.
3.3.11 Step 9 - Build the frontend

Note: In reality, you will build your backend and frontend at the same time. But for this post, we’ll
keep it simple.
3.3.11.1 A frontend
The Frontend is the visual element of your web application. It defines what you see and interact
with. The frontend is developed with HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
If using server pages, getting started is super easy. Your backend framework is all set up and
ready to start building. This is where the huge benefit lies with server pages.
With SPA, it’s a little trickier.
First, you need to set up your development environment. The components of this will be: 1. A
code editor, such as VS Code, Sublime Text
2. A compilation, and packaging framework:
1. Webpack
2. Gulp
3. Grunt
This is also used for serving and “Hot Loading” your application at development
time, on a nodejs web server, running on localhost.
3. A frontend framework (strictly not necessary, but highly advised unless you are an
experienced frontend developer):
1. React
2. Ember
3. Vue
4. Svelte
The list is endless!
4. Configuring your packaging tool to talk to your backend - which is most likely running on a
different port on localhost. Usually, this is done using Node’s HTTP proxy. Most packaging
solutions have this option built-in, or available as plugins. This point commonly gets people
stuck, and may need a diagram. Remember - if you write your backend API in C Sharp (for
example) then at dev time, you will be running it on a local web server, through your code
editor. i.e. your frontend and backend are running on 2 different web servers, in dev.
However, in production, your frontend should (probably) be running on the SAME web
server as your backend - mainly because you want them to run under the same domain.
This means a few things
1. At dev time, your frontend should make API requests to its own (Nodejs server
- e.g. Webpack dev server). This Nodejs server should then proxy all “/api” request
to your backend server.
2. When building for production, you need to get your compiled frontend files into
your backend server - so they can be served as static files. You can copy and
41

paste the files in when you deploy, but you will want to set up some sort of script to
do this.
There is always a significant time required to set up your dev environment for a SPA. There are
plenty of boilerplate templates out there for your frameworks of choice. However, I have never
written an app that has not eventually needed some custom code on top of the boilerplate.
Still, I always choose a SPA.
• The end product for a web app is a much more usable application.
• When you are up and running with your dev environment, I find SPAs much more
productive to work with - which is more likely to do with the capabilities of modern
javascript frameworks than anything else.
• Writing a SPA is really the only way to make a Progressive Web Application. You should
now have a better idea of how to setup your frontend and define the look and feel of your
web app. In most cases I build the fontend and backend together.
3.3.12 Step 10 - Build your backend What

do we mean by the backend?
The backend is typically what manages your data. This refers to databases, servers, and
everything the user can’t see within a web application.
Building your backend is one of the toughest parts of web app development. If you feel
overwhelmed, a tool like Budibase can take away many of the complexities - including the follow
tasks.
If you feel confident, continue on.
When building your web app, you need to choose between:
1. Server Pages (Multiple Page Application)
2. Single Page Application
“But isn’t this the frontend?” - I hear you say. Yes! But your choice will affect how you develop your
backend.
The primary jobs of the backend will be to:
• Provide HTTP endpoints for your frontend, which allow it to operate on your data. E.g.
Create, Read, Update and Delete (“CRUD”) records.
• Authenticate users (verify they are who they say they are: aka log them in).
• Authorization. When a logged in user makes a request, the backend will determine
whether they are allowed (authorized) to perform the requested action.  Serve the
frontend
If you have chosen Server Pages, your backend will also be generating your frontend and serving it
to your user.
With a single page app, the backend will simply serve your static frontend files (i.e. your
“Single Page” and it’s related assets). When
choosing your backend:
• Go with what’s familiar.
• Try Budibase
42
• Server Pages / SPA should inform your decision of framework choices within your chosen
language. For example, a SPA will only require an API only framework. Server pages need
their own framework.
o Django o Express o Flask
Login/User & Session Management
• How will users authenticate?
o Username and password?
o Open ID (i.e. sign in as Google, FB, etc)
• Be sure to read up on security best practices. I highly recommend: OWASP  What user
levels will you create in the system?
Environments. You will usually need to create multiple environments. For example:
• Testing - for all the latest development features.
• Beta - to give early releases to clients.
• Production - Your live system.
3.3.13 Step 11 - Host your web application

What is hosting
Hosting involves running your web app on a particular server.
When using Budibase, this step can be automated with Budibase hosting . With Budibase, you are
still required to buy a domain.
If you are not using Budibase to host your web application, follow these quick steps: \
1. Buy a domain - Namecheap
2. Buy/Setup an SSL certificate - Let’s Encrypt
3. Choose a cloud provider:
1. Amazon
2. MS Azure
3. Google Cloud Platform
4. Lower cost: Digital Ocean / Linode - if you are happy managing your own VMs
5. Zeit Now, Heroku, Firebase are interesting alternatives that aim to be faster and
easier to get things done - you should read about what they offer.
Choosing one of these hosting options will almost certainly provide you with everything you need.
They have ample documentation and community support, and are generally reliable options.
3.3.14 Step 12 - Deploy your web app

You have sourced your idea, validated it, designed and developed your web app, and chosen your
hosting provider.
You’re now at the last step. Well done!
The deployment step includes is how your web application gets from your source control on your
computer to your cloud hosting from step 11.
43

How does your application get from Source Control / Your computer to your cloud hosting
provider?
The following development tools provide continuous integration and will help you with deploying
your web app to your cloud hosting:
1. GitLab
2. Bitbucket
3. Jenkins
There are many of course.
To start with, you can just deploy directly from your machine of course.
And that’s it. You have made a web application. Well done. You should take some time to celebrate
this achievement. You’re the proud owner of a new web app.
Discussion
How can cybercrime be mitigated? Discuss
1. Mention and explain the Database types.
2. What do we mean by the backend? Explain.

5.0 Conclusion
You should look into best practices for securing your particular database. Some databases come
with a default administrator login, which people often forget to change. This could leave your data
open to the world.
From the start, you should create a login with “Just Enough” access. If your app only reads and
writes data, then it should authenticate to your database using a login with only data reading and
writing access.
6.0 Summary
The backend is typically what manages your data. This refers to databases, servers, and
everything the user can’t see within a web application.
Building your backend is one of the toughest parts of web app development. If you feel
overwhelmed, a tool like Budibase can take away many of the complexities - including the follow
tasks.
44
The web framework for perfectionists with deadlines | Django (djangoproject.com) Studio |
InVision (invisionapp.com)
Module 2: Parallel Systems
In network security, threat prevention refers to policies and tools that protect your corporate
network.
In the past, threat prevention primarily focused on the perimeter. With an increasing array of threats
such as malware and ransomware arriving via email spam and phishing attacks, advanced threat
prevention requires an integrated, multilayered approach to security. This may include tools for
intrusion threat detection and prevention, advanced malware protection, and additional endpoint
security threat prevention. This module will consist of four units are follows
Unit 1: Firewalls
Unit 2: Virtual Private Networks (VPN)
Unit 3: Security Control Management
Unit 4: Hardware and Software Prevention
45

UNIT 1 – Introduction to Parallel Systems
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 What is firewall?
3.1.1 Characteristics of Firewall
3.1.2 Needs for Firewall
3.1.3 Limitation of Firewalls
3.2 Type of Firewalls
3.3 How firewall work
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
A firewall forms a barrier through which the traffic going in each direction must pass. A firewall
security policy dictates which traffic is authorized to pass in each direction. Firewall may be
designed to operate as a filter at the level of IP packets, or may operate at a higher protocol layer.
46
• Demonstrate the concept of firewall
• Explore the importance of firewalls
3.0 Main Content
Discussion
What is the difference of firewalls at Application security and internet security?
4.0 Self-Assessment/Exercises
1. What is Personal Firewall
Answer
A personal firewall controls the traffic between a personal computer or workstation on one side and
the Internet or enterprise network on the other side. Personal firewall functionality can be used in
the home environment and on corporate intranets. Typically, the personal firewall is a software
module on the personal computer. In a home environment with multiple computers connected to
the Internet, firewall functionality can also be housed in a router that connects all of the home
computers to a DSL, cable modem, or other Internet interface.
1. What are the benefits of host-based firewall?

Answer
A host-based firewall is a software module used to secure an individual host. Such modules are
available in many operating systems or can be provided as an add-on package. Like conventional
stand-alone firewalls, host-resident firewalls filter and restrict the flow of packets.
A common location for such firewalls is a server.
There are several benefits to the use of a server-based or workstationbased firewall:
• Filtering rules can be tailored to the host environment. Specific corporate security
policies for servers can be implemented, with different filters for servers used for different
application.
• Protection is provided independent of topology. Thus both internal and external attacks
must pass through the firewall.
• Used in conjunction with stand-alone firewalls, the host-based firewall provides an
additional layer of protection.
A new type of server can be added to the network, with its own firewall, without the necessity of
altering the network firewall configuration.
5.0 Conclusion
Internet connectivity is no longer optional for organizations. The information and services available
are essential to the organization. Moreover, individual users within the organization want and need
Internet access, and if this is not provided via their LAN, they will use dial-up capability from their
PC to an Internet service provider (ISP). However, while Internet access provides benefits to the
organization, it enables the outside world to reach and interact with local network assets. This
creates a threat to the organization.
47

6.0 Summary
Firewalls can be an effective means of protecting a local system or network of systems from
network-based security threats while at the same time affording access to the outside world via
wide area networks and the Internet.

Andrew S., T., & David J., W. (2011). COMPUTER NETWORKS (M. Horton, H. Michael, D.
Tracy, & H. Melinda (eds.); fifth). Pearson Education.
Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal: Libraries
and the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
Pande, J. (2017). Introduction to Cyber Security ( FCS ). http://uou.ac.in
Stewart, J. M., Tittel, E., & Chapple, M. (2011). CISSP: Certified Information Systems Security
Professional Study Guide. Wiley.
48
UNIT 2 Parallel Programming Models
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Parallel Programming Models
3.2 MPI
3.3 OpenMP
3.4 MapReduce
3.5 OpenCL
3.6 CUDA
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
A parallel programming model is a set of program abstractions for fitting parallel activities from the
application to the underlying parallel hardware. It spans over different layers: applications,
programming languages, compilers, libraries, network communication, and I/O systems.
49


• Explain the Parallel programming
• Enumerate and explain 4 of the parallel programming models
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Parallel Programming Models
programming languages, compilers, libraries, network communication, and I/O systems. Two
widely known parallel programming models are:
a. shared memory and
b. message passing
but there are also different combinations of both.
Data-parallel programming model is also among the most important ones as it was revived again
with increasing popularity of MapReduce and GPGPU (General-Purpose computing on Graphics
Processing Units).
a. In the shared-memory programming model, tasks share a common address space, which
they read and write in an asynchronous manner. The communication between tasks is
implicit. If more than one task accesses the same variable, the semaphores or locks can
be used for synchronization. By keeping data local to the processor and making private
copies, expensive memory accesses are avoided, but some mechanism of coherence
maintenance is needed when multiple processors share the same data with the possibility
of writing.
b. In the message-passing programming model, tasks have private memories, and they
communicate explicitly via message exchange. To exchange a message, each sends
operation needs to have a corresponding receive operation. Tasks are not constrained to
exist on the same physical machine.
A suitable combination of two previous models is sometimes appropriate. Processors can directly
access memory on another processor. This is achieved via message passing, but what the
programmer actually sees is shared-memory model.
Mainstream parallel programming environments are based on augmenting traditional sequential
programming languages with low-level parallel constructs (library function calls and/or compiler
directives).
3.2 MPI
The MPI is a library of routines with the bindings in Fortran, C, and C++ and it is an example of an
explicitly parallel API that implements the message-passing model via library function calls. The set
of processes with separate address spaces coordinate the computation by explicitly sending and
receiving messages. Each process has a separate address space, its own program counter, and
its own call stack.
50
However, high-level constructs such as synchronization, communication, and mapping data to
processes are left to a programmer to implement. MPI supports point-to-point communication
between any two processes. It also enables the collective communication operations where a
group of processes perform global/collective operations, such as gather, scatter, reduce, and scan.
In a heterogeneous environment, in order to optimize the performance, an MPI implementation

may map processes to processors in a particular way. Similarly, an MPI implementation may
optimize the way processes communicate during a global operation. For example, in case of
MPI_Reduce, the communicating nodes do not have to form a tree structure, if an alternative
structure brings better performance for the underlying parallel machine.
3.3 OpenMP
On the other side, OpenMP is an example of mainly implicit parallel API intended for
sharedmemory multiprocessors. It exploits parallelism through compiler directives and the library
function calls. Unlike MPI, where all threads are spawned at the beginning of the execution and are
active until the program terminates, in OpenMP, a single master thread starts execution, and
additional threads are active only during the execution of a parallel region. To reduce the
overheads, these threads are spawned when the program enters a parallel region for the first time,
and they are blocked while the program is executing a nonparallel region.
Sections work-sharing construct breaks work into multiple distinct sections, such that each section
is entirely executed by a single thread. It is an example of task parallelism paradigm.
Its general form is presented in Table 5.4.
The Sections Construct
#pragma omp parallel{

#pragma omp sections{
#pragma omp section
block1
#pragma omp section

block2
}
}
For work-sharing construct splits iterations of a loop among different threads, such that each
iteration is entirely executed by a single thread. It is an example of data-parallelism paradigm.
Its general form is shown in Table 5.5.
The For Construct
#pragma omp parallel for for(i=0; i<n; i++) a[i] = b[i] + c[i];
51
Cilk is a language extension for C programming language with parallel constructs, resembling to
OpenMP. Both OpenMP and Cilk can automatically choose parallelism to achieve good
performance. Cilk++ brings the same for C++ language.
Nesting OpenMP is unfortunately not fully composable, which can be a serious limitation when
compared with the other abstract parallel programming models. Nesting of OpenMP can create
explosive numbers of threads in recursive situations, which rapidly exhaust system resources,
especially stack space, and require that the program be shut down. To prevent this, the maximum
number of levels of parallel nesting that will activated when using OpenMP is set to one by default.
While this is somewhat limiting (nested parallelism as supported by TBB and Cilk Plus is incredibly
useful), it avoids a generally intolerable condition. With the continued popularity of OpenMP being
so strong, we can expect additional proposals to refine OpenMP into a better ability to exploit
nested parallelism opportunities when they exist. Without such solutions, programs are best to
avoid relying on nesting of parallelism in order to get performance if using OpenMP.
3.4 MapReduce
One of the most widely used parallel programming models today is MapReduce. MapReduce is
easy both to learn and use, and is especially useful in analyzing large datasets. While it is not
suitable for several classes of scientific computing operations that are better served by message-
passing interface or OpenMP, such as numerical linear algebra or finite element and finite
difference computations, MapReduce's utility in workflows frequently called “big data” has made it a
mainstay in high performance computing. MapReduce programming model and the Hadoop open-
source framework supports it.
3.5 OpenCL
OpenCL has some advantages over other parallel programming models. First of all, it is the only
one of the “open” standards for which there actually are implementations by all major vendors—
unlike for OpenMP or OpenACC. The level of vendor support, however, is a different story.
OpenCL is a library that can be used with any C/C++ compiler, which makes it independent of
additional tools. The kernels are written separately in a C-like language and compiled at runtime for
the present hardware. The kernel compiler comes with the OpenCL implementation provided by
the hardware vendor. A kernel written in OpenCL will run everywhere, including conventional
CPUs, Intel Xeon Phi coprocessors, GPGPUs, some FPGAs, and even mobile devices.
OpenCL programs are divided into host and kernel code. Only the latter is executed on the
compute device. In the host program, kernels and memory movements are queued into command
queues associated with a device. The kernel language provides features like vector types and
additional memory qualifiers. A computation must be mapped to work-groups of work-items that
can be executed in parallel on the compute units (CUs) and processing elements (PEs) of a
compute device. A work-item is a single instance of a kernel function. For each kernel-call, an
NDRange (n-dimensional range) specifies the dimension, number, and shape of the work-groups.
Global synchronization during the execution of a kernel is unavailable. Work-items inside a work-
group can be synchronized. OpenCL provides a complex memory model with a relaxed
consistency.
52
3.6 The CUDA programming model

The CUDA programming model is a parallel programming model that provides an abstract view of
how processes can be run on underlying GPU architectures. The evolution of GPU architecture
and the CUDA programming language have been quite parallel and interdependent. Although the
CUDA programming model has stabilized over time, the architecture is still evolving in its
capabilities and functionality. GPU architecture has also grown in terms of the number of
transistors and number of computing units over years, while still supporting the CUDA
programming model.
Until 2000 GPU architectures supported fixed pipeline functionality tightly coupled with graphics
pipeline. Separate silicon real estate was dedicated to each state of the pipeline. Around 2001
programmability for 2D operations (pixel shaders) and 3D operations (vertex shaders) were
introduced. Then from approximately 2006 through 2008 all these operations were combined to be
executed by a shared and common computational unit using a much higher-level programmable
feature. This programmability was introduced as the CUDA programming model. Since then the
CUDA programming model has been used to implement many algorithms and applications other
than graphics, and this explosion of use and permeability of CUDA with hitherto unknown
applications has catapulted the GPU’s near ubiquitous use in many domains of science and
technology. Since then all the GPUs designed are CUDA-capable. It should be noted that before
CUDA was released, there were attempts to create high-level languages and template libraries
such as Glift [2] and Scout [3]. But such efforts tapered down with the introduction of CUDA, and
more effort was spent on refining CUDA and building libraries using its constructs.
Discussion
Explain the peculiarities of the CUDA programming model.
Mention and explain two widely known parallel programming models:
Answer
b. message passing
a. In the shared-memory programming model, tasks share a common address space, which they
read and write in an asynchronous manner. The communication between tasks is implicit. If more
than one task accesses the same variable, the semaphores or locks can be used for
synchronization. By keeping data local to the processor and making private copies, expensive
memory accesses are avoided, but some mechanism of coherence maintenance is needed when
multiple processors share the same data with the possibility of writing.
b. In the message-passing programming model, tasks have private memories, and they
communicate explicitly via message exchange. To exchange a message, each sends operation
needs to have a corresponding receive operation. Tasks are not constrained to exist on the same
physical machine.
53

5.0 Conclusion
A suitable combination of two previous parallel programming models is sometimes appropriate.
Processors can directly access memory on another processor. This is achieved via message
passing, but what the programmer actually sees is shared-memory model
6.0 Summary
programming languages, compilers, libraries, network communication, and I/O systems. Two
widely known parallel programming models are:
b. message passing

1. Linköping University Electronic Press ttp://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva40734
2. High-Performance Computing - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
54
UNIT 3 Message Passing Programming
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Message-Passing Programming
3.2 Messages
3.3 Message-Passing Programming Model
3.4 Single-Program-Multiple-Data (SPMD)
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
55

1.0 Introduction
As long as you are carrying an access card or ID badge, it means that your office uses an access
system. How does it really work? It's difficult since most people have never seen an access
system. Most people believe it is just a card reader on the wall. Of course there is a little bit more to
it in reality. It’s not very difficult though, there are just a few parts behind the scenes that make the
magic of easily unlocking a door every time.
This unit will give you a full and comprehensive understanding how access control systems, how it
work, control list and AAA framework.

• Explain the concept access control
• Manage access control
3.0 Main Content

3.1 The message-passing programming 3.2 Messages
A message transfer is when data moves from variables in one sub-program to variables in another
sub-program. The message consists of the data being sent. The message passing system has no
interest in the value of this data. It is only concerned with moving it. In general the following
information has to be provided to the message passing system to specify the message transfer.
• Which processor is sending the message.
• Where is the data on the sending processor.

• What kind of data is being sent.
• How much data is there.
• Which processor(s) are receiving the message.
• Where should the data be left on the receiving processor.
• How much data is the receiving processor prepared to accept.
In general the sending and receiving processors will cooperate in providing this information. Some
of this information provided by the sending processor will be attached to the message as it travels
through the system and the message passing system may make some of this information available
to the receiving processor.
As well as delivering data the message passing system has to provide some information about
progress of communications. A receiving processor will be unable to use incoming data if it is
unaware of its arrival. Similarly a sending processor may wish to find out if its message has been
delivered. A message transfer therefore provides synchronisation information in addition to the
data in the message.
The essence of message passing is communication and many of the important concepts can be
understood by analogy with the methods that people use to communicate, phone, fax, letter, radio
etc. Just as phones and radio provide different kinds of service different message passing systems
56
can also take very different approaches. For the time being we are only interested in general
concepts rather than the details of particular implementations.
3.3 The message-passing programming model

The sequential paradigm for programming is a familiar one. The programmer has a simplified view
of the target machine as a single processor which can access a certain amount of memory. He or
she therefore writes a single program to run on that processor. The paradigm may in fact be
implemented in various ways, perhaps in a time-sharing environment where other processes share
the processor and memory, but the programmer wants to remain above such implementation-
dependent details, in the sense that the program or the underlying algorithm could in principle be
ported to any sequential architecture -- that is after all the point of a paradigm.
Figure 1: The sequential programming paradigm
The message-passing paradigm is a development of this idea for the purposes of parallel
programming. Several instances of the sequential paradigm are considered together. That is, the
programmer imagines several processors, each with its own memory space, and writes a program
to run on each processor. So far, so good, but parallel programming by definition requires co-
operation between the processors to solve a task, which requires some means of communication.
The main point of the message-passing paradigm is that the processes communicate by sending
each other messages. Thus the message-passing model has no concept of a shared memory
space or of processors accessing each other's memory directly -- anything other than message-
passing is out with the scope of the paradigm. As far as the programs running on the individual
processors are concerned, the message passing operations are just subroutine calls.
Those with experience of using networks of workstations, client-server systems or even
objectoriented programs will recognise the message-passing paradigm as nothing novel.
3.4 Single-Program-Multiple-Data (SPMD )

Message-passing paradigm involves a set of sequential programs, one for each processor. In
reality, it is rare for a parallel programmer to make full use of this generality and to write a different
executable for each processor. Indeed, for most problems this would be perverse -- usually a
problem can naturally be divided into sub-problems each of which is solved in broadly the same
way. An example is the transformation or iterative update of a regular grid (perhaps in image
processing or the numerical modelling of a problem from physics). The same operation is to be
applied at every grid point. A typical parallel algorithm divides the grid into sub-grids and each sub-
grid is processed in the same way.
Typically then, a programmer will want to write one program which is to be replicated across
multiple processors (probably as many as possible!), often with a one-off controller process and
possibly with other one-off processes like a name-server etc.
The acronym "SPMD" stands for single-program-multiple-data and refers to a restriction of the
message-passing model which requires that all processes run the same executable. Some vendors
provide parallel environments which only support SPMD parallel programs. In practice this is not
57

usually a problem to the programmer, who can incorporate all the different types of process he or
she requires into one overall executable. For example, here a controller process performs a
different task (e.g. reading, checking and distributing initial data) to a worker process:
main(int argc, char **argv)
if(process is to become a controller process)
Controller( /* Arguments */ );
else
Worker( /* Arguments */ ); or in
Fortran,
PROGRAM
IF (process is to become a controller process) THEN
CALL CONTROLLER( /* Arguments */ )
ELSE
CALL WORKER( /* Arguments */ )
ENDIF
END
Often, for related reasons of efficiency, some vendors do not allow time-sharing i.e. multiple
processes per processor (some authorities understand the term ``SPMD" to include this further
restriction). The programmer should bear in mind that in a SPMD environment in which multiple
processes per processor are not allowed, having special lightly-loaded one-off processes such as
"controllers" or name-servers may be inefficient because a whole processor will be taken up with
that process.
Figure 2: The message-passing programming paradigm.
The message-passing paradigm has become increasingly popular in recent times. One reason for
this is the wide number of platforms which can support a message-passing model. Programs
written in a message-passing style can run on distributed or shared-memory multi-processors,
networks of workstations, or even uni-processor systems. The point of having the paradigm, just as
in the sequential case, is that the programmer knows that his or her algorithms should in principle
be portable to any architecture that supports a message-passing model. Messagepassing is
popular, not because it is particularly easy, but because it is so general.
58
Discussion
Discuss Single Program multiple Data (SPMD).
1. What actually is the interest of a Message-passing System?
Answer
The message passing system has no interest in the value of this data. It is only concerned with
moving it. In general the following information has to be provided to the message passing system
to specify the message transfer. Which processor is sending the message: o Where is the data on
the sending processor. o What kind of data is being sent. o How much data is there.
o Which processor(s) are receiving the message.
5.0 Conclusion
The message-passing paradigm is a development of this idea for the purposes of parallel
programming. Several instances of the sequential paradigm are considered together. That is, the
programmer imagines several processors, each with its own memory space, and writes a program
to run on each processor. So far, so good, but parallel programming by definition requires co-
operation between the processors to solve a task, which requires some means of communication
6.0 Summary
Message-passing paradigm involves a set of sequential programs, one for each processor. In
reality, it is rare for a parallel programmer to make full use of this generality and to write a different
executable for each processor. Indeed, for most problems this would be perverse -- usually a
problem can naturally be divided into sub-problems each of which is solved in broadly the same
way

1. Neil MacDonald, Elspeth Minty, Tim Harding, Simon Brown, Edinburgh Parallel Computing
Centre, The University of Edinburgh. (Course Notes)
2. Advances in GPU Research and Practice | ScienceDirect
59

UNIT 4 Dependence Analysis
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Dependency Analysis
3.2 How Dependencies are Found

5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
60
1.0 Introduction
Despite all security measures discussed above, an organization is prone to security breach if its
employees lack security caution and awareness on their working computers. These computers
contain sensitive organization details and information and therefore need to implement security
measures to protect their data. Threats such as unauthorized access, internet fraudsters, viruses
and spyware can cause a lot of damages to organization through employees’ computer. This unit
will address measures on hardware and software based to prevent potential attack or damage of
organization data.

• Improve their data privacy through hardware protection
• Protect their selves from software and internet attacks
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Dependency analysis
When examining an artifact for re-use you might want to understand what it depends on.
Developing a service that has a dependency on a large number of other distinct systems is likely to
result in something that has to be revalidated every time each of those dependencies changes
(which might therefore be quite often).
To undertake a typical dependency analysis, perform the following steps:
1. Identify the artefact with dependencies you want to analyze.
2. Trace through any relationships defined on that artefact and identify the targets of the
relationships. This impact analysis thus results in a list of "dependencies" that the selected
artefact depends on.
3. If these "dependencies" also depend on other artefacts, then the selected artefact will also
have an indirect dependency. The impact analysis must therefore act recursively looking
for relationships from any of the "dependencies".
This process continues until a complete graph is obtained starting at the selected artefact and
finishing with artefacts that have no further dependencies. The selected artefact might have a
dependency on any artefact in the graph.
Note that an object can exist multiple times in the graph if it can be reached in different ways.
3.2 How dependencies are found

When impact analysis is started, it does not change the direction of processing through the graph.
For example, an object, B, has a dependency on object C, and object B is depended on by objects
A and D, as shown in Figure 1 below.
If object A is selected for analysis, the results list includes object B and object C. Despite object D
also having a dependency on objects B and C, the analysis keeps tracing down through the
dependencies and will not find any objects which are backwards in the dependency hierarchy that
are not directly linked to the selected object, so object D will not be in the results list.
61
Figure 1. Dependency analysis graph
Discussion
What is dependence Analysis and how are dependencies found?
5.0 Conclusion
Computer systems face a number of security threats. One of the basic threats is data loss, which
means that parts of a database can no longer be retrieved. This could be the result of physical
damage to the storage medium (like fire or water damage), human error or hardware failures.
Another security threat is unauthorized access. Many computer systems contain sensitive
information, and it could be very harmful if it were to fall in the wrong hands. Imagine someone
getting a hold of your social security number, date of birth, address and bank information.
Getting unauthorized access to computer systems is known as cracking.
6.0 Summary
To undertake a typical dependency analysis, perform the following steps:
1. Identify the artefact with dependencies you want to analyze.
2. Trace through any relationships defined on that artefact and identify the targets of the
relationships. This impact analysis thus results in a list of "dependencies" that the selected
artefact depends on.
3. If these "dependencies" also depend on other artefacts, then the selected artefact will also
have an indirect dependency. The impact analysis must therefore act recursively looking
for relationships from any of the "dependencies".
1. WebSphere Service Registry and Repository /8.5.6/
62
63

UNIT 5 Open MP programming
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Introduction to Open Specification for Multi-Processing (OpenMP)
3.2 Brief History to OpenMP
3.3 A Thread
3.4 A Process
3.5 Differences between Threads and Processes
3.6 OpenMP Programming Model
3.6.1 Explicit Parallelism
3.6.2 Compiler Directive Based
3.6.3 Fork-Join Parallelism
3.6.4 Join
3.7 A Program
3.8 OpenMP/ Hello World
3.8.1 Steps to Create a Parallel Program
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
64
1.0 Introduction
organization data.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Introduction to Open Specification for Multi-Processing (OpenMP)
Open MP means Open specifications for MultiProcessing via collaborative work between interested
parties from the hardware and software industry, government and academia. It is an Application
Program Interface (API) that is used to explicitly direct multi-threaded, shared memory parallelism.
API components include Compiler directives, Runtime library routines and Environment variables.
Portable because API is specified for C/C++ and Fortran & Implementations on almost all platforms
including Unix/Linux and Windows. Standardization is ensured by Jointly defined and endorsed by
major computer hardware and software vendors and it is possible to become ANSI standard.
3.2 Brief History of OpenMP
In 1991, Parallel Computing Forum (PCF) group invented a set of directives for specifying loop
parallelism in Fortran programs. X3H5, an ANSI subcommittee developed an ANSI standard based
on PCF. In 1997, the first version of OpenMP for Fortran was defined by OpenMP Architecture
Review Board. Binding for C/C++ was introduced later. Version 3.1 of it was available since 2011.
65
Figure 9: Open Specification for MultiProcessing (OpenMP)

3.3 Thread
A process is an instance of a computer program that is being executed. It contains the program
code and its current activity. A thread of execution is the smallest unit of processing that can be
scheduled by an operating system. Thread model is an extension of the process model. Each
process consists of multiple independent instruction streams (or threads) that are assigned
computer resources by some scheduling procedure. Threads of a process share the address
space of this process. Global variables and all dynamically allocated data objects are accessible by
all threads of a process. Each thread has its own run-time stack, register, program counter.
Threads can communicate by reading/writing variables in the common address space. 3.4
A Process
A process contains all the information needed to execute the program.
• Process ID
• Program code
• Data on run time stack
• Global data
• Data on heap
Each process has its own address space. In multitasking, processes are given time slices in a
round robin fashion. If computer resources are assigned to another process, the status of the
present process has to be saved, in order that the execution of the suspended process can be
resumed at a later time.
3.5 Differences between threads and processes

A thread is contained inside a process. Multiple threads can exist within the same process and
share resources such as memory. The threads of a process share the latter’s instructions (code)
and its context (values that its variables reference at any given moment). Different processes do
not share these resources.
66
3.6 OpenMP Programming Model

Shared memory, thread-based parallelism. OpenMP is based on the existence of multiple threads
in the shared memory programming paradigm. A shared memory process consists of multiple
threads.
3.6.1 Explicit Parallelism
In Explicit Parallelism, a Programmer has full control over parallelization. OpenMP is not an
automatic parallel programming model.
3.6.2 Compiler Directive Based
Most OpenMP parallelism is specified through the use of compiler directives which are embedded
in the source code.
OpenMP is not necessarily implemented identically by all vendors. Meant for distributedmemory
parallel systems (it is designed for shared address spaced machines). Guaranteed to make the
most efficient use of shared memory. Required to check for data dependencies, data conflicts, race
conditions, or deadlocks. Required to check for code sequences, meant to cover compiler-
generated automatic parallelization and directives to the compiler to assist such parallelization.
Designed to guarantee that input or output to the same file is synchronous when executed in
parallel.
3.6.3 Fork-Join Parallelism.

OpenMP program begin as a single process: the master thread. The master thread executes
sequentially until the first parallel region construct is encountered. When a parallel region is
encountered, master thread create a group of threads by FORK and becomes the master of this
group of threads, and is assigned the thread id 0 within the group. The statement in the program
that are enclosed by the parallel region construct are then executed in parallel among these
threads.
3.6.4 JOIN
When the threads complete executing the statement in the parallel region construct, they
synchronize and terminate, leaving only the master thread. Master thread is shown in red. 10 I/O •
OpenMP does not specify parallel I/O. • It is up to the programmer to ensure that I/O is conducted
correctly within the context of a multithreaded program. Memory Model • Threads can “cache” their
data and are not required to maintain exact consistency with real memory all of the time. • When it
is critical that all threads view a shared variable identically, the programmer is responsible for
insuring that the variable is updated by all threads as needed.
3.7 A “Pragma”
It stands for “pragmatic information”. A pragma is a way to communicate the information to the
compiler. The information is non-essential in the sense that the compiler may ignore the
information and still produce correct object program.
3.8 OpenMP | Hello World program
Prerequisite: OpenMP | Introduction with Installation Guide

In this section, we will learn how to create a parallel Hello World rogram using OpenMP.
67

3.8.1 Steps to Create a Parallel Program
1. Include the header file: We have to include the OpenMP header for our program along with the
standard header files.
//OpenMP header
#include <omp.h>
2. Specify the parallel region:
In OpenMP, we need to mention the region which we are going to make it as parallel using the
keyword pragma omp parallel. The pragma omp parallel is used to fork additional threads to carry
out the work enclosed in the parallel. The original thread will be denoted as the master thread with
thread ID 0. Code for creating a parallel region would be,
#pragma omp parallel

{
//Parallel region code }
So, here we include

{ printf("Hello World... from thread = %d\n",
omp_get_thread_num());
}
3. Set the number of threads: we can set the number of threads to execute the program using
the external variable.
export OMP_NUM_THREADS=5
68
Figure 10: Diagram of parallel region
As per the above figure, once the compiler encounters the parallel regions code, the master thread
(thread which has thread id 0) will fork into the specified number of threads. Here it will get forked
into 5 threads because we will initialise the number of threads to be executed as 5, using the
command export OMP_NUM_THREADS=5. Entire code within the parallel region will be executed
by all threads concurrently.
Once the parallel region ended, all threads will get merged into the master thread.
4. Compile and Run:

4.1 Compile:
gcc -o hello -fopenmp hello.c

4.2 Execute:
./hello
Below is the complete program with the output of the above
approach:
Program: Since we specified the number of threads to be executed as 5, 5 threads will execute the
same print statement at the same point of time. Here we cannot assure the order of execution of
threads, i.e Order of statement execution in the parallel region would not be the same for all
executions. In the below picture, while executing the program for firsttime, thread-1 gets completed
first whereas, in the second run, thread-0 completed first. omp_get_thread_num() will return the
thread number associated with the thread.
4.2.1 OpenMP Hello World program
69

// OpenMP program to print Hello World
// using C language
// OpenMP header
#include <omp.h>
#include <stdio.h> #include
<stdlib.h>
int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
// Beginning of parallel region
{ printf("Hello World... from thread = %d\n",
omp_get_thread_num());
}
// Ending of parallel region
}
Output:
When run for 1st time:
 When run for multiple time: Order of execution of threads changes every time.
70
Discussion
Is it possible to implement One Time Password on system logon security?
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
The objective of system security is the protection of information and property from theft, corruption
and other types of damage, while allowing the information and property to remain accessible and
productive. System security includes the development and implementation of security
countermeasures. There are a number of different approaches to computer system security,
including the use of a firewall, data encryption, passwords and biometrics.

1. OpenMP | Introduction with Installation Guide
2. In C/C++/Fortran, parallel programming can be achieved using OpenMP.
71

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)
72
UNIT 6 Evaluation of Programs
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Program Evaluation
3.2 Definition of Program Evaluation
3.2.1 Purposes for Program Evaluation
3.3 Barriers
3.3.1 Overcoming Barriers
3.4 Types of Evaluations
3.4.1 Current Evaluation
3.4.2 Formative Evaluation
3.4.3 Process Evaluation
3.4.4 Impact Evaluation
3.4.5 Outcome Evaluation
3.5 Performance or Program Monitoring
3.6 Evaluation Standards and Designs
3.7 Logic Models
3.8 Communicating Evaluation Findings
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
73
1.0 Introduction
organization data.

3.0 Main Content
3.1 Programs Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic application of scientific methods to assess the design, implementation,
improvement or outcomes of a program (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Short, Hennessy, & Campbell,
1996). The term "program" may include any organized action such as media campaigns, service
provision, educational services, public policies, research projects, etc. (Center for Disease Control
and Prevention [CDC], 1999).
Demonstrate program effectiveness to funders

Improve the implementation and effectiveness of programs
Better manage limited resources
Document program accomplishments
Justify current program funding
Support the need for increased levels of funding
Satisfy ethical responsibility to clients to demonstrate positive and negative effects of program
participation (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996).
74
Document program development and activities to help ensure successful replication
3.3 Barriers
Program evaluations require funding, time and technical skills: requirements that are often
perceived as diverting limited program resources from clients. Program staff are often concerned
that evaluation activities will inhibit timely accessibility to services or compromise the safety of
clients. Evaluation can necessitate alliances between historically separate community groups (e.g.
academia, advocacy groups, service providers; Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996). Mutual
misperceptions regarding the goals and process of evaluation can result in adverse attitudes (CDC,
1999; Chalk & King, 1998).
Collaboration is the key to successful program evaluation. In evaluation terminology, stakeholders

are defined as entities or individuals that are affected by the program and its evaluation (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993; CDC, 1999). Involvement of these stakeholders is an integral part of program
evaluation. Stakeholders include but are not limited to program staff, program clients, decision
makers, and evaluators. A participatory approach to evaluation based on respect for one another's
roles and equal partnership in the process overcomes barriers to a mutually beneficial evaluation
(Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997; Chalk & King, 1998). Identifying an evaluator with
the necessary technical skills as well as a collaborative approach to the process is integral.
Programs have several options for identifying an evaluator. Health departments, other state
agencies, local universities, evaluation associations and other programs can provide
recommendations. Additionally, several companies and university departments providing these
services can be located on the internet. Selecting an evaluator entails finding an individual who has
an understanding of the program and funding requirements for evaluations, demonstrated
experience, and knowledge of the issue that the program is targeting (CDC, 1992).
3.4 Types of Evaluation
Various types of evaluation can be used to assess different aspects or stages of program
development. As terminology and definitions of evaluation types are not uniform, an effort has been
made to briefly introduce a number of types here.
3.4.1 Context Evaluation
Investigating how the program operates or will operate in a particular social, political, physical and
economic environment. This type of evaluation could include a community needs or organizational
assessment (http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).
Sample question: What are the environmental barriers to accessing program services?

Assessing needs that a new program should fulfill (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996), examining
the early stages of a program's development (Rossi & Freeman, 1993), or testing a program on a
small scale before broad dissemination (Coyle, Boruch, & Turner, 1991). Sample question: Who is
the intended audience for the program?
75

Examining the implementation and operation of program components. Sample question: Was the
program administered as planned?

Investigating the magnitude of both positive and negative changes produced by a program
(Rossi & Freeman, 1993). Some evaluators limit these changes to those occurring immediately
(Green & Kreuter, 1991). Sample question: Did participant knowledge change after attending the
program?

Assessing the short and long-term results of a program. Sample question: What are the longterm
positive effects of program participation?

Similar to process evaluation, differing only by providing regular updates of evaluation results to
stakeholders rather than summarizing results at the evaluation's conclusion (Rossi & Freeman,
1993; Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997).
Evaluation should be incorporated during the initial stages of program development. An initial step
of the evaluation process is to describe the program in detail. This collaborative activity can create
a mutual understanding of the program, the evaluation process, and program and evaluation
terminology. Developing a program description also helps ensure that program activities and
objectives are clearly defined and that the objectives can be measured. In general, the evaluation
should be feasible, useful, culturally competent, ethical and accurate (CDC, 1999). Data should be
collected over time using multiple instruments that are valid, meaning they measure what they are
supposed to measure, and reliable, meaning they produce similar results consistently (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993). The use of qualitative as well as quantitative data can provide a more
comprehensive picture of the program. Evaluations of programs aimed at violence prevention
should also be particularly sensitive to issues of safety and confidentiality. Experimental designs
are defined by the random assignment of individuals to a group participating in the program or to a
control group not receiving the program. These ideal experimental conditions are not always
practical or ethical in "real world" constraints of program delivery. A possible solution to blending
the need for a comparison group with feasibility is the quasi-experimental design in which an
equivalent group (i.e. individuals receiving standard services) is compared to the group
participating in the target program. However, the use of this design may introduce difficulties in
attributing the causation of effects to the target program. While non-experimental designs may be
easiest to implement in a program setting and provide a large quantity of data, drawing conclusions
of program effects are difficult.
76
3.7 Logic Models
Logic models are flowcharts that depict program components. These models can include any
number of program elements, showing the development of a program from theory to activities and
outcomes. Infrastructure, inputs, processes, and outputs are often included. The process of
developing logic models can serve to clarify program elements and expectations for the
stakeholders. By depicting the sequence and logic of inputs, processes and outputs, logic models
can help ensure that the necessary data are collected to make credible statements of causality
(CDC, 1999).
Preparation, effective communication and timeliness in order to ensure the utility of evaluation
findings. Questions that should be answered at the evaluation's inception include: what will be
communicated? to whom? by whom? and how? The target audience must be identified and the
report written to address their needs including the use of non-technical language and a userfriendly
format (National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control, 1989). Policy makers, current and
potential funders, the media, current and potential clients, and members of the community at large
should be considered as possible audiences. Evaluation reports describe the process as well as
findings based on the data
Discussion
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
77

References
Burt, M. R., Harrell, A. V., Newmark, L. C., Aron, L. Y., & Jacobs, L. K. (1997). Evaluation
guidebook: Projects funded by S.T.O.P. formula grants under the Violence Against Women Act .
The Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/crime/evalguide.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1992). Handbook for evaluating HIV education.
Division of Adolescent and School Health, Atlanta.
CDC. Framework for program evaluation in public health. MMWR Recommendations and Reports
1999;48(RR11):1-40.
Chalk, R., & King, P. A. (Eds.). (1998). Violence in Families: Assessing prevention and treatment
programs. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Coyle, S. L., Boruch, R. F., & Turner, C. F. (Eds.). (1991). Evaluating AIDS prevention programs:
Expanded edition. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Green, L.W., & Kreuter, M. W. (1991). Health promotion planning: An educational and
environmental approach (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.
National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control. (1989). Injury prevention: Meeting the
challenge. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(Suppl. 3).
Rossi, P. H., & Freeman, H. E. (1993). Evaluation: A systematic approach (5th ed.). Newbury Park,
CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Short, L., Hennessy, M., & Campbell, J. (1996). Tracking the work. In Family violence: Building a
coordinated community response: A guide for communities.
Witwer, M. (Ed.) American Medical Association. Chapter 5.

W.K. Kellogg Foundation. W.K. Kellogg evaluation
handbook. http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm
(http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).
78
UNIT 7 Optimization for Scalar Architectures
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Hardware Protection Mechanism
3.1.1 CPU Protection
3.1.2 Memory Protection
3.1.3 I/O Protection
3.2 Software and OS security
3.2.1 Authentication
3.2.2 One Time Password
3.2.3 Program Threat
3.2.4 System Threat
3.3 Case/Example
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
79

organization data.

3.0 Main Content
3.1 Programs Evaluation
Contributed by Robin Puett, MP

Evaluation is the systematic application of scientific methods to assess the design, implementation,
improvement or outcomes of a program (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Short, Hennessy, & Campbell,
1996). The term "program" may include any organized action such as media campaigns, service
provision, educational services, public policies, research projects, etc. (Center for Disease Control
and Prevention [CDC], 1999).

Demonstrate program effectiveness to funders
Improve the implementation and effectiveness of programs
Better manage limited resources
Document program accomplishments
Justify current program funding
Support the need for increased levels of funding
Satisfy ethical responsibility to clients to demonstrate positive and negative effects of program
participation (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996).
Document program development and activities to help ensure successful replication
80
3.3 Barriers
Program evaluations require funding, time and technical skills: requirements that are often
perceived as diverting limited program resources from clients. Program staff are often concerned
that evaluation activities will inhibit timely accessibility to services or compromise the safety of
clients. Evaluation can necessitate alliances between historically separate community groups (e.g.
academia, advocacy groups, service providers; Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996). Mutual
misperceptions regarding the goals and process of evaluation can result in adverse attitudes (CDC,
1999; Chalk & King, 1998).
Collaboration is the key to successful program evaluation. In evaluation terminology, stakeholders

are defined as entities or individuals that are affected by the program and its evaluation (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993; CDC, 1999). Involvement of these stakeholders is an integral part of program
evaluation. Stakeholders include but are not limited to program staff, program clients, decision
makers, and evaluators. A participatory approach to evaluation based on respect for one another's
roles and equal partnership in the process overcomes barriers to a mutually beneficial evaluation
(Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997; Chalk & King, 1998). Identifying an evaluator with
the necessary technical skills as well as a collaborative approach to the process is integral.
Programs have several options for identifying an evaluator. Health departments, other state
agencies, local universities, evaluation associations and other programs can provide
recommendations. Additionally, several companies and university departments providing these
services can be located on the internet. Selecting an evaluator entails finding an individual who has
an understanding of the program and funding requirements for evaluations, demonstrated
experience, and knowledge of the issue that the program is targeting (CDC, 1992).
3.4 Types of Evaluation
Various types of evaluation can be used to assess different aspects or stages of program
development. As terminology and definitions of evaluation types are not uniform, an effort has been
made to briefly introduce a number of types here.
3.4.1 Context Evaluation
Investigating how the program operates or will operate in a particular social, political, physical and
economic environment. This type of evaluation could include a community needs or organizational
assessment (http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm).
Sample question: What are the environmental barriers to accessing program services?

Assessing needs that a new program should fulfill (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996), examining
the early stages of a program's development (Rossi & Freeman, 1993), or testing a program on a
small scale before broad dissemination (Coyle, Boruch, & Turner, 1991). Sample question: Who is
the intended audience for the program?
81

Examining the implementation and operation of program components. Sample question: Was the
program administered as planned?

Investigating the magnitude of both positive and negative changes produced by a program (Rossi
& Freeman, 1993). Some evaluators limit these changes to those occurring immediately (Green &
Kreuter, 1991). Sample question: Did participant knowledge change after attending the program?

Assessing the short and long-term results of a program. Sample question: What are the longterm
positive effects of program participation?

Similar to process evaluation, differing only by providing regular updates of evaluation results to
stakeholders rather than summarizing results at the evaluation's conclusion (Rossi & Freeman,
1993; Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997).
Evaluation should be incorporated during the initial stages of program development. An initial step
of the evaluation process is to describe the program in detail. This collaborative activity can create
a mutual understanding of the program, the evaluation process, and program and evaluation
terminology. Developing a program description also helps ensure that program activities and
objectives are clearly defined and that the objectives can be measured. In general, the evaluation
should be feasible, useful, culturally competent, ethical and accurate (CDC, 1999). Data should be
collected over time using multiple instruments that are valid, meaning they measure what they are
supposed to measure, and reliable, meaning they produce similar results consistently (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993). The use of qualitative as well as quantitative data can provide a more
comprehensive picture of the program. Evaluations of programs aimed at violence prevention
should also be particularly sensitive to issues of safety and confidentiality. Experimental designs
are defined by the random assignment of individuals to a group participating in the program or to a
control group not receiving the program. These ideal experimental conditions are not always
practical or ethical in "real world" constraints of program delivery. A possible solution to blending
the need for a comparison group with feasibility is the quasi-experimental design in which an
equivalent group (i.e. individuals receiving standard services) is compared to the group
participating in the target program. However, the use of this design may introduce difficulties in
attributing the causation of effects to the target program. While non-experimental designs may be
easiest to implement in a program setting and provide a large quantity of data, drawing conclusions
of program effects are difficult.
3.7 Logic Models
Logic models are flowcharts that depict program components. These models can include any
number of program elements, showing the development of a program from theory to activities and
outcomes. Infrastructure, inputs, processes, and outputs are often included. The process of
developing logic models can serve to clarify program elements and expectations for the
stakeholders. By depicting the sequence and logic of inputs, processes and outputs, logic models
82
can help ensure that the necessary data are collected to make credible statements of causality
(CDC, 1999).
Preparation, effective communication and timeliness in order to ensure the utility of evaluation
findings. Questions that should be answered at the evaluation's inception include: what will be
communicated? to whom? by whom? and how? The target audience must be identified and the
report written to address their needs including the use of non-technical language and a userfriendly
format (National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control, 1989). Policy makers, current and
potential funders, the media, current and potential clients, and members of the community at large
should be considered as possible audiences. Evaluation reports describe the process as well as
findings based on the data
Discussion
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
References
83

1999;48(RR11):1-40.

84
UNIT 8 Models for Parallel Computing
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Models for Parallel Computing
3.1.2 Shared Memory Model
3.1.3 Thread Model
3.1.4 Message Passing Model
3.1.5 Data Parallel Model
3.16 Hybrid Model
3.1.7 Single Program Multiple Data (SPMD)
3.18 Multiple Program Multiple Data (MPMD)
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
85

1.0 Introduction
organization data.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Models for Parallel Computing
A Model for Parallel Programming is an abstraction and is machine architecture independent. A
model can be implemented on various hardware and memory architectures. There are several
parallel programming models like Shared Memory model, Threads model, Message Passing
model, Data Parallel model and Hybrid model etc. As these models are hardware independent, the
models can (theoretically) be implemented on a number of different underlying types of hardware.
The decision about which model to use in an application is often a combination of a number of
factors including the available resources and the nature of the application. There is no universally
best implementation of a model, though there are certainly some implementations of a model better
than others. Next, we discuss briefly some popular models.
3.1.2 Shared Memory Model
Recent Trends in Parallel Computing in the shared-memory programming model, tasks share a
common address space, which they read and write asynchronously. Various mechanisms such
as locks / semaphores may be used to control access to the shared memory. An advantage of
this model from the programmer's point of view is that program development can often be
simplified. An important disadvantage of this model (in terms of performance) is that for this model,
data management is difficult.
3.1.3 Threads Model
In this model a single process can have multiple, concurrent execution paths. The main program
is scheduled to run by the native operating system. It loads and acquires all the necessary
softwares and user resources to activate the process. A thread's work may best be described as
a subroutine within the main program. Any thread can execute any one subroutine and at the
same time it can execute other subroutine. Threads communicate with each other through global
memory. This requires Synchronization constructs to insure that more than one thread is not
updating the same global address at any time. Threads can be created and destroyed, but the
main program remains live to provide the necessary shared resources until the application has
86
completed. Threads are commonly associated with shared memory architectures and operating
systems.
3.1.4 Message Passing Model
In the message-passing model, there exists a set of tasks that use their own local memories
during computation. Multiple tasks can reside on the same physical machine as well across an
arbitrary number of machines. Tasks exchange data by sending and receiving messages. In this
model, data transfer usually requires cooperation among the operations that are performed by
each process. For example, a send operation must have a matching receive operation.
3.1.5 Data Parallel Model
In the data parallel model, most of the parallel work focuses on performing operations on a data
set. The data set is typically organised into a common structure, such as an array or a cube. A set
of tasks work collectively on the same data structure with each task working on a different
portion of the same data structure. Tasks perform the same operation on their partition of work, for
example, “add 3 to every array element” can be one task. In shared memory architectures, all
tasks may have access to the data structure through the global memory. In the distributed
memory architectures, the data structure is split up and data resides as “chunks” in the local
memory of each task.
3.1.6 Hybrid model

The hybrid models are generally tailor-made models suiting to specific applications. Actually,
these fall in the category of mixed models. Such type of application-oriented models keep
cropping up.
Other parallel programming models also exist, and will continue to evolve corresponding to new
applications. In this types of models, any two or more parallel programming models are combined.
Currently, a common example of a hybrid model is the combination of the message passing model
(MPI) with either the threads model (POSIX threads) or the shared memory model (OpenMP). This
hybrid model lends itself well to the increasingly common hardware environment of networked SMP
machines. Another common example of a hybrid model is combining data parallel model with
message passing model. As mentioned earlier in the data parallel model, data parallel
implementations (F90, HPF) on distributed memory architectures actually use message passing to
transmit data transparently between tasks and the programmer.
3.1.7 Single Program Multiple Data (SPMD)
SPMD is actually a "high level" programming model that can be built upon any combination of the
previously mentioned parallel programming models. A single program is executed by all tasks
simultaneously. SPMD programs usually have the necessary logic programmed into them to allow
different tasks to branch or conditionally execute only those parts of the program they are
designed to execute. That is, tasks do not necessarily have to execute the entire program, they
may execute only a portion of it. In this model, different tasks may use different data.
3.1.8 Multiple Program Multiple Data (MPMD)
Like SPMD, MPMD is actually a “high level” programming model that can be built upon any
combination of the previously mentioned parallel programming models. MPMD applications
typically have multiple executable object files (programs). While the application is being run in
parallel, each task can be executed on the same or different program. In this model, all tasks may
use different data.
87

Discussion
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
References
1999;48(RR11):1-40.
88

89
Module 3: Distributed Systems
Digital devices such as cell phones, tablets, gaming consoles, laptop and desktop computershave
become indispensable part of the modern society. With the proliferation of these devices in our
everyday lives, there is the tendency to use information derived from them for criminal activities.
Crimes such as fraud, drug trafficking, homicide, hacking, forgery, and terrorismoften involve
computers. To fight computer crimes, digital forensics (DF) originated in law enforcement,
computer security, and national defense. Law enforcement agencies, financial institutions, and
investment firms are incorporating digital forensics into their infrastructure. Digital forensics is used
to help investigate cybercrime or identify direct evidence of a computer-assisted crime. The
concept of digital forensics dates back to late 1990s and early 2000s when it was considered as
computer forensics. The legal profession, law enforcement, policy makers, the business
community, education, and government all have a vested interestin DF. Digital forensics is often
used in both criminal law and private investigation. It has beentraditionally associated with criminal
law. It requires rigorous standards to stand up to crossexamination in court
This module will consist of four units are follows

Unit 1: Computer Forensics
Unit 2: Network, Disk, Malware and Database Forensics
Unit 3: Email, Memory and Mobile Forensics
Unit 4: Malware Analysis
Unit 1 Introduction to Distributed Systems

Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed Systems
3.2 Elements of Distributed Systems
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
90
1.0 Introduction
Computer Forensics is a scientific method of investigation and analysis in order to gather evidence
from the digital devices or computer networks and components which is suitable for presentation in
a court of law or legal body. It involves performing a structured investigation while maintaining a
documented chain of evidence to find out exactly what happened on a computer and who was
responsible for it. Crimes committed within electronic or digital domains, particularly within
cyberspace, have become extremely common these days. Criminals are using technology to a
great extent in committing various digital offences and creating new challenges for law
enforcement agents, attorneys, judges, military, and security professionals. Digital forensics has
become an incredibly useful and invaluable tool in the detection of criminal activities, identifying
and solving computer-based and computer-assisted crimes.
• Explain the concept of computer forensics

• Explain the characteristics of digital forensics
• Explain digital forensics procedure
• Explain the advantages of computer forensics
• Disadvantages of computer forensics
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed Systems

A distributed system is a computing environment in which various components are spread across
multiple computers (or other computing devices) on a network. These devices split up the work,
coordinating their efforts to complete the job more efficiently than if a single device had been
responsible for the task. Distributed systems reduce the risks involved with having a single point of
failure, bolstering reliability and fault tolerance. Modern distributed systems are generally designed
to be scalable in near real-time and additional computing resources can be added on the fly to
increasing performance and further reducing time to completion. Earlier, distributed computing
was expensive, complex to configure and difficult to manage But, Software as a Service (SaaS)
platforms has offered expanded functionality, distributed computing has become more streamlined
and affordable for businesses, large and small, all types of computing jobs be it database
management, video games or Softwares cryptocurrency systems, scientific simulations, blockchain
technologies and AI platforms all use Distributed Systems platforms.
3.2 Elements of Distributed Systems
Distributed systems have evolved over time but today’s most common implementations are largely
designed to operate via the internet and, more specifically, the cloud For Example:
91

• A distributed system begins with a task, such as rendering a video to create a
finished product ready for release.
• The web application, or distributed applications, managing this task — like a video
editor on a client computer:
• splits the job into pieces
• An algorithm gives one frame of the video to each of a dozen different computers
(or nodes) to complete the rendering
• Once the frame is complete, the managing application gives the node a new frame
to work on
• This process continues until the video is finished and all the pieces are put back
together
Distributed Systems turns a task that might have taken days for a single computer to complete into
one that is finished in a matter of minutes.
Figure 11: Distributed Operating Systems
2. Define Computer Forensics and what are the Characteristics of Digital Forensics Answer
Computer forensics is the process of extracting data and information from computer systems to
function as digital evidence for civic purposes, or in most cases to prove and legally impeach
cybercrime.
Characteristics of Digital Forensics
• Identification:
• Preservation
• Analysis
92
• Documentation
• Presentation
5.0 Conclusion
Digital forensics involves the process of identifying, collecting, acquiring, preserving, analysing, and
presenting of digital evidence. Digital evidence must be authenticated to ensure its admissibility in
a court of law. Ultimately, the forensic artefacts and forensic methods used (e.g., static or live
acquisition) depend on the device, its operating system, and its security features.
6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline computer forensics history, characteristics of digital
forensics, digital forensics procedure, advantages of computer forensics and disadvantages of
computer forensics

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/computer-forensics
Årnes, A. (Ed.). (2017). Digital forensics. John Wiley & Sons.
Kävrestad, J. (2020). Fundamentals of Digital Forensics. Springer International Publishing.
Easttom, C. (2021). Digital Forensics, Investigation, and Response. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2019). Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations,
2019. structure, 10, 26.
Dafoulas, G. A., & Neilson, D. (2019, October). An overview of digital forensics education. In 2019
2nd International Conference on new Trends in Computing Sciences (ICTCS) (pp. 17). IEEE.
Pachghare, V. K. (2019). Cryptography and information security. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..
Lin, X., Lin, X., & Lagerstrom-Fife. (2018). Introductory Computer Forensics. Springer International
Publishing.
Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage learning.
93
Unit 2 Characterization of Distributed Systems

Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Patterns in a Distributed Systems
3.2 Benefits of Distributed Systems
3.3 Challenges of Distributed Systems
3.3.1 Increased Opportunities for Failures

3.3.2 Synchronization Process Challenges
3.3.3 Imperfect Scalability
3.3.4 More Complex Security
3.3.5 Increased Complexity
3.4 Risks of Distributed Systems
3.4.1 Security
94
3.4.2 Risks of Network Failures
3.4.3 Governance and Control Issues
3.5 Access Control in Distributed Systems
3.6 Application of Distributed Systems
3.7 Types of Distributed Systems
3.8 Factors Determining the Need for a Distributed Systems
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Digital Forensics is defined as the process of preservation, identification, extraction, and

documentation of computer evidence which can be used by the court of law. It is a science of
finding evidence from digital media like a computer, mobile phone, server, or network. It provides
the forensic team with the best techniques and tools to solve complicated digitalrelated cases.
Digital Forensics helps the forensic team to analyzes, inspect, identifies, and preserve the digital
evidence residing on various types of electronic devices.

• Explain the concept of Disk Forensics  Explain the process of Disk Forensics 
Explain Network Forensics procedure
• Explain Network Forensics
• Explain Examinations of Network Forensics
• Explain Malware Forensics
95

3.0 Main Content
3.1 Patterns in a Distributed System
A Software Design Pattern is a programming language defined as an ideal solution to a
contextualized programming problem. Patterns are reusable solutions to common problems that
represent the best practices available at the time. Patterns do not provide finished code, they
provide replication capabilities but offer guidance on how to solve a certain issue or implement a
needed feature. When thinking about the challenges of a distributed computing platform, the trick is
to:
• break it down into a series of interconnected patterns
• simplifying the system into smaller, more manageable and more easily understood
components which helps abstract a complicated architecture
Patterns are commonly used to describe distributed systems, such as:
• Command and Query Responsibility Segregation (CQRS) and
• two-phase commit (2PC)
Different combinations of patterns are used to design distributed systems, and each approach has
unique benefits and drawbacks.
3.2 Benefits of Distributed Systems

• Greater flexibility: It is easier to add computing power as the need for services grows. In
most cases today, you can add servers to a distributed system on the fly.
• Reliability: A well-designed distributed system can withstand failures in one or more of its
nodes without severely impacting performance. In a monolithic system, the entire
application goes down if the server goes down.
• Enhanced speed: Heavy traffic can bog down single servers when traffic gets heavy,
impacting performance for everyone. The scalability of distributed databases and other
distributed systems makes them easier to maintain and also sustain high-performance
levels.
• Geo-distribution: Distributed content delivery is both intuitive for any internet user, and vital
for global organizations
3.3 Challenges of Distributed Systems

Distributed systems are considerably more complex than monolithic computing environments, and
raise a number of challenges around design, operations and maintenance vis-à-vis:
3.3.1 Increased opportunities for failure:
• The more systems added to a computing environment, the more opportunity there is for failure
• If a system is not carefully designed and a single node crashes, the entire system can go
down
• Distributed systems are designed to be fault tolerant, that fault tolerance isn’t automatic or
fool-proof
3.3.2 Synchronization process challenges:
• Distributed systems work without a global clock
96
• It requires careful programming to ensure that processes are properly synchronized to avoid
transmission delays that result in errors and data corruption
• In a complex system — such as a multiplayer video game — synchronization can be
challenging, especially on a public network that carries data traffic
3.3.3 Imperfect scalability:
• Doubling the number of nodes in a distributed system does not necessarily double
performance
• Architecting an effective distributed system that maximizes scalability is a complex
undertaking that needs to take into account load balancing, bandwidth management and other
issues.
3.3.4 More complex security:
• Managing a large number of nodes in a heterogeneous or globally distributed environment
creates numerous security challenges
• A single weak link in a file system or larger distributed system network can expose the entire
system to attack.
3.3.5 Increased complexity:
• Distributed systems are more complex to design, manage and understand than traditional
computing environments.
3.4 Risks of Distributed Systems

The challenges of distributed systems as outlined above create a number of correlating risks such
as:
3.4.1 Security:
• Distributed systems are as vulnerable to attack as any other system
• their distributed nature creates a much larger attack surface that exposes organizations to
threats.
3.4.2 Risk of network failure:
• Distributed systems are beholden to public networks in order to transmit and receive data
• If one segment of the internet becomes unavailable or overloaded, distributed system
performance may decline.
3.4.3 Governance and control issues:
• Distributed systems lack the governability of monolithic, single-server-based systems,
creating auditing and adherence issues around global privacy laws such as GDPR
• Globally distributed environments can impose barriers to providing certain levels of
assurance and impair visibility into where data resides.
3.4.4 Cost control:

Unlike centralized systems, the scalability of distributed systems allows administrators to easily add
additional capacity as needed, which can also increase costs.
• Pricing for cloud-based distributed computing systems are based on usage (such as the
number of memory resources and CPU power consumed over time)
• If demand suddenly spikes, organizations can face a massive bill.
97

3.5 Access Control in Distributed Systems
Administrators use a variety of approaches to manage access control in distributed computing
environments, ranging from:
• traditional access control lists (ACLs) to
• role-based access control (RBAC)
• One of the most promising access control mechanisms for distributed systems is attribute-
based access control (ABAC), which controls access to objects and processes using rules
that include:
• information about the user
• the action requested and
• the environment of that request.
• Administrators can also refine these types of roles to restrict access to certain times of
day or certain locations.
3.6 Application of distributed systems

• Distributed systems are used when a workload is too great for a single computer
or device to handle
• They are also helpful in situations when the workload is subject to change, such
as ecommerce traffic on Cyber Monday
• Distributed system is used virtually for every internet-connected web application
that exists is built on top of some form of.
• Some of the most common examples of distributed systems:
• Telecommunications networks (including cellular networks and the fabric of the
internet)
• Graphical and video-rendering systems
• Scientific computing, such as protein folding and genetic research
• Airline and hotel reservation systems
• Multiuser video conferencing systems
• Cryptocurrency processing systems (e.g. Bitcoin)
• Peer-to-peer file-sharing systems (e.g. BitTorrent)
• Distributed community compute systems (e.g. Folding@Home)
• Multiplayer video games
• Global, distributed retailers and supply chain management (e.g. Amazon)
3.7 Types of Distributed Deployments

• Distributed deployments can range from tiny:
• single department deployments on local area networks to
• large-scale, global deployments
98
• In addition to their size and overall complexity, organizations can consider
deployments based on:
• the size and capacity of their computer network
• the amount of data they’ll consume
• how frequently they run processes
• whether they’ll be scheduled or ad hoc
• the number of users accessing the system
•capacity of their data center and the necessary data fidelity and availability
requirements.
Based on these considerations, distributed deployments are categorized as:
• Departmental, small enterprise
• Medium enterprise or large enterprise
• Distributed systems can also evolve over time, transitioning from departmental to
small enterprise as the enterprise grows and expands.
3.8 Factors Determining the need for a Distributed Systems

• They’re essential to the operations of wireless networks, cloud computing services and the
internet
• Distributed systems provide scalability and improved performance in ways that monolithic
systems cannot
• Distributed systems can offer features that would be difficult or impossible to develop on a
single system
• if the Master Catalog does not see the segment bits it needs for a restore, it can ask the
other off-site node or nodes to send the segments
• Virtually everything you do now with a computing device takes advantage of the power of
distributed systems
• sending an email
• playing a game or
• reading this article on the web.

1. Explain the following
i. Disk Forensics ii.
Network Forensics iii. Methods of
Network Forensic iv. Database
Forensics v. Malware Forensics
3. Explain the symptoms of infected systems
4. Explain different ways malware can get into system
99

5.0 Conclusion
The forensic examination of electronic systems has undoubtedly been a huge success in the
identification of cyber and computer-assisted crime. Organisations are placing an increasing
importance on the need to be equipped with appropriate incident management capabilities to
handle misuse of systems. Computer forensics is an invaluable tool in the process.The domain of
computer forensics has grown considerably in the last decade. Driven by industry, focus was
initially placed upon developing tools and techniques to assist in the practical application of the
technology
6.0 Summary
• Digital Forensics is the preservation, identification, extraction, and documentation of

computer evidence which can be used in the court of law
• Process of Digital forensics includes 1) Identification, 2) Preservation, 3) Analysis, 4)
Documentation and, 5) Presentation
• Different types of Digital Forensics are Disk Forensics, Network Forensics, Wireless
Forensics, Database Forensics, Malware Forensics, Email Forensics, Memory
Forensics, etc.
Digital forensic Science can be used for cases like 1) Intellectual Property theft, 2) Industrial
espionage 3) Employment disputes, 4) Fraud investigations

2019. structure, 10, 26.
Publishing.
100
101

Unit 3 Systems Models
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Models and Architectures of Distributed Systems
3.2 Characteristics of a Distributed Systems
3.3 Distributed tracing

5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
102
1.0 Introduction
The Internet is a very easy way to reach any system. If confidential data is not properly protected,
then it becomes opens to vulnerable access and misuse. Cyber-crime can cause varying degrees
of damage by hackers. So, detailed forensic analysis is required to come to a conclusion about an
incident and to prove or disprove someone’s guilt. Some criminal activities like child pornography,
hacking, and identity theft can be traced and the criminals can be punished if proper evidence is
found against them. Email communication is also on target. Because it is one of the most popular
and commonalty used means of online communication, for both prospects individuals and
businesses, emails are normally used by organizations to exchange most simple information, such
as meeting schedules, document distribution and some sensitive information

• Explain the concept of Email Forensics

• Explain the concept of Memory Forensics
• Explain the concept of Mobile Phone Forensics
• Explain ddigital Forensic Examination Process
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Models and Architectures of Distributed Systems There are two

Models and Architecture of distributed systems:
• Client-server systems:
• the most traditional and simple type of distributed system, involve a multitude of
networked computers that interact with a central server for data storage,
processing or other common goal
• the client requests a resource and the server provides that resource
• A server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is in contact
with only one server
• Both the client and server usually communicate via a computer network and so
they are a part of distributed systems.
• Cell phone networks are an advanced type of distributed system that share
workloads among handsets, switching systems and internet-based devices
• Peer-to-peer networks:
• workloads are distributed among hundreds or thousands of computers all running
the same software
• The peer to peer systems contains nodes that are equal participants in data
sharing
• All the tasks are equally divided between all the nodes
• The nodes interact with each other as required as they share resources
103

• This is done with the help of a network.
The most common forms of distributed systems in the enterprise today are those that operate over
the web. They hand off workloads to dozens of cloud-based virtual server instances that are
created as needed, then terminated when the task is complete.
3.2 Characteristics of a Distributed system

• Scalability: The ability to grow as the size of the workload increases is an essential feature
of distributed systems, accomplished by adding additional processing units or nodes to the
network as needed.
• Concurrency: Distributed system components run simultaneously. They’re also
characterized by the lack of a “global clock,” when tasks occur out of sequence and at
different rates.
• Availability/fault tolerance: If one node fails, the remaining nodes can continue to operate
without disrupting the overall computation.
• Transparency: An external programmer or end user sees a distributed system as a single
computational unit rather than as its underlying parts, allowing users to interact with a
single logical device rather than being concerned with the system’s architecture.
• Heterogeneity: In most distributed systems, the nodes and components are often
asynchronous, with different hardware, middleware, software and operating systems. This
allows the distributed systems to be extended with the addition of new components.
• Replication: Distributed systems enable shared information and messaging, ensuring
consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components,
improving fault tolerance, reliability and accessibility.
3.3 Distributed Tracing

Distributed tracing is a method for monitoring applications — typically those built on a
microservices architecture — which are commonly deployed on distributed systems. Distributed
tracing is essentially a form of distributed computing in that is commonly used to monitor the
operations of applications running on distributed systems. In software development and operations,
tracing is used to follow the course of a transaction as it travels through an application
• For example, an Online Credit Card Transaction as it winds its way from a customer’s initial
purchase to the verification and approval process to the completion of the transaction
For instance, a tracing system monitors this process step by step, helping a developer to uncover
bugs, bottlenecks, latency or other problems with the application. A distributed tracing system is
designed to operate on a distributed services infrastructure, where it can track multiple applications
and processes simultaneously across numerous concurrent nodes and computing environments.
Without distributed tracing, an application built on a micro-services architecture and running on a
system as large and complex as a globally distributed system environment would be impossible to
monitor effectively.
1. Explain email forensics
104
Email forensics is the analysis of source and content of the email message, identification of sender
and receiver, date and time of email and the analysis of all the entities involved. Email forensics
also reforms to the forensics of client or server systems suspected in an email forgery. 2. What is
the purpose of email header analysis
Email header analysis helps in identifying most of the email related crimes like spear phishing,
spamming, email spoofing etc. Spoofing is a technique using which one can pretend to be
someone else, and a normal user would think for a moment that it’s his friend or some person he
already knows
3. List the common techniques used in email forensic investigation

• Header Analysis
• Server investigation
• Network Device Investigation
• Sender Mailer Fingerprints
• Software Embedded Identifiers
5.0 Conclusion
Email evidence often plays a pivotal role in digital forensics investigations and eDiscovery. When
preserving emails from the cloud, forensics experts have to consider issues such as multifactor
authentication, running-in-place searches on the server before the acquisition, handling server
errors and throttling, privacy issues, and time constraints.
6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline email forensics, email header analysis, mobile forensics
and mobile device forensics examination process.

2019. structure, 10, 26.
105
Publishing.
106
Unit 4 Distributed Objects
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Distributed Objects Introduction
3.2 Local Objects Vs. Distributed Objects
3.3 The Distributed Objects Paradigm
3.4 Distributed Objects
3.5 Distributed Objects Systems/ Protocols
3.6 Remote procedure Call & Remote Method Invocation
3.6.1 Remote procedure Call
3.6.2 Remote Procedure Call Model
3.7 Local Procedure Call and Remote Procedure Call
3.7.1 Remote Procedure Calls (RPC)

5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
107

1.0 Introduction
We live in a very technologically advanced society. Technology and the use computers have
become a part of our everyday life. Because of the increased knowledge and abundance of
computer use, viruses have become a huge problem for users. Viruses are destructive programs
that attack the computer and interfere with the operations of the computer. A virus can easily
corrupt or delete data from your computer, which can become very costly to the owner of the
computer. It is important that we learn about how viruses work so that we can avoid them at all
cost.
Malware is any piece of software which is intended to cause harm to your system or network.
Malware is different from normal programs in a way that they most of them have the ability to
spread itself in the network, remain undetectable, cause changes/damage to the infected system or
network, persistence. They have the ability to bring down the machine’s performance to knees and
can cause a destruction of the network. Consider the case when the computer becomes infected
and is no longer usable, the data inside becomes unavailable – these are some of the malware
damage scenarios. Malware attacks can be traced back to the time, even before the internet
became widespread.

• Explain Malware Analysis
• Explain the Types of Malwares
• Explain the Types of Malware Analysis

The distributed object paradigm
It provides abstractions beyond those of the message-passing model. In object-oriented
programming, objects are used to represent an entity significant to an application.
Each object encapsulates:
• the state or data of the entity: in Java, such data is contained in the instance variables of each
object;
• the operations of the entity, through which the state of the entity can be accessed or updated.
3.2 Local Objects vs. Distributed Objects

• Local objects are those whose methods can only be invoked by a local process, a
process that runs on the same computer on which the object exists.
• A distributed object is one whose methods can be invoked by a remote process, a
process running on a computer connected via a network to the computer on which the
object exists.
3.3 The Distributed Object Paradigm
• In a distributed object paradigm, network resources are represented by distributed
objects.
108
• To request service from a network resource, a process invokes one of its operations or
methods, passing data as parameters to the method.
• The method is executed on the remote host, and the response is sent back to the
requesting process as a return value.
• Message-passing paradigm is data-oriented while Distributed objects paradigm is
action-oriented: the focus is on the invocation of the operations, while the data passed
takes on a secondary role.
• Although less intuitive to human-beings, the distributed-object paradigm is more
natural to object-oriented software development.

A distributed object is provided, or exported, by a process called the object server. A facility, here
called an object registry, must be present in the system architecture for the distributed object to be
registered. To access a distributed object, a process –an object client – looks up the object registry
for a reference to the object. This reference is used by the object client to make calls to the
methods.
Logically, the object client makes a call directly to a remote method. In reality, the call is handled by
a software component, called a client proxy, which interacts which the software on the client host
that provides the runtime support for the distributed object system. The runtime support is
responsible for the inter-process communication needed to transmit the call to the remote host,
including the marshalling of the argument data that needs to be transmitted to the remote object.
A similar architecture is required on the server side, runtime support for the distributed object
system handles the receiving of messages and the un-marshalling of data, and forwards the call to
a software component called the server proxy. The server proxy interfaces with the distributed
object to invoke the method call locally, passing in the un-marshalled data for the arguments. The
method call results in the performance of some tasks on the server host. The outcome of the
execution of the method, including the marshalled data for the return value, is forwarded by the
server proxy to the client proxy, via the runtime support and network support on both sides.
3.5 Distributed Object Systems/Protocols

The distributed object paradigm has been widely adopted in distributed applications, for which a
large number of mechanisms based on the paradigm are available. Among the most wellknown of
such mechanisms are:
• Java Remote Method Invocation (RMI),
• the Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) systems,
• the Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM),
• mechanisms that support the Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP).
Of these, the most straightforward is the Java RMI.
3.6 Remote Procedure Call & Remote Method Invocation

Remote Method Invocation has its origin in a paradigm called Remote Procedure Call
3.6.2 Remote procedure call model:
A procedure call is made by one process to another, with data passed as arguments.
Upon receiving a call:
109

1. the actions encoded in the procedure are executed
2. the caller is notified of the completion of the call and
3. a return value, if any, is transmitted from the callee to the caller
3.7 Local Procedure Call and Remote Procedure Call

Since its introduction in the early 1980s, the Remote Procedure Call model has been widely in use
in network applications.
There are two prevalent APIs for this paradigm.
the Open Network Computing Remote Procedure Call, evolved from the RPC API
•
originated from Sun Microsystems in the early 1980s.
• The other well-known API is the Open Group Distributed Computing Environment
(DCE) RPC.
Both APIs provide a tool, rpcgen, for transforming remote procedure calls to local procedure calls
to the stub.
i. Define Malware Analysis
Malware analysis is the process of determining the purpose and functionality of a piece of malware.
This process will reveal what type of harmful program has infected your network, the damage it’s
capable of causing, and most importantly how to remove it.
ii. List and explain Types of Malwares
• Virus: Viruses are pieces of malware that require human intervention to propagate to other
machines.
• Worm: Unlike Viruses, Worms do not need the help of humans to move to other machines.
They can spread easily and can infect a high number of machines in a short amount of
time.
• Trojan: These appear to be normal programs that have a legitimate function, like a game
or a utility program. But underneath the innocent looking user interface, a Trojan performs
malicious tasks without the user being aware.
• Spyware: Spyware is software that gathers personal or confidential information from user
systems without their knowledge.
• Keylogger: This is a special type of spyware. It is specialized in recording the keystrokes
made by the user.
• Ransomware: Ransomware is a form of malware that encrypts a victim's files. The attacker
then demands a ransom from the victim to restore access to the data upon payment.
110
iii. Explain Static and Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic analysis also called malware behavior analysis runs the malware program to examine its
behavior, while Static analysis examines a malware file without actually running the program.
5.0 Conclusion
Viruses are very destructive programs that can be devastating to companies and individual.The
best defense against malware is a combination of vigilant and sensible behavior on the Internet,
proper computer usage, and anti-malware software. By erring on the side of caution when surfing
the web, not opening strange links or emails from unknown senders, and regularly updating and
running an anti-malware program, you'll be relatively safe from the manifold dangers of the
Internet.
6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline malware analysis, types of malwares and malware
analysis

2019. structure, 10, 26.
Publishing.
111
112
Unit 5 Remote Method Invocation
Contents
2.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Java Remote Method Invocation
3.1.1 Remote Method Invocation
3.2 The Java RMI Architecture
3.2.1 Object Registry
3.3 The Interaction between the Stub and the Skeleton
3.4 The Remote Interface
3.4.1 A Sample Remote Interface
3.5 The Server-Side Software
3.6 The Remote Interface Implementation
3.7 UML Diagram for the SomeImpl class
3.7.1 Stub and Skeleton Generations
3.7.2 The Stub File for the Object
3.8 The Object Server
3.9 The RMI Registry
3.10 The Client-Side Software
3.11 Looking up the Remote Object
3.12 Invoking the Remote Method
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
113

1.0 Introduction
We live in a very technologically advanced society. Technology and the use computers have
become a part of our everyday life. Because of the increased knowledge and abundance of
computer use, viruses have become a huge problem for users. Viruses are destructive programs
that attack the computer and interfere with the operations of the computer. A virus can easily
corrupt or delete data from your computer, which can become very costly to the owner of the
computer. It is important that we learn about how viruses work so that we can avoid them at all
cost.
Malware is any piece of software which is intended to cause harm to your system or network.
Malware is different from normal programs in a way that they most of them have the ability to
spread itself in the network, remain undetectable, cause changes/damage to the infected system or
network, persistence. They have the ability to bring down the machine’s performance to knees and
can cause a destruction of the network. Consider the case when the computer becomes infected
and is no longer usable, the data inside becomes unavailable – these are some of the malware
damage scenarios. Malware attacks can be traced back to the time, even before the internet
became widespread.

3.1 Java Remote Method Invocation

3.1.1 Remote Method Invocation
Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is an object-oriented implementation of the Remote Procedure
Call model. It is an API for Java programs only. Using RMI, an object server exports a remote
object and registers it with a directory service. The object provides remote methods, which can be
invoked in client programs.
Syntactically:
1. A remote object is declared with a remote interface, an extension of the Java
interface.
2. The remote interface is implemented by the object server.
3. An object client accesses the object by invoking the remote methods associated with
the objects using syntax provided for remote method invocations.
3.2 The Java RMI Architecture

3.2.1 Object Registry
• The RMI API allows a number of directory services to be used [ for registering a distributed
object.
114
•A simple directory service called the RMI registry, rmiregistry, which is provided with the
Java Software Development Kit
• The RMI Registry is a service whose server, when active, runs on the object server’s host
machine, by convention and by default on the TCP port 1099.
3.3 The Interaction between the Stub and the Skeleton
A time-event diagram describing the interaction between the stub and the skeleton: The API
for the Java RMI
• The Remote Interface
• The Server-side Software
• The Remote Interface Implementation
• Stub and Skeleton Generations
• The Object Server
• The Client-side Software
3.4 The Remote Interface

A Java interface is a class that serves as a template for other classes:
• it contains declarations or signatures of methods whose implementations are to be
supplied by classes that implements the interface.
• A java remote interface is an interface that inherits from the Java Remote class, which
allows the interface to be implemented using RMI syntax.
• Other than the Remote extension and the Remote exception that must be specified with
each method signature, a remote interface has the same syntax as a regular or local
Java interface.
3.4.1 A sample remote Interface
// file: SomeInterface.java
// to be implemented by a Java RMI server class.
import java.rmi.*
public interface SomeInterface extends Remote {
// signature of first remote method public
String someMethod1( )
throws java.rmi.RemoteException; //
signature of second remote method
public int someMethod2( float ) throws java.rmi.RemoteException; // signature of
other remote methods may follow
// end interface
115

A sample remote interface
The java.rmi.Remote Exception must be listed in the throw clause of each method signature.
• This exception is raised when errors occur during the processing of a remote method call,
and the exception is required to be caught in the method caller’s program.
• Causes of such exceptions include exceptions that may occur during interprocess
communications, such as access failures and connection failures, as well as problems
unique to remote method invocations, including errors resulting from the object, the stub,
or the skeleton not being found.
3.5 The Server-side Software

An object server is an object that provides the methods of and the interface to a distributed object.
Each object server must
• implement each of the remote methods specified in the interface,
• register an object which contains the implementation with a directory service.
It is recommended that the two parts be provided as separate classes.
3.6 The Remote Interface Implementation

• A class which implements the remote interface should be provided.
• The syntax is similar to a class that implements a local interface.
import
java.rmi.*;
import
java.rmi.server
.*;
/**
* This class implements the remote interface
SomeInterface.
*/
public class SomeImpl extends UnicastRemoteObject

implements SomeInterface {
public SomeImpl() throws RemoteException {
super( );
}
public String someMethod1( ) throws
RemoteException { // code to be supplied
}
public int someMethod2( ) throws
RemoteException { // code to be supplied
}
// end class
116
3.7 UML diagram for the SomeImpl class
3.7.1 Stub and Skeleton Generations
• In RMI, each distributed object requires a proxy each for the object server and the object
client, known as the object’s skeleton and stub, respectively.
• These proxies are generated from the implementation of a remote interface using a tool
provided with the Java SDK:
• the RMI compiler rmic.
o rmic <class name of the remote interface implementation>  For
example:
o rmic SomeImpl
 As a result of the compilation, two proxy files will be generated, each prefixed with the
implementation class name:
SomeImpl_skel.class
SomeImpl_stub.class.
3.7.2 The stub file for the object

• The stub file for the object, as well as the remote interface file, must be shared with each
object client – these file are required for the client program to compile.
A copy of each file may be provided to the object client by hand.
• In addition, the Java RMI has a feature called “stub downloading” which allows a stub file to
be obtained by a client dynamically.
3.8 The Object Server

 The object server class is a class whose code instantiates and exports an object of the remote
interface implementation.
A template for the object server class.
117

import java.rmi.*;
……
public class SomeServer { public
static void main(String args[]) { try{
// code for port number value to be supplied
SomeImpl exportedObj = new SomeImpl();
startRegistry(RMIPortNum);
// register the object under the name “some”
registryURL = "rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some";
Naming.rebind(registryURL, exportedObj);
System.out.println("Some Server ready.");
}// end try
} // end main
// This method starts a RMI registry on the local host, if it //

does not already exists at the specified port number. private
static void startRegistry(int RMIPortNum) throws
RemoteException{ try {
Registry registry= LocateRegistry.getRegistry(RMIPortNum); registry.list( );
// The above call will throw an exception
// if the registry does not already exist
118
}
catch (RemoteException ex) {
// No valid registry at that port.
System.out.println(
"RMI registry cannot be located at port " + RMIPortNum);
Registry registry= LocateRegistry.createRegistry(RMIPortNum);
System.out.println(
"RMI registry created at port " + RMIPortNum);
}
} // end startRegistry
In our object server template, the code for exporting an object is as follows:
// register the object under the name “some”
registryURL = "rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some";
Naming.rebind(registryURL, exportedObj);

• The Naming class provides methods for storing and obtaining references from the registry.
o In particular, the rebind method allow an object reference to be stored in the registry
with a URL in the form of:
 rmi://<host name>:<port number>/<reference name> o The rebind method will
overwrite any reference in the registry bound with the given reference name. o If the
overwriting is not desirable, there is also a bind method.
o The host name should be the name of the server, or simply “localhost”.
o The reference name is a name of your choice, and should be unique in the registry.
• When an object server is executed, the exporting of the distributed object causes the server
process to begin to listen and wait for clients to connect and request the service of the object.
An RMI object server is a concurrent server: each request from an object client is serviced
using a separate thread of the server.
• Note that if a client process invokes multiple remote method calls, these calls will be executed
concurrently unless provisions are made in the client process to synchronize the calls.
119

3.9 The RMI Registry
• A server exports an object by registering it by a symbolic name with a server known as the RMI
registry.
// Create an object of the Interface
SomeInterfacel obj = new SomeInterface(“Server1”);
// Register the object; rebind will overwirte existing //

registration by same name – bind( ) will not.
Naming.rebind(“Server1”, obj);
• A server, called the RMI Registry, is required to run on the host of the server which exports
remote objects.
• The RMIRegistry is a server located at port 1099 by default  It can be invoked dynamically in
the server class:
import java.rmi.registry.LocateRegistry;
…
LocateRegistry.createRegistry ( 1099 );…
Alternatively, an RMI registry can be activated by hand using the rmiregistry utility :
•
rmiregistry <port number> where the port
number is a TCP port number.
• If no port number is specified, port number 1099 is assumed.
120
The registry will run continuously until it is shut down (via CTRL-C, for example)
3.10 The Client-side Software

• The program for the client class is like any other Java class.
• The syntax needed for RMI involves o locating the RMI Registry in the server
host, and
o looking up the remote reference for the server object; the reference can then be cast to the
remote interface class and the remote methods invoked.
import java.rmi.*;
….
public class SomeClient { public static void
main(String args[]) { try {
String registryURL =
"rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some";
SomeInterface h =
(SomeInterface)Naming.lookup(registryURL);
// invoke the remote method(s) String
message = h.method1();
System.out.println(message);
// method2 can be invoked similarly
} // end try
catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("Exception in SomeClient: " + e);
}
} //end main
// Definition for other methods of the class, if any.
}//end class
3.11 Looking up the remote object

The lookup method of the Naming class is used to retrieve the object reference, if any, previously
stored in the registry by the object server.
 Note that the retrieved reference must be cast to the remote interface (not its implementation) class.
121
String registryURL =
"rmi://localhost:" + portNum + "/some"; SomeInterface h =
(SomeInterface)Naming.lookup(registryURL);
3.12 Invoking the Remote Method

 The remote interface reference can be used to invoke any of the methods in the remote interface, as
in the example:
String message = h.method1(); System.out.println(message);
• Note that the syntax for the invocation of the remote methods is the same as for local methods.
• It is a common mistake to cast the object retrieved from the registry to the interface implementation
class or the server object class.
• Instead it should be cast as the interface class.
5.0 Conclusion
Viruses are very destructive programs that can be devastating to companies and individual.The best
defense against malware is a combination of vigilant and sensible behavior on the Internet, proper
computer usage, and anti-malware software. By erring on the side of caution when surfing the web, not
opening strange links or emails from unknown senders, and regularly updating and running an anti-
malware program, you'll be relatively safe from the manifold dangers of the Internet.
6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline malware analysis, types of malwares and malware analysis

Nelson, B., Phillips, A., & Steuart, C. (2019). Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations, 2019.
structure, 10, 26.
Dafoulas, G. A., & Neilson, D. (2019, October). An overview of digital forensics education. In 2019 2nd
International Conference on new Trends in Computing Sciences (ICTCS) (pp. 17). IEEE.
122
Publishing.
Unit 6 Using UML for Component-based Designs
Contents
3.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 UML component Diagrams
3.2 Component Diagram at a Glance
3.3 Basic Concepts of Component Diagram
3.4 Interface
3.4.1 Provided Interface
3.4.2 Required Interface
3.5 Subsystems
3.6 Port
3.7 Relationships
3.8 Modelling Source Code
3.9 Modelling an Executable Release
3.10 Modelling a Physical Database

5.0 Conclusion
123
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
We live in a very technologically advanced society. Technology and the use computers have become
a part of our everyday life. Because of the increased knowledge and abundance of computer use,
viruses have become a huge problem for users. Viruses are destructive programs that attack the
computer and interfere with the operations of the computer. A virus can easily corrupt or delete data
from your computer, which can become very costly to the owner of the computer. It is important that
we learn about how viruses work so that we can avoid them at all cost.
Malware is any piece of software which is intended to cause harm to your system or network. Malware
is different from normal programs in a way that they most of them have the ability to spread itself in the
network, remain undetectable, cause changes/damage to the infected system or network, persistence.
They have the ability to bring down the machine’s performance to knees and can cause a destruction
of the network. Consider the case when the computer becomes infected and is no longer usable, the
data inside becomes unavailable – these are some of the malware damage scenarios. Malware attacks
can be traced back to the time, even before the internet became widespread.

3.1 UML Component Diagrams

UML Component diagrams are used in modelling the physical aspects of object-oriented systems that
are used for visualizing, specifying, and documenting component-based systems and also for
constructing executable systems through forward and reverse engineering. Component diagrams are
essentially class diagrams that focus on a system's components that often used to model the static
implementation view of a system.
124
Figure 12: UML Diagram for Systems Designs

3.2 Component Diagram at a Glance
A component diagram breaks down the actual system under development into various high levels of
functionality. Each component is responsible for one clear aim within the entire system and only
interacts with other essential elements on a need-to-know basis.
Figure 13: Component Diagram

The example above shows the internal components of a larger component:
• The data (account and inspection ID) flows into the component via the port on the right-hand
side and is converted into a format the internal components can use. The interfaces on the right
are known as required interfaces, which represents the services the component needed in
order to carry out its duty.
• The data then passes to and through several other components via various connections before
it is output at the ports on the left. Those interfaces on the left are known as provided interface,
which represents the services to deliver by the exhibiting component.
• It is important to note that the internal components are surrounded by a large 'box' which can
be the overall system itself (in which case there would not be a component symbol in the top
125
right corner) or a subsystem or component of the overall system (in this case the 'box' is a
component itself).
3.3 Basic Concepts of Component Diagram

A component represents a modular part of a system that encapsulates its contents and whose
manifestation is replaceable within its environment. In UML 2, a component is drawn as a rectangle
with optional compartments stacked vertically. A high-level, abstracted view of a component in UML 2
can be modeled as:
1. A rectangle with the component's name
2. A rectangle with the component icon
3. A rectangle with the stereotype text and/or icon
Figure 14: A high-level, abstracted view of a component

3.4 Interface
In the example below shows two type of component interfaces:
3.4.1 Provided Interface symbols with a complete circle at their end represent an interface that the
component provides - this "lollipop" symbol is shorthand for a realization relationship of an interface
classifier.
3.4.2 Required Interface symbols with only a half circle at their end (a.k.a. sockets) represent an
interface that the component requires (in both cases, the interface's name is placed near the interface
symbol itself).
Figure 15: Component Diagram Example - Using Interface (Order System)
126
3.5 Subsystems
The subsystem classifier is a specialized version of a component classifier. Because of this, the
subsystem notation element inherits all the same rules as the component notation element. The only
difference is that a subsystem notation element has the keyword of subsystem instead of component.
Figure 16: A Sub-system
3.6 Port
Ports are represented using a square along the edge of the system or a component. A port is often
used to help expose required and provided interfaces of a component.
Figure 17: A Port
3.7 Relationships
Graphically, a component diagram is a collection of vertices and arcs and commonly contain
components, interfaces and dependency, aggregation, constraint, generalization, association, and
realization relationships. It may also contain notes and constraints.
Relationships Notation
127
Association:
• An association specifies a semantic relationship that can
occur between typed instances.
• It has at least two ends represented by properties, each of
which is connected to the type of the end. More than one
end of the association may have the same type.
Composition:
• Composite aggregation is a strong form of aggregation that
requires a part instance be included in at most one
composite at a time.
• If a composite is deleted, all of its parts are normally deleted
with it.
Aggregation
 A kind of association that has one of its end marked shared
as kind of aggregation, meaning that it has a shared
aggregation.
Constraint
 A condition or restriction expressed in natural language text
or in a machine readable language for the purpose of
declaring some of the semantics of an element.
Dependency
• A dependency is a relationship that signifies that a single or a
set of model elements requires other model elements for
their specification or implementation.
• This means that the complete semantics of the depending
elements is either semantically or structurally dependent on
the definition of the supplier element(s).
128
Links:
• A generalization is a taxonomic relationship between a more
general classifier and a more specific classifier.
• Each instance of the specific classifier is also an indirect
instance of the general classifier.
• Thus, the specific classifier inherits the features of the more
general classifier.
3.8 Modelling Source Code

• Either by forward or reverse engineering, identify the set of source code files of interest and
model them as components stereotyped as files.
• For larger systems, use packages to show groups of source code files.
• Consider exposing a tagged value indicating such information as the version number of the
source code file, its author, and the date it was last changed. Use tools to manage the value of
this tag.
• Model the compilation dependencies among these files using dependencies. Again, use tools to
help generate and manage these dependencies.
Figure 18: Component Diagram Example - C++ Code with versioning
3.9 Modelling an Executable Release  Identify the set of components you'd like to model. Typically,
this will involve some or all the components that live on one node, or the distribution of these sets
of components across all the nodes in the system.
129
• Consider the stereotype of each component in this set. For most systems, you'll find a small
number of different kinds of components (such as executables, libraries, tables, files, and
documents). You can use the UML's extensibility mechanisms to provide visual cues (clues) for
these stereotypes.
• For each component in this set, consider its relationship to its neighbors. Most often, this will
involve interfaces that are exported (realized) by certain components and then imported (used)
by others. If you want to expose the seams in your system, model these interfaces explicitly. If
you want your model at a higher level of abstraction, elide these relationships by showing only
dependencies among the components.
3.10 Modelling a Physical Database

• Identify the classes in your model that represent your logical database schema.
• Select a strategy for mapping these classes to tables. You will also want to consider the
physical distribution of your databases. Your mapping strategy will be affected by the location in
which you want your data to live on your deployed system.
• To visualize, specify, construct, and document your mapping, create a component diagram that
contains components stereotyped as tables.
• Where possible, use tools to help you transform your logical design into a physical design.
5.0 Conclusion
Viruses are very destructive programs that can be devastating to companies and individual.The best
defense against malware is a combination of vigilant and sensible behavior on the Internet, proper
computer usage, and anti-malware software. By erring on the side of caution when surfing the web, not
130
opening strange links or emails from unknown senders, and regularly updating and running an anti-
malware program, you'll be relatively safe from the manifold dangers of the Internet.
6.0 Summary
In this unit, we have been able to outline malware analysis, types of malwares and malware analysis

What is Component Diagram? (visual-paradigm.com)
Module 4: Distributed Transactions
Introduction to Module
As soon as cyberspace and e-commerce were created in the mid-1990s, cybercrime flourished on a
parallel track. Today, cybercrime has been doubling every single year in the number of incidents, as
well as monetary losses. It is impossible to truly quantify cybercrime because most victims only see
further losses in publicizing their inability to defend themselves from this modern day menace. The
interesting note is that, of the cybercriminals who have been caught, the vast majority have pleaded
guilty. The word ethics comes from the ancient Greek word eché, which means character. Every
human society practices ethics in some way because every society attaches a value on a continuum of
good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s actions according to where that individual’s actions fall
within the domain of that society’s rules and canons. In this module, Cyber crime Acts will be address
which provide legal backings to human data and privacy.
Unit 1: Concept of Cyber Law
Unit 2: The INDIA cyber-Acts
Unit 3: The International Laws
Unit 4: Cyber Ethics
131
132
UNIT 1 Distributed Transactions
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Distributed Transactions
3.2 Two Types of Permissible Operations in Distributed Transactions
3.2.1 DML and DDL Transactions
3.2.2 Transactions Control Statements
3.3 Session Trees for Distributed Transactions
3.4 Node Rules
3.4.1 Clients
3.4.2 Database Servers
3.4.3 Local Coordinators
3.4.4 Global Coordinators
3.4.5 Commit Point Site
3.5 How a Distributed Transactions Commits
3.6 Commit Point Strength
3.7 Two-Phase Commit Mechanism
3.7.1 Prepare Phase
3.7.2 Steps in the Prepare Phase
3.7.3 Commit Phase
3.7.3.1 Steps in the Commit Phase
3.8 Guaranteeing Global Database Consistency
3.9 Forget Phase
3.10 In-Doubt Transactions
3.10.1 Automatic Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions
3.11 Failure During the Prepare Phase
3.12 Failure During the Commit Phase
3.13 Manual Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions
3.14 Relevance of Systems Change Numbers for In-Doubt Transactions
133
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Technology has engendered new types of lawsuits or modified old ones. As, for example, the next
generation of offences arose within the field of computer crimes (e.g., identity thefts), technology
impacted on traditional rights such as copyright (1709) and privacy (1890), turning them into a matter of
access, control, and protection over information in digital environments. This unit we explain the
concepts of cyber law, the need of cyber law in the IT world and why is important to actually address
cyber crime issues.

At the end of this unit, student will able to
• Justify cyber crimes as sanctioned in cyber laws
• Demonstrate the concept of cyber law
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Distributed Transactions
A distributed transaction includes one or more statements that, individually or as a group, update data
on two or more distinct nodes of a distributed database.
Figure 19: Sample Database on a Distributed Systems
134
The following distributed transaction executed by scott updates the local sales database, the remote hq
database, and the remote maint database:
UPDATE [email protected]
SET loc = 'REDWOOD SHORES'
WHERE deptno = 10;
UPDATE scott.emp
SET deptno = 11
WHERE deptno = 10;
UPDATE [email protected]
SET room = 1225
WHERE room = 1163;
COMMIT;
3.2 Two Types of Permissible Operations in Distributed Transactions:

• DML and DDL Transactions
• Transaction Control Statements
3.2.1 DML and DDL Transactions
The following are the DML and DDL operations supported in a distributed transaction:
• CREATE TABLE AS SELECT
• DELETE
• INSERT (default and direct load)
• LOCK TABLE
• SELECT
• SELECT FOR UPDATE
You can execute DML and DDL statements in parallel, and INSERT direct load statements serially, but
note the following restrictions:
• All remote operations must be SELECT statements.
• These statements must not be clauses in another distributed transaction.

• If the table referenced in the table_expression_clause of an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement is remote, then execution is serial rather than parallel.
• You cannot perform remote operations after issuing parallel DML/DDL or direct load INSERT.
• If the transaction begins using XA or OCI, it executes serially.
• No loopback operations can be performed on the transaction originating the parallel operation.
For example, you cannot reference a remote object that is actually a synonym for a local object.
135
• If you perform a distributed operation other than a SELECT in the transaction, no DML is
parallelized.
3.2.2 Transaction Control Statements
The following are the supported transaction control statements:
• COMMIT
• ROLLBACK
• SAVEPOINT
3.3 Session Trees for Distributed Transactions
As the statements in a distributed transaction are issued, the database defines a session tree of all
nodes participating in the transaction. A session tree is a hierarchical model that describes the
relationships among sessions and their roles.
Figure 20: Example of a Session Tree

All nodes participating in the session tree of a distributed transaction assume one or more of the
following roles:
3.4 Node Roles
Roles Description
Client A node that references information in a database belonging to a
different node
Database server A node that receives a request for information from another node
Global coordinator The node that originates the distributed transaction

Local coordinator A node that is forced to reference data on other nodes to complete its part
of the transaction
Commit point site The node that commits or rolls back the transaction as instructed by the
global
136
The role a node plays in a distributed transaction is determined by:
• Whether the transaction is local or remote
• The commit point strength of the node ("Commit Point Site")
• Whether all requested data is available at a node, or whether other nodes need to be
referenced to complete the transaction
• Whether the node is read-only
3.4.1 Clients
A node acts as a client when it references information from a database on another node. The
referenced node is a database server. In Figure 2, the node sales is a client of the nodes that host the
warehouse and finance databases.
3.4.2 Database Servers

A database server is a node that hosts a database from which a client requests data.
In Figure 2, an application at the sales node initiates a distributed transaction that accesses data from
the warehouse and finance nodes. Therefore, sales.acme.com has the role of client node, and
warehouse and finance are both database servers. In this example, sales is a database server and a
client because the application also modifies data in the sales database.
3.4.3 Local Coordinators

A node that must reference data on other nodes to complete its part in the distributed transaction is
called a local coordinator. In Figure 2, sales is a local coordinator because it coordinates the nodes it
directly references: warehouse and finance. The node sales also happens to be the global coordinator
because it coordinates all the nodes involved in the transaction.
A local coordinator is responsible for coordinating the transaction among the nodes it communicates
directly with by:
• Receiving and relaying transaction status information to and from those nodes
• Passing queries to those nodes

• Receiving queries from those nodes and passing them on to other nodes
• Returning the results of queries to the nodes that initiated them
3.4.4 Global Coordinator

The node where the distributed transaction originates is called the global coordinator. The database
application issuing the distributed transaction is directly connected to the node acting as the global
coordinator. For example, in Figure 2, the transaction issued at the node sales references information
from the database servers warehouse and finance. Therefore, sales.acme.com is the global
coordinator of this distributed transaction.
The global coordinator becomes the parent or root of the session tree. The global coordinator performs
the following operations during a distributed transaction:
• Sends all of the distributed transaction SQL statements, remote procedure calls, and so forth to
the directly referenced nodes, thus forming the session tree
137
• Instructs all directly referenced nodes other than the commit point site to prepare the
transaction
• Instructs the commit point site to initiate the global commit of the transaction if all nodes
prepare successfully
• Instructs all nodes to initiate a global rollback of the transaction if there is an abort response
3.4.5 Commit Point Site

The job of the commit point site is to initiate a commit or roll back operation as instructed by the global
coordinator. The system administrator always designates one node to be the commit point site in the
session tree by assigning all nodes a commit point strength. The node selected as commit point site
should be the node that stores the most critical data.
Figure 21: Commit Point Site

The commit point site is distinct from all other nodes involved in a distributed transaction in these ways:
• The commit point site never enters the prepared state. Consequently, if the commit point site
stores the most critical data, this data never remains in-doubt, even if a failure occurs. In failure
situations, failed nodes remain in a prepared state, holding necessary locks on data until in-
doubt transactions are resolved.
• The commit point site commits before the other nodes involved in the transaction. In effect, the
outcome of a distributed transaction at the commit point site determines whether the transaction
at all nodes is committed or rolled back: the other nodes follow the lead of the commit point site.
The global coordinator ensures that all nodes complete the transaction in the same manner as
the commit point site.
3.5 How a Distributed Transaction Commits

A distributed transaction is considered committed after all non-commit-point sites are prepared, and the
transaction has been actually committed at the commit point site. The redo log at the commit point site
is updated as soon as the distributed transaction is committed at this node. Because the commit point
138
log contains a record of the commit, the transaction is considered committed even though some
participating nodes may still be only in the prepared state and the transaction not yet actually
committed at these nodes. In the same way, a distributed transaction is considered not committed if the
commit has not been logged at the commit point site.
3.6 Commit Point Strength

Every database server must be assigned a commit point strength. If a database server is referenced in
a distributed transaction, the value of its commit point strength determines which role it plays in the
two-phase commit. Specifically, the commit point strength determines whether a given node is the
commit point site in the distributed transaction and thus commits before all of the other nodes. This
value is specified using the initialization parameter COMMIT_POINT_STRENGTH. This section
explains how the database determines the commit point site.
The commit point site, which is determined at the beginning of the prepare phase, is selected only from
the nodes participating in the transaction. The following sequence of events occurs:
1. Of the nodes directly referenced by the global coordinator, the database selects the node with
the highest commit point strength as the commit point site.
2. The initially-selected node determines if any of the nodes from which it has to obtain
information for this transaction has a higher commit point strength.
3. Either the node with the highest commit point strength directly referenced in the transaction or
one of its servers with a higher commit point strength becomes the commit point site. After the
final commit point site has been determined, the global coordinator sends prepare responses to
all nodes participating in the transaction
Figure 22: Commit Point Strengths and Determination of the Commit

Point Site The following conditions apply when determining the commit point site:
• A read-only node cannot be the commit point site.
• If multiple nodes directly referenced by the global coordinator have the same commit point
strength, then the database designates one of these as the commit point site.
• If a distributed transaction ends with a rollback, then the prepare and commit phases are not
needed. Consequently, the database never determines a commit point site. Instead, the global
coordinator sends a ROLLBACK statement to all nodes and ends the processing of the
distributed transaction.
139
As Figure 4 illustrates, the commit point site and the global coordinator can be different nodes of the
session tree. The commit point strength of each node is communicated to the coordinators when the
initial connections are made. The coordinators retain the commit point strengths of each node they are
in direct communication with so that commit point sites can be efficiently selected during two-phase
commits. Therefore, it is not necessary for the commit point strength to be exchanged between a
coordinator and a node each time a commit occurs.
3.7 Two-Phase Commit Mechanism

Unlike a transaction on a local database, a distributed transaction involves altering data on multiple
databases. Consequently, distributed transaction processing is more complicated, because the
database must coordinate the committing or rolling back of the changes in a transaction as a self-
contained unit. In other words, the entire transaction commits, or the entire transaction rolls back.
The database ensures the integrity of data in a distributed transaction using the two-phase commit
mechanism.
In the prepare phase, the initiating node in the transaction asks the other participating nodes to promise
to commit or roll back the transaction.
During the commit phase, the initiating node asks all participating nodes to commit the transaction.
If this outcome is not possible, then all nodes are asked to roll back. All participating nodes in a
distributed transaction should perform the same action: they should either all commit or all perform a
rollback of the transaction. The database automatically controls and monitors the commit or rollback of
a distributed transaction and maintains the integrity of the global database (the collection of databases
participating in the transaction) using the two-phase commit mechanism. This mechanism is completely
transparent, requiring no programming on the part of the user or application developer.
The commit mechanism has the following distinct phases, which the database performs automatically
whenever a user commits a distributed transaction:
Phase Description
Prepare phase The initiating node, called the global coordinator, asks participating nodes other
than the commit point site to promise to commit or roll back the transaction, even
if there is a failure. If any node cannot prepare, the transaction is rolled back.
Commit phase If all participants respond to the coordinator that they are prepared, then the
coordinator asks the commit point site to commit. After it commits, the coordinator
asks all other nodes to commit the transaction
Forget phase The global coordinator forgets about the transaction
3.7.1 Prepare Phase

The first phase in committing a distributed transaction is the prepare phase. In this phase, the database
does not actually commit or roll back the transaction. Instead, all nodes referenced in a distributed
transaction (except the commit point site, described in the "Commit Point Site") are told to prepare to
commit. By preparing, a node:
• Records information in the redo logs so that it can subsequently either commit or roll back the
transaction, regardless of intervening failures
• Places a distributed lock on modified tables, which prevents reads
When a node responds to the global coordinator that it is prepared to commit, the prepared node
promises to either commit or roll back the transaction later, but does not make a unilateral decision on
whether to commit or roll back the transaction. The promise means that if an instance failure occurs at
140
this point, the node can use the redo records in the online log to recover the database back to the
prepare phase.
Note:
Queries that start after a node has prepared cannot access the associated locked data until all phases
complete. The time is insignificant unless a failure occurs
3.7.1.1 Types of Responses in the Prepare Phase
When a node is told to prepare, it can respond in the following ways:

Response Meaning
Prepared Data on the node has been modified by a statement in the distributed transaction, and
the node has successfully prepared
Readonly No data on the node has been, or can be, modified (only queried), so no preparation is
necessary
Abort The node cannot successfully prepare.
Prepared Response
When a node has successfully prepared, it issues a prepared message. The message indicates that
the node has records of the changes in the online log, so it is prepared either to commit or perform a
rollback. The message also guarantees that locks held for the transaction can survive a failure.
Read-Only Response
When a node is asked to prepare, and the SQL statements affecting the database do not change any
data on the node, the node responds with a read-only message. The message indicates that the node
will not participate in the commit phase
There are three cases in which all or part of a distributed transaction is read-only:
Case Condition Consequence
Partially read- Any of the following occurs: The read-only nodes recognize their
only • Only queries are issued at one status when asked to prepare. They
or more nodes. give their local coordinators a readonly
• No data is changed. response. Thus, the commit phase
Changes rolled back due to triggers completes faster because the
firing or constraint violations.
database eliminates read-only nodes

from subsequent
Completely All of following occur: All nodes recognize that they are read-
read-only with  No data changes. only during prepare phase, so no
prepare Transaction is not started with SET commit phase is required. The global
phase TRANSACTION READ coordinator, not knowing whether all
ONLY statement nodes are read-only, must still perform
the prepare phase.
141
Completely All of following occur: Only queries are allowed in the
read-only  No data changes. transaction, so global coordinator does
without Transaction is started with SET not have to perform two-phase commit.
twophase TRANSACTION READ Changes by other transactions do not
commit ONLY statement. degrade global transaction-level read
consistency because of global SCN
coordination
Note that if a distributed transaction is set to read-only, then it does not use undo segments. If many
users connect to the database and their transactions are not set to READ ONLY, then they allocate
undo space even if they are only performing queries.
Abort Response
When a node cannot successfully prepare, it performs the following actions:
1. Releases resources currently held by the transaction and rolls back the local portion of the
transaction.
2. Responds to the node that referenced it in the distributed transaction with an abort message.
These actions then propagate to the other nodes involved in the distributed transaction so that they can
roll back the transaction and guarantee the integrity of the data in the global database. This response
enforces the primary rule of a distributed transaction: all nodes involved in the transaction either all
commit or all roll back the transaction at the same logical time.
3.7.2 Steps in the Prepare Phase

To complete the prepare phase, each node excluding the commit point site performs the following
steps:
1. The node requests that its descendants, that is, the nodes subsequently referenced, prepare to
commit.
2. The node checks to see whether the transaction changes data on itself or its descendants. If
there is no change to the data, then the node skips the remaining steps and returns a read-only
response
3. The node allocates the resources it needs to commit the transaction if data is changed.
4. The node saves redo records corresponding to changes made by the transaction to its redo log.
5. The node guarantees that locks held for the transaction are able to survive a failure.
6. The node responds to the initiating node with a prepared response or, if its attempt or the
attempt of one of its descendants to prepare was unsuccessful, with an abort response.
These actions guarantee that the node can subsequently commit or roll back the transaction on the
node. The prepared nodes then wait until a COMMIT or ROLLBACK request is received from the global
coordinator.
After the nodes are prepared, the distributed transaction is said to be in-doubt. It retains indoubt status
until all changes are either committed or rolled back.
3.7.3 Commit Phase

The second phase in committing a distributed transaction is the commit phase. Before this phase
occurs, all nodes other than the commit point site referenced in the distributed transaction have
142
guaranteed that they are prepared, that is, they have the necessary resources to commit the
transaction.
3.7.3.1 Steps in the Commit Phase
The commit phase consists of the following steps:
1. The global coordinator instructs the commit point site to commit.
2. The commit point site commits.
3. The commit point site informs the global coordinator that it has committed.
4. The global and local coordinators send a message to all nodes instructing them to commit the
transaction.
5. At each node, the database commits the local portion of the distributed transaction and
releases locks.
6. At each node, the database records an additional redo entry in the local redo log, indicating that
the transaction has committed.
7. The participating nodes notify the global coordinator that they have committed.
When the commit phase is complete, the data on all nodes of the distributed system is consistent.
Guaranteeing Global Database Consistency
Each committed transaction has an associated system change number (SCN) to uniquely identify the
changes made by the SQL statements within that transaction. The SCN functions as an internal
timestamp that uniquely identifies a committed version of the database.
In a distributed system, the SCNs of communicating nodes are coordinated when all of the following
actions occur:
• A connection occurs using the path described by one or more database links
• A distributed SQL statement executes
• A distributed transaction commits
Among other benefits, the coordination of SCNs among the nodes of a distributed system ensures
global read-consistency at both the statement and transaction level. If necessary, global time-based
recovery can also be completed.
During the prepare phase, the database determines the highest SCN at all nodes involved in the
transaction. The transaction then commits with the high SCN at the commit point site. The commit SCN
is then sent to all prepared nodes with the commit decision.
3.8 Guaranteeing Global Database Consistency

Each committed transaction has an associated system change number (SCN) to uniquely identify the
changes made by the SQL statements within that transaction. The SCN functions as an internal
timestamp that uniquely identifies a committed version of the database. In a distributed system, the
SCNs of communicating nodes are coordinated when all of the following actions occur:
• A connection occurs using the path described by one or more database links
• A distributed SQL statement executes

• A distributed transaction commits
143
Among other benefits, the coordination of SCNs among the nodes of a distributed system ensures
global read-consistency at both the statement and transaction level. If necessary, global time-based
recovery can also be completed.
During the prepare phase, the database determines the highest SCN at all nodes involved in the
transaction. The transaction then commits with the high SCN at the commit point site. The commit SCN
is then sent to all prepared nodes with the commit decision.
3.9 Forget Phase

After the participating nodes notify the commit point site that they have committed, the commit point site
can forget about the transaction. The following steps occur:
1. After receiving notice from the global coordinator that all nodes have committed, the commit
point site erases status information about this transaction.
2. The commit point site informs the global coordinator that it has erased the status information.
3. The global coordinator erases its own information about the transaction.
3.10 In-Doubt Transactions

The two-phase commit mechanism ensures that all nodes either commit or perform a rollback together.
What happens if any of the three phases fails because of a system or network error?
The transaction becomes in-doubt.
Distributed transactions can become in-doubt in the following ways:
• A server machine running Oracle Database software crashes
• A network connection between two or more Oracle Databases involved in distributed
processing is disconnected
• An unhandled software error occurs
The RECO process automatically resolves in-doubt transactions when the machine, network, or
software problem is resolved. Until RECO can resolve the transaction, the data is locked for both reads
and writes. The database blocks reads because it cannot determine which version of the data to
display for a query.
3.10.1 Automatic Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions

In the majority of cases, the database resolves the in-doubt transaction automatically. Assume that
there are two nodes, local and remote, in the following scenarios. The local node is the commit point
site. User scott connects to local and executes and commits a distributed transaction that updates local
and remote.
3.11 Failure During the Prepare Phase

Figure 5 illustrates the sequence of events when there is a failure during the prepare phase of a
distributed transaction:
144
Figure 23: Failure During Prepare Phase

The following steps occur:
1. User SCOTT connects to Local and executes a distributed transaction.
2. The global coordinator, which in this example is also the commit point site, requests all
databases other than the commit point site to promise to commit or roll back when told to do so.
3. The remote database crashes before issuing the prepare response back to local.
4. The transaction is ultimately rolled back on each database by the RECO process when the
remote site is restored.
3.12 Failure During the Commit Phase

Figure 6 illustrates the sequence of events when there is a failure during the commit phase of a
distributed transaction:
Figure 24: Failure During the Commit Phase
The following steps occur:

1. User Scott connects to local and executes a distributed transaction.
2. The global coordinator, which in this case is also the commit point site, requests all databases
other than the commit point site to promise to commit or roll back when told to do so.
145
3. The commit point site receives a prepared message from remote saying that it will commit.
4. The commit point site commits the transaction locally, then sends a commit message to remote
asking it to commit.
5. The remote database receives the commit message, but cannot respond because of a network
failure.
6. The transaction is ultimately committed on the remote database by the RECO process after the
network is restored.
3.13 Manual Resolution of In-Doubt Transactions

You should only need to resolve an in-doubt transaction in the following cases:
• The in-doubt transaction has locks on critical data or undo segments.
• The cause of the machine, network, or software failure cannot be repaired quickly. Resolution
of in-doubt transactions can be complicated. The procedure requires that you do the following:
• Identify the transaction identification number for the in-doubt transaction.
• Query the DBA_2PC_PENDING and DBA_2PC_NEIGHBORS views to determine whether the
databases involved in the transaction have committed.
• If necessary, force a commit using the COMMIT FORCE statement or a rollback using the
ROLLBACK FORCE statement.
3.14 Relevance of System Change Numbers for In-Doubt Transactions

A system change number (SCN) is an internal timestamp for a committed version of the database. The
Oracle Database server uses the SCN clock value to guarantee transaction consistency. For example,
when a user commits a transaction, the database records an SCN for this commit in the redo log.
The database uses SCNs to coordinate distributed transactions among different databases. For
example, the database uses SCNs in the following way:
1. An application establishes a connection using a database link.
2. The distributed transaction commits with the highest global SCN among all the databases
involved.
3. The commit global SCN is sent to all databases involved in the transaction.
SCNs are important for distributed transactions because they function as a synchronized commit
timestamp of a transaction, even if the transaction fails. If a transaction becomes indoubt, an
administrator can use this SCN to coordinate changes made to the global database. The global SCN
for the transaction commit can also be used to identify the transaction later, for example, in distributed
recovery.
Discussion
What is biggest crime ever committed in the cyber space?
Explain the different sources of law.
146
Answer
a) Legislation: - It is the formal enactment of law by the legislature created or authorized by the
constitution. It stands in contrasted with judge made law. Legislation consists of written laws, as
contrasted with judge made law or common law. It also stans in contrasted to customary law.
b) Common Law: - It comprises the body of principle, which derive their authority solely from the
decisions of courts. It is a body of law that develops and derives through judicial decisions different
from legislative enactments. Its principals do not derive their validity from formal law making by
anybody, but from their enunciation through decisions of courts.
c) Custom: - Custom‟ denotes a usage or practice of the people (including a particular social group or
a group residing in a particular locality) which by common adoption and acquiescence and by long and
unvarying habit, has become compulsory and has acquired the force of law with respect to the place or
subject matter to which it relates.
5.0 Conclusion
Cyberlaw does concern you. As the nature of Internet is changing and this new medium is being seen
as the ultimate medium ever evolved in human history, every activity of yours in Cyberspace can and
will have a Cyber legal perspective. From the time you register your Domain Name, to the time you set
up your web site, to the time you promote your website, to the time when you send and receive emails,
to the time you conduct electronic commerce transactions on the said site, at every point of time, there
are various Cyberlaw issues involved.
6.0 Summary
Cyber law describes the legal issues related to use of communications technology, particularly
"cyberspace", i.e. the Internet. It is less a distinct field of law in the way that property or contract are as
it is an intersection of many legal fields. Cyber law is an attempt to integrate the challenges presented
by human activity on the Internet with legacy system of laws applicable to the physical world.
Dudley, A., Braman, J., & Vincenti, G. (2011). Investigating Cyber Law and Cyber Ethics: Issues,
Impacts and Practices: Issues, Impacts and Practices (Issue January).
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_-aeBQAAQBAJ&pgis=1
Isha Upadhyay (September, 2020). Cyber Law: A Comprehensive Guide For 2021.
https://www.jigsawacademy.com/blogs/cyber-security/what-is-cyber-law/. Last accessed:
December, 2021.
Joseph, M. K. (2007). Computer Network Security and Cyber Ethics (review). In portal: Libraries and
the Academy (fourth, Vol. 7, Issue 2). McFarland & Company, Inc.
Pande, J. (2017). Introduction to Cyber Security ( FCS ). http://uou.ac.in\
Trachtman, J. P. (2013). Cyberspace and Cybersecurity. In The Future of International Law.

https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139565585.006
Vikaspedia. Cyber Laws. https://vikaspedia.in/education/digital-litercy/informationsecurity/cyber-laws.

Last accessed: 30 December, 2021
147
148
UNIT 2 Flat and Nested Distributed Transactions
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions
3.2 Transactions Commands
3.3 Roles for Running a Transactions Successfully
3.4.1 Flat Transactions
3.4.1.1 Limitations of a Flat Transactions
3.4.2 Nested Transactions
3.4.2.1 Advantage
3.5 Role
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The cyberspace is anticipated to become even more complex in the upcoming years, with the increase
in networks and devices connected to it. India as a nation has encountered several cyber-attacks which
forced the government to impose cyber law that regulates the code and conducts of the people of India
and international on the cyberspace. In this unit, we will discuss some of the regulations such as ITA
2000, IPC, National Cyber security policy and review some of the scenarios of cybercrime in India
At the end of this unit, the student will able to
• Understands laws binds to cyberspace
• Know their rights in data and privacy protection
149
• Learn from existing scenarios of cybercrimes in India
3.0 Main Content

A transaction is a series of object operations that must be done in an ACID-compliant manner.
ACID connotes:
• Atomicity – The transaction is completed entirely or not at all.
• Consistency – It is a term that refers to the transition from one consistent state to another.
• Isolation – It is carried out separately from other transactions.
• Durability – Once completed, it is long lasting.
3.2 Transactions Commands:

• Begin – initiate a new transaction.
• Commit – End a transaction and the changes made during the transaction are saved. Also, it allows
other transactions to see the modifications you’ve made.
• Abort – End a transaction and all changes made during the transaction will be undone.
3.3 Roles for Running a Transaction Successfully :

• Client – The transactions are issued by the clients.
• Coordinator – The execution of the entire transaction is controlled by it (handles Begin, commit &
abort).
• Server – Every component that accesses or modifies a resource is subject to transaction control.
The coordinator must be known by the transactional server. The transactional server registers its
participation in a transaction with the coordinator.
A flat or nested transaction that accesses objects handled by different servers is referred to as a
distributed transaction. When a distributed transaction reaches its end, in order to maintain the atomicity
property of the transaction, it is mandatory that all of the servers involved in the transaction either
commit the transaction or abort it.
To do this, one of the servers takes on the job of coordinator, which entails ensuring that the same
outcome is achieved across all servers.
The method by which the coordinator accomplishes this is determined by the protocol selected.
The most widely used protocol is the ‘two-phase commit protocol.’ This protocol enables the servers to
communicate with one another in order to come to a joint decision on whether to commit or abort the
complete transaction.

If a client transaction calls actions on multiple servers, it is said to be distributed.
Distributed transactions can be structured in two different ways:
150
1. Flat transactions
2. Nested transactions
3.4.1 Flat Transactions:

A flat transaction has a single initiating point (Begin) and a single end point(Commit or abort). They are
usually very simple and are generally used for short activities rather than larger ones. A client makes
requests to multiple servers in a flat transaction. Transaction T, for example, is a flat transaction that
performs operations on objects in servers X, Y, and Z.
Before moving on to the next request, a flat client transaction completes the previous one. As a result,
each transaction visits the server object in order. A transaction can only wait for one object at a time
when servers utilize locking.
Figure 25: Flat Transactions

3.4.1.1 Limitations of a Flat Transaction:
• All work is lost in the event of a crash.
• Only one DBMS may be used at a time.
• No partial rollback is possible.
3.4.2 Nested Transactions:
A transaction that includes other transactions within its initiating point and a end point are known as
nested transactions. So the nesting of the transactions is done in a transaction. The nested transactions
here are called sub-transactions. The top-level transaction in a nested transaction can open sub-
transactions, and each sub-transaction can open more subtransactions down to any depth of nesting.
A client’s transaction T opens up two subtransactions, T1 and T2, which access objects on servers X
and Y, as shown in the diagram below. T1.1, T1.2, T2.1, and T2.2, which access the objects on the
servers M, N and P are opened by the sub-transactions T1 and T2.
151
Figure 26: Nested Transactions

Concurrent Execution of the Sub-transactions is done which are at the same level – in the nested
transaction strategy. Here, in the above diagram, T1 and T2 invoke objects on different servers and
hence they can run in parallel and are therefore concurrent.
T1.1, T1.2, T2.1, and T2.2 are four sub-transactions. These sub-transactions can also run in parallel.
Consider a distributed transaction (T) in which a customer transfers:
• $105 from account A to account C and
• Subsequently, $205 from account B to account D.
It can be viewed/ thought of as:

Transaction T:
Start
Transfer $105 from A to C:
Deduct $105 from A (withdraw from A) & Add $105 to C (deposit to C) Transfer $205 from
B to D:
Deduct $205 from B (withdraw from B) & Add $205 to D (deposit to D)
End
Assuming that:
1. Account A is on server X
2. Account B is on server Y, and
3. Accounts C and D are on server Z.
The transaction T involves four requests – 2 for deposits and 2 for withdrawals. Now they can be
treated as sub transactions (T1, T2, T3, T4) of the transaction T.
As shown in the figure below, transaction T is designed as a set of four nested transactions: T1, T2, T3
and T4.
152
3.4.2.1 Advantage:
The performance is higher than a single transaction in which four operations are invoked one after the
other in sequence.
Figure 27: Nested Transactions

So, the Transaction T may be divided into sub-transactions as:
//Start the Transaction
T = open transaction
//T1
openSubtransaction
a.withdraw(105);
//T2 openSubtransaction
b.withdraw(205);
c.deposit(105);
d.deposit(205);
//End the transaction close
Transaction
3.5 Role of coordinator:
When the Distributed Transaction commits, the servers that are involved in the transaction execution,
for proper coordination, must be able to communicate with one another .
When a client initiates a transaction, an “openTransaction” request is sent to any coordinator server.
The contacted coordinator carries out the “openTransaction” and returns the transaction identifier to the
client. Distributed transaction identifiers must be unique within the distributed system. A simple way is to
generate a TID contains two parts – the ‘server identifier” (example :IP address) of the server that
created it and a number unique to the server.
The coordinator who initiated the transaction becomes the distributed transaction’s coordinator and has
the responsibility of either aborting it or committing it.
153
Every server that manages an object accessed by a transaction is a participant in the transaction &
provides an object we call the participant. The participants are responsible for working together with the
coordinator to complete the commit process.
The coordinator every time, records the new participant in the participants list. Each participant knows
the coordinator & the coordinator knows all the participants. This enables them to collect the information
that will be needed at the time of commit and hence work in coordination.
Discussion
Discuss any two cybercrimes in your country.
Discuss the classification of crimes under the IT Act 2000.

Answer
The following acts are cyber crime in the I.T. Act 2000:- Without permission of the authorized user
i) Accessing or securing access to computer system or network. ii)
Downloading, coping or extracting any data or information. iii) Introducing
any computer, virus or contaminant in the computer. iv) Disrupting the
working of the computer.
v) Disrupting the access of the computer of an authorized user.
vi) Providing assistance to ensure unauthorized access to the computer. vii)
Tampering with computer source documents. viii) Hacking of computer system.
ix) Carring on activities that are not in compliance with the provisions of the Act.
What are the amendments to the Indian Penal Code?

Answer
The Indian Panel Code (IPC) details actions that constitute a crime and the punishments prescribed for
such actions. It elaborately classifies crimes based on interests that are intended to be protected. The
classification includes :-
i) Offences against body ii)
Offences against property iii) Offences
against marriage iv) Offences against
public tranquility
v) Offences against state Some important aspects have to be weighed while determining whether a
crime has been committed or not.
5.0 Conclusion
Cybercrimes are a new class of crimes which are increasing day by day due to extensive use of
internet these days.
154
6.0 Summary
Technology Act, 2000 was enacted with prime objective to create an enabling environment for
commercial use of I.T. The IT Act specifies the acts which have been made punishable. The Indian
Penal Code, 1860 has also been amended to take into its purview cybercrimes.
Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions - GeeksforGeeks
UNIT 3 Concurrency
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Concurrency
3.2 Two Models for Concurrent Programming
3.2.1 Shared Memory
3.2.2 Message Passing
3.3 Processes, Threads & Time-Slicing
3.3.1 Process
3.3.2 Thread
3.3.3 Time Slicing
3.4 Shared Memory Example
3.4.1 Interleaving
3.4.2 Race Condition
3.4.3 Reordering
3.5 Message Passing Example
3.6 Concurrent is Hard to Test and Debug
155
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Cybercrime is "international" that there are ‘no cyber-borders between countries’  The complexity in
types and forms of cybercrime increases the difficulty to fight back, fighting cybercrime calls for
international cooperation . Various organizations and governments have already made joint efforts in
establishing global standards of legislation and law enforcement both on a regional and on an
international scale.

• Explain international laws and treaties
• Explain international cyber-attacks previously occurred
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concurrency
Concurrency means multiple computations are happening at the same time. Concurrency is everywhere
in modern programming, whether we like it or not:
• Multiple computers in a network
• Multiple applications running on one computer
• Multiple processors in a computer (today, often multiple processor cores on a single chip) In
fact, concurrency is essential in modern programming:
• Web sites must handle multiple simultaneous users.
• Mobile apps need to do some of their processing on servers (“in the cloud”).
• Graphical user interfaces almost always require background work that does not interrupt the
user. For example, Eclipse compiles your Java code while you’re still editing it.
Being able to program with concurrency will still be important in the future. Processor clock speeds are
no longer increasing. Instead, we are getting more cores with each new generation of chips. So in the
future, in order to get a computation to run faster, we’ll have to split up a computation into concurrent
pieces.
156
3.2 Two Models for Concurrent Programming
There are two common models for concurrent programming: 
Shared memory and  Message passing.
Figure 28: Shared Memory
3.2.1 Shared memory

In the shared memory model of concurrency, concurrent modules interact by reading and writing shared
objects in memory. Other examples of the shared-memory model:
• A and B might be two processors (or processor cores) in the same computer, sharing the same
physical memory.
• A and B might be two programs running on the same computer, sharing a common filesystem
with files they can read and write.
• A and B might be two threads in the same Java program (we will explain what a thread is
below), sharing the same Java objects.
3.2.2 Message Passing

In the message-passing model, concurrent modules interact by sending messages to each other
through a communication channel. Modules send off messages, and incoming messages to each
module are queued up for handling. Examples include:
• A and B might be two computers in a network, communicating by network connections.
• A and B might be a web browser and a web server – A opens a connection to B, asks for a web
page, and B sends the web page data back to A.
• A and B might be an instant messaging client and server.
• A and B might be two programs running on the same computer whose input and output have been
connected by a pipe, like ls | grep typed into a command prompt.
157
3.3 Processes, Threads, Time-slicing
• The message-passing and shared-memory models are about how concurrent modules
communicate. The concurrent modules themselves come in two different kinds:
processes and threads.
3.3.1 Process.
• A process is an instance of a running program that is isolated from other processes on the
same machine. In particular, it has its own private section of the machine’s memory.
• The process abstraction is a virtual computer. It makes the program feel like it has the entire
machine to itself – like a fresh computer has been created, with fresh memory, just to run that
program.
• Just like computers connected across a network, processes normally share no memory
between them. A process can’t access another process’s memory or objects at all. Sharing
memory between processes is possible on most operating system, but it needs special effort.
By contrast, a new process is automatically ready for message passing, because it is created
with standard input & output streams, which are the System.out and System.in streams you’ve
used in Java.
3.3.2 Thread
A thread is a locus of control inside a running program. Think of it as a place in the program that is being
run, plus the stack of method calls that led to that place to which it will be necessary to return through.
• Just as a process represents a virtual computer, the thread abstraction represents a virtual
processor. Making a new thread simulates making a fresh processor inside the virtual computer
represented by the process. This new virtual processor runs the same program and shares the
same memory as other threads in process.
• Threads are automatically ready for shared memory, because threads share all the memory in
the process. It needs special effort to get “thread-local” memory that’s private to a single thread.
It’s also necessary to set up message-passing explicitly, by creating and using queue data
structures. We will talk about how to do that in a future reading.
Figure 29: Many Concurrent Threads, One or Two Processors
3.3.3 Time Slicing

• When there are more threads than processors, concurrency is simulated by time slicing, which
means that the processor switches between threads. The figure on the right, above, shows how
three threads T1, T2, and T3 might be time-sliced on a machine that has only two actual
processors. In the figure 2, time proceeds downward, so at first one processor is running thread
T1 and the other is running thread T2, and then the second processor switches to run thread
158
T3. Thread T2 simply pauses, until its next time slice on the same processor or another
processor.
• On most systems, time slicing happens unpredictably and non-deterministically, meaning that a
thread may be paused or resumed at any time.
3.4 Shared Memory Example
Let’s look at an example of a shared memory system. The point of this example is to show that
concurrent programming is hard, because it can have subtle bugs.
Imagine that a bank has cash machines that use a shared memory model, so all the cash machines can
read and write the same account objects in memory. To illustrate what can go wrong, let’s simplify the
bank down to a single account, with a dollar balance stored in the balance variable, and two operations
deposit and withdraw that simply add or remove a dollar:
// suppose all the cash machines share a single bank account private
static int balance = 0;
private static void deposit() { balance =

balance + 1;
} private static void withdraw()
{ balance = balance - 1;
}
Customers use the cash machines to do transactions like this:
deposit(); // put a dollar in withdraw(); //

take it back out
In this simple example, every transaction is just a one dollar deposit followed by a one-dollar withdrawal,
so it should leave the balance in the account unchanged. Throughout the day, each cash machine in
our network is processing a sequence of deposit/withdraw transactions.
159
// each ATM does a bunch of transactions that // modify balance, but leave it unchanged afterward
private static void cashMachine() { for (int i = 0; i < TRANSACTIONS_PER_MACHINE; ++i)
{ deposit(); // put a dollar in withdraw(); // take it back out
}
}
160
So at the end of the day, regardless of how many cash machines were running, or how many transactions we
processed, we should expect the account balance to still be 0.
But if we run this code, we discover frequently that the balance at the end of the day is not 0. If more than
one cashMachine() call is running at the same time – say, on separate processors in the same computer –
then balance may not be zero at the end of the day.
3.4.1 Interleaving
Here is one thing that can happen. Suppose two cash machines, A and B, are both working on a deposit at
the same time. Here is how the deposit() step typically breaks down into low-level processor instructions:
get balance (balance=0)
add 1
write back the result (balance=1)
When A and B are running concurrently, these low-level instructions interleave with each other
(some might even be simultaneous in some sense, but let’s just worry about interleaving for now):
A get balance (balance=0)
A add 1
A write back the result (balance=1)
B get balance (balance=1)
B add 1
B write back the result (balance=2)
This interleaving is fine

– we end up with balance 2, so both A and B successfully put in a
dollar. But what if the interleaving looked like this:
A getbalance (balance=0)
B get balance (balance=0)

A add 1
B add 1
A write back the result (balance=1)
B write back the result (balance=1)
190
The balance is now 1 – A’s dollar was lost! A and B both read the balance at the same time, computed
separate final balances, and then raced to store back the new balance – which failed to take the other’s
deposit into account.
161
3.4.2 Race Condition

A race condition means that the correctness of the program (the satisfaction of postconditions and invariants)
depends on the relative timing of events in concurrent computations A and B.
When this happens, we say “A is in a race with B.”
Some interleavings of events may be OK, in the sense that they are consistent with what a single,
nonconcurrent process would produce, but other interleavings produce wrong answers – violating
postconditions or invariants.
All these versions of the bank-account code exhibit the same race condition:
// version 1 private static void deposit() { balance =

balance + 1;
} private static void withdraw() { balance = balance - 1;
}
// version 2 private static void deposit() { balance += 1;
}
private static void withdraw() { balance -= 1; }
// version 3
private static void deposit() {
++balance;
} private static void withdraw() { --balance;
}
You cannot tell just from looking at Java code how the processor is going to execute it. You can’t tell what the
indivisible operations – the atomic operations – will be. It isn’t atomic just because it’s one line of Java. It
doesn’t touch balance only once just because the balance identifier occurs only once in the line. The Java
compiler, and in fact the processor itself, makes no commitments about what low-level operations it will
generate from your code. In fact, a typical modern Java compiler produces exactly the same code for all
three of these versions! The key lesson is that you cannot tell by looking at an expression whether it will be
safe from race conditions.
3.4.3 Reordering
The race condition on the bank account balance can be explained in terms of different interleavings of
sequential operations on different processors. But in fact, when you are using multiple variables and multiple
processors, you cannot even count on changes to those variables appearing in the same order.
Here’s an example:
162
private boolean ready = false; private int

answer = 0;
// computeAnswer runs in one thread

private void computeAnswer()
{ answer = 42; ready = true;
}
// useAnswer runs in a different thread

private void useAnswer() { while (!
ready) { Thread.yield();
}
192
if (answer == 0) throw new RuntimeException("answer wasn't ready!");
}
We
have two methods that are being run in different threads. computeAnswer does a long calculation, finally
coming up with the answer 42, which it puts in the answer variable. Then it sets the ready variable to true, in
order to signal to the method running in the other thread, useAnswer, that the answer is ready for it to use.
Looking at the code, answer is set before ready is set, so once useAnswer sees ready as true, then it seems
reasonable that it can assume that the answer will be 42 but quite not true.
The problem is that modern compilers and processors do a lot of things to make the code fast. One of those
things is making temporary copies of variables like answer and ready in faster storage (registers or caches
on a processor), and working with them temporarily before eventually storing them back to their official
location in memory. The storeback may occur in a different order than the variables were manipulated in your
code. Here is what might be going on under the covers (but expressed in Java syntax to make it clear). The
processor is effectively creating two temporary variables, tmpr and tmpa, to manipulate the fields ready and
answer:
163
private void computeAnswer()

{ boolean tmpr = ready; int
tmpa = answer;
tmpa = 42;
tmpr = true;
ready = tmpr;
// <-- what happens if useAnswer() interleaves here?
// ready is set, but answer isn't.
answer = tmpa;
}
3.5 Message Passing Example
Now let us look at the message-passing approach to our bank account example.
Now not only are the cash machine modules, but the accounts are modules, too. Modules interact by
sending messages to each other. Incoming requests are placed in a queue to be handled one at a time.
The sender does not stop working while waiting for an answer to its request. It handles more requests
from its own queue. The reply to its request eventually comes back as another message.
Unfortunately, message passing does not eliminate the possibility of race conditions. Suppose each
account supports get-balance and withdraw operations, with corresponding messages. Two users, at
164
cash machine A and B, are both trying to withdraw a dollar from the same account. They check the
balance first to make sure they never withdraw more than the account holds, because overdrafts trigger
big bank penalties:
get-balance
if balance >= 1 then withdraw 1
The problem is again interleaving, but this time interleaving of the messages sent to the bank account,
rather than the instructions executed by A and B. If the account starts with a dollar in it, then what
interleaving of messages will fool A and B into thinking they can both withdraw a dollar, thereby
overdrawing the account?
One lesson here is that you need to carefully choose the operations of a message-passing model.
withdraw-if-sufficient-funds would be a better operation than just withdraw.
3.6 Concurrency is Hard to Test and Debug
If we have not persuaded you that concurrency is tricky, here is the worst of it. It is very hard to discover
race conditions using testing. And even once a test has found a bug, it may be very hard to localize it to
the part of the program causing it.
Concurrency bugs exhibit very poor reproducibility. It is hard to make them happen the same way twice.
Interleaving of instructions or messages depends on the relative timing of events that are strongly
influenced by the environment. Delays can be caused by other running programs, other network traffic,
operating system scheduling decisions, variations in processor clock speed, etc. Each time you run a
program containing a race condition, you may get different behavior.
These kinds of bugs are heisenbugs, which are nondeterministic and hard to reproduce, as opposed to
a “bohrbug”, which shows up repeatedly whenever you look at it. Almost all bugs in sequential
programming are bohrbugs.
A heisenbug may even disappear when you try to look at it with println or debugger! The reason is that
printing and debugging are so much slower than other operations, often 1001000x slower, that they
dramatically change the timing of operations, and the interleaving. So inserting a simple print statement
into the cashMachine():
private static void cashMachine() { for (int i = 0; i <
TRANSACTIONS_PER_MACHINE; ++i) {
deposit(); // put a dollar in
withdraw(); // take it back out
System.out.println(balance); // makes the bug disappear!
165
…and suddenly the balance is always 0, as desired, and the bug appears to disappear. But it is only
masked, not truly fixed. A change in timing somewhere else in the program may suddenly make the bug
come back.
Concurrency is hard to get right. Part of the point of this reading is to scare you a bit. Over the next
several readings, we’ll see principled ways to design concurrent programs so that they are safer from
these kinds of bugs.
Discussion
What section of the Information Technology Act (ITA) that sanction internet fraudsters?
Explain the consequence according to the Act.
5.0 Conclusion
A country’s participation in a particular international agreement becomes effective only if domestic laws
are drafted and approved that legislate the intent of the signed international agreement.
6.0 Summary
Lawmakers and law enforcement agencies, around the world, advocate the need for cyber laws that
are written in the cyber language. That is, laws that explicitly define cyber offenses and fully support
the acceptance of cyber evidence. International bodies, responding to this call, have convened and
produced treaties and conventions that, unfortunately, have fallen short of receiving total acceptance
by the member countries.
166
Concepts: Concurrency (uhcl.edu)
Processes and Threads (The Java™ Tutorials > Essential Java Classes > Concurrency) (oracle.com)
167
UNIT 4 Characteristics of Service Oriented Architecture
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
3.1.1 A Service
3.2 An Example: SOA Apps Provide a Cohesive Platform for Overstock.com (a large Online
Retailer)
3.3 The 6 Defining Concepts of SOA
3.4 Understanding SOA: The Transportation Analogy
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Ethics is, therefore, the study of right and wrong in human conduct. Ethics can also be defined as a
theoretical examination of morality or “theory of morals.” Other philosophers have defined ethics in a
168
variety of ways. Robert C. Solomon, in Morality and the Good Life, defines ethics as a set of “theories
of value, virtue, or of right (valuable) action.” O.J. Johnson, on the other hand, defines ethics as a set of
theories “that provide general rules or principles to be used in making moral decisions and, unlike
ordinary intuitions, provides a justification for those rules.”The word ethicscomes from the ancient
Greek word eché, which means character. Every human society practices ethics in some way because
every society attaches a value on a continuum of good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s actions
according to where that individual’s actions fall within the domain of that society’s rules and canons.

• Understand the use of ethical theories in ethical arguments.
• Articulate the ethical tradeoffs in a technical decision.
• Understand the role of professional codes of ethics.
3.0 Main Content

Service-Oriented Architecture, can be defined as "services" that provide a platform by which disparate
systems can communicate with each other. These services are essentially groups of software
components that help a company seamlessly carry out important business processes. SOA
implementation makes interoperability between heterogeneous applications and technologies possible.
The rise of SOA technology and integration in recent years is placing it as one of the most important
applications for communicating between different systems — or in this context, services.
3.1.1 A Service
Services represent building blocks that allow users to organize information in ways that are familiar to
them. These building blocks combine information about users and their behavior in a seamless fashion
to present a relatively simple interface.
A service is commonly characterized by these four properties:
1. It logically represents a business activity with a specified outcome.
2. It is self-contained
3. It is a black box for its consumers
4. It may consist of other underlying services
To further simplify this concept, an SOA service is the mechanism that satisfies a customer’s wants or
needs through a negotiated contract. Therefore, SOA is a collection of different services.
To better understand what service-oriented architecture is all about, consider this quote from industry
expert David Sprott:
169
Retailer)
Communication of services can involve something as simple as passing data, or it can involve a
coordination of an activity between two or more different SOA services.
One way to illustrate the SOA method is by taking a look at a large online retailer like Overstock.com.
In order for Overstock customers to make a transaction, different programs must work together
seamlessly. The various steps in the ordering process can involve various programs developed at
different times, each using their own unique platforms and technologies.
For instance, there might be one program that tracks inventory, which is different than the interface (i.e.
the Internet) the customer uses to shop. Then, there is likely an entirely different program for their
shopping cart and another for processing payment.
SOA services tie all of these various programs together so that an online shopper can quickly find out if
what they are looking for is in stock and get it shipped to their doorstep with just a few clicks of their
mouse.

In October of 2009, a manifesto was created about service-oriented architecture.
This manifesto states that there are six core values of SOA:
1. Business value is more important than technical strategy.
2. Strategic goals are more valuable than project-specific benefits.
3. Intrinsic interoperability is greater than custom integration.
4. Shared services over specific-purpose implementations.
5. Flexibility is given more importance than optimization.
6. Evolutionary refinement is more important than pursuit of initial perfection.

Another way to think about SOA is through the analogy of transportation.
Imagine that you have to travel from your home in Ibadan to a business conference or trade show in
Kano. What are the various steps you might take to get there?
First, you will have to drive to the airport, then take a shuttle to the airport terminal. Next, you will board
the plane for Kano. After landing, you take another shuttle from the gate to the main terminal, where
you have to flag down a taxi or call an Uber to drive you to your hotel. When it is time for the conference
to start, you walk to the nearest train stop, hop on, and ride it to the conference center.
All of these various transportation methods worked together to accomplish your end goal of attending
the conference — your car, the shuttle bus, airplane, train, and even walking. There were many
individual “steps” you had to take to arrive at your final destination on time, and there were likely other
ways you could have gone about it.
For instance, instead of driving to the airport, you could have walked to a train station or bus stop and
gotten to the airport this way. Or you could have driven completely across the country, thus eliminating
your need for any other type of transportation altogether.
However, by combining numerous transportation methods you were able to get to the conference faster
and probably cheaper than if you had driven the whole way.
In this analogy of SOA, the various modes of transportation can be viewed as the different “services”
used to reach an end goal. Just like the cars, bus, train, and plane all worked together to help you
170
accomplish your goal of attending the conference, combining different units of software applications
(services) can help business achieve new milestones in the most efficient manner.
Discussion
Why is ethics relevant in the cyberspace?
1. What are the ten commandments for computer ethics?
Answer
i. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
ii. Thou shalt not interfere with other people‟s computer work.
iii. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people‟s files. iv. Thou shalt not use a computer to
steal.
v. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness. vi. Thou shalt not use of
copy software for which you have not paid. vii. Thou shalt not use other people‟s
computer resources without authorization. viii. Thou shalt not appropriate other
people‟s intellectual output. ix. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the
program u write.
x. Thou shalt use a computer in ways to show consideration and respect.
2. Explain the three levels of computer ethics. Answer

• First level: - It is the basic level where computer ethics tries to sensitize people to the fact that
computer technology has social and ethical consequences. Newspaper, TV news program,
and magazines have highlighted the topic of computer ethics by reporting on events relating to
computer viruses, software ownership law suits, computer aided bank robbery, computer
malfunction etc.
• Second level:- It consists of someone who takes interest in computer ethics cases, collects
examples, clarifies them, looks for similarities and differences reads related works, attends
relevant events to make preliminary assessments and after comparing them.
• Third level: - It referred to as „theoretical‟ computer ethics applies scholarly theories to
computer ethics cases and concepts in order to deepen the understanding of issues.
All three level of analysis are important to the goal of advancing and defending human values.
5.0 Conclusion
The role of ethics is to help societies distinguish between right and wrong and to give each society a
basis for justifying the judgment of human actions. Ethics is, therefore, a field of inquiry whose subject
is human actions, collectively called human conduct, that are taken consciously, willfully, and for which
one can be held responsible. According to Fr. Austin Fagothey, such acts must have knowledge, which
171
signifies the presence of a motive, be voluntary, and have freedom to signify the presence of free
choice to act or not to act.
6.0 Summary
The purpose of ethics is to interpret human conduct, acknowledging and distinguishing between right
and wrong. The interpretation is based on a system which uses a mixture of induction and deduction.
In most cases, these arguments are based on historical schools of thought called ethical theories.
There are many different kinds of ethical theories, and within each theory there may be different
versions of that theory. Let us discuss these next.

Alfreda D. et al. (2012). Investigating Cyber Law and Cyber Ethics: Issues, Impacts, and Practices.
Information Science Reference, USA. ISBN 978-1-61350-133-7
Baldini, Gianmarco, Botterman, Maarten, Neisse, Ricardo, and Tallacchini, Mariachiara (2016) “Ethical
Design in the Internet of Things,” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-21.
Bustard, John D. (2017), “Improving Student Engagement in the Study of Professional Ethics:
Concepts and an Example in Cyber Security” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-16.
Dipert, Randall R. (2010) “The Ethics of Cyberwarfare,” Journal of Military Ethics 9:4, 384410
ICSI (2016). Cybercrime Law and Practice. THE INSTITUTE OF COMPANY SCRETARIES OF INDIA.
ISBN : 978-93-82207795.
Manjikian, Mary (2017) Cybersecurity Ethics: An Introduction, Routledge; 240 pp. Taddeo,
Mariarosaria and Glorioso, Ludovica (2017) Ethics and Policies for Cyber Operations,
Springer. EC Council (2016) Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures (Book Series, 4 volumes),
Cengage Learning
172
173
Module 5: Mobile & Cloud Computing
Introduction to Module
As soon as cyberspace and e-commerce were created in the mid-1990s, cybercrime flourished on a
parallel track. Today, cybercrime has been doubling every single year in the number of incidents, as
well as monetary losses. It is impossible to truly quantify cybercrime because most victims only see
further losses in publicizing their inability to defend themselves from this modern day menace. The
interesting note is that, of the cybercriminals who have been caught, the vast majority have pleaded
guilty. The word ethics comes from the ancient Greek word eché, which means character. Every
human society practices ethics in some way because every society attaches a value on a continuum of
good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s actions according to where that individual’s actions fall
within the domain of that society’s rules and canons. In this module, Cyber crime Acts will be address
which provide legal backings to human data and privacy.
Unit 1: Concept of Cyber Law
Unit 2: The INDIA cyber-Acts
Unit 3: The International Laws
Unit 4: Cyber Ethics
174
UNIT 1 Introduction to Mobile & Cloud Computing
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Mobile and Cloud Computing
3.2 Cloud Computing
3.3 Capabilities of Cloud Computing
3.4 Categories of Cloud Computing Models
3.4.1 Software as a Service (SaaS)
3.4.2 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
3.4.3 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
3.5 Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC)
3.5.1 Advantage of Mobile & Cloud Computing
3.5.2 Disadvantages of Mobile & Cloud Computing
3.6 Mobile & Cloud Computing Security Concerns
3.7 The Top Threats in the Usage of Mobile & Cloud Computing
3.7.1 Data Loss
3.7.2 Untrusted Service Providers
3.7.3 Insecure API
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
175
1.0 Introduction
Cloud Computing seems to be the most promising technology of the century we are living. It provides a
new manner of sharing distributed resources and services that may be part of different organizations,
geographycally located in different places and different time zones. Mobile Cloud Computing offers
partially the same functionality, with the only additional requirement that, at least, some of the devices
are mobile. In this paper, we will try to provide a detailed explanation of Mobile Cloud Computing
concept by providing different examples, figures, accessibility, pros and cons and comparison.

• Justify cyber crimes as sanctioned in cyber laws
• Demonstrate the concept of cyber law
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Mobile & Cloud Computing 3.2 Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing is the delivery of the computing services, such as servers, databases, storage and
networking – over the Internet. These services, usually are offered by so called Cloud Providers, that
usually charge based on usage.
Nowadays, everyone that is using a device connected to Internet, might be user of cloud services, even
though we might not be aware of it. Almost every online service, including email, document editors or
entertaining apps, might be running using cloud services.
Figure 30: Cloud Computing

3.3 Capabilities of Cloud Computing
Generally, these are a few of the capabilities of Cloud Computing:
• Create new apps and services
• Store, back up and recover data
• Deliver software
176
• Analyse data for pattern recognition
• Streaming.
Besides the capabilities that Cloud Computing provides, there are also a lot of benefits that it can offer.
• Cost – using cloud services lowers the costs that organizations need to spend for buying
hardware and software tools for setting up the infrastructure for its needs.
• Speed – when the organization needs more resources, provisioning additional resources in
cloud services can be done in minutes.
• Scaling – the ability to scale elastically on demand using cloud services appears as their main
and most common use case – processing power, storage, bandwidth and whatever the demand
is, in less than a minute.
Depending on the type of service a Service Providers provides, there are several categories of Cloud
Computing models, as listed:
3.4 Categories of Cloud Computing models

3.4.1 Software as a Service (SaaS)
The providers that provide this model of Cloud Computing solutions usually provide a webbased
application where the users of the service can operate. In this model, the consumer does not have any
control over the infrastructure in which the service is running, including the network, servers, storage or
operating system. It removes the need that several organizations or companies will have to install and
run their applications or services on their data centers or company computers. By this, the
organizations save a lot of financial resources by saving money on the hardware they would need to
run the application, the rent of space where the data center would be located on, or even software
license for operating systems and depending software.
3.4.2 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Platform as a Service is another Cloud Computing model in which the third-party provider provides the
necessary hardware and software tools – usually required for development or research – over the
Internet. In other words, all the programming languages, libraries, services and other programming
tools provided by the provider are deployed in the cloud infrastructure that the provider provides.
Similar as in the previous model, SaaS, the end user does not have any control nor have to manage
any part of the infrastructure, such as network, operating systems and storage.
3.4.3 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
According to most of the information provided by different surveys, IaaS is the most common cloud-
based model provided by the service providers. IaaS refers to the service providers who provide
processing capability, storage, network and other fundamental computing resources, to the consumer
who wants to run any type of software. Usually these services are made possible by using virtual
machines as instances. Xen, Oracle VirtualBox, KVM or Hyper-V are typical examples of providers that
offer great possibilities to run these VMs.
3.5 Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC)

In the consumer space, mobility players such as Apple, Google, and Microsoft all offer variants of
cloud-based apps and private storage. However, the line between the individual and the professional is
increasingly being blurred. Allowing employees access to company resources using private devices
makes them expect access to your CRM system on their iPad, with (near) real-time business
intelligence reports delivered by the touch of a finger while sharing analysis with their teams on the
collaboration platform.
Most of the companies tend to move their apps and services in the cloud. Every company’s mission is
to grow and evolve. Considering this case, organizations face trouble with new coming employees,
177
which bring their own devices, services and apps. This means that, it requires more efforts and time to
integrate the data to the corporate cloud, in order to ensure support and control over usage of the
same. When we add the complex format of making sure that corporate services are up to date, all this
process becomes a mess and quite often it becomes a challenging task for the responsible employees.
3.5.1 Advantages of Mobile & Cloud Computing

Mobile Cloud Computing offers a bunch of advantages while using cloud services. Following are listed
some of the most important ones:
• Flexibility – one of key advantages while using MCC is that the cloud information can be used
anywhere, everywhere; all you need is a mobile device of any kind, which is paired or configured
with the organization cloud platform.
• Real time available data – accessing the data in real time is no longer a challenge while you are
out of the office.
• No upfront payments – last, but not least – payments. Commonly, cloud applications does not
require payment without using it. It is mostly the case pay-for-use, which helps in growing the
adoption of the model.
3.5.2 Disadvantages of Mobile & Cloud Computing (MCC)

Whenever there are advantages on any issue, it is sure there would be the disadvantages as well. The
following are some listed and most important disadvantages of Mobile and Cloud Computing.
• Security – a major concern with Cloud Computing is the security and data integration. When
mobile is the subject, the attention must be two times higher: unprotected information can be
easily sniffed.
• Internet connection – considering the flexibility of MCC, allowing the users to access the data
from anywhere, requires Internet connection. Making sure that, when accessing data, the user
have access to strong and stable Internet connection, often can cause headache, especially in
non-metropolitan areas.
• Performance – considering smaller size and lower hardware performance, it is understandable
that the performance with MCC will be in a much lower level.
3.6 Mobile Cloud Computing Security Concerns

One of the most significant concerns of Cloud Computing in general and Mobile and Cloud Computing
particularly, is data security.
Mobile devices are at the top of the list of the most significant security risks. Confidentiality, integrity
and authenticity of information are the most particular threat. Confidentiality is considered a risk when
unauthorized parties manage to intercept data transmission. Allowing such a thing, risks the integrity of
the data. The authenticity is risked when these unauthorized parties can use the devices to trigger
transactions.
The latest trends of using mobile devices is by using free applications, which can be infected by
malicious software. Using open channels over network threatens confidential information. Thus, these
applications are often updated or upgraded, trying to provide as much security as possible.
3.7 The Top Threats in the usage of Mobile and Cloud Computing.
3.7.1 Data Loss
Using Cloud Computing is more like outsourcing the data to the service provider.
178
This means increasing the risk of exposing important data which were not issues in traditional
computing. Since more of the service providers provide shared resources, it is more likely for the
transactions to crash and data to be lost. Recently, there has been a lot of unintentional deletion of
data by the providers. Also, a bad line code can mess up access keys, and the data is lost.
The following solutions can lower the risk:
- Encryption of data while transmission;
- Using access control tools
- Time-to-time back up
3.7.2 Untrusted service providers
Known as malicious insiders, they are the people who have access and authorization to manage data
in the care of the service providers, offering cloud services. These people can either be working for
other companies or they do it for their personal intentions.
3.7.3 Insecure API

Usually, the communication between a client (in this case, a mobile device which is handled by the
company’s employee) and the server (which is somewhere in the cloud) is done by an Application
Programming Interface. In order to keep data integration and security in a higher level, the company
providing the API should secure the communication channels and the information transmitted. Avoiding
insecure APIs can be achieved by using the following techniques:
• Applying authentication and access control tools on data transmission channels
• Implementing the proper security model according to service provider’s security protocols
Discussion
What is biggest crime ever committed in the cyber space?
Explain the different sources of law.

Answer
a) Legislation: - It is the formal enactment of law by the legislature created or authorized by the
constitution. It stands in contrasted with judge made law. Legislation consists of written laws, as
contrasted with judge made law or common law. It also stans in contrasted to customary law.
b) Common Law: - It comprises the body of principle, which derive their authority solely from the
decisions of courts. It is a body of law that develops and derives through judicial decisions different
from legislative enactments. Its principals do not derive their validity from formal law making by
anybody, but from their enunciation through decisions of courts.
c) Custom: - Custom‟ denotes a usage or practice of the people (including a particular social group or
a group residing in a particular locality) which by common adoption and acquiescence and by long and
unvarying habit, has become compulsory and has acquired the force of law with respect to the place or
subject matter to which it relates.
179
5.0 Conclusion
Nowadays, Cloud Computing is moving in big strides towards becoming the most popular and the used
technology, either in the organizational context, or personal domaina. Considering the fact that mobile
technology provides flexibility, compactness and portability, the big players in the IT industry are really
focused on generating, as optimal as possible, solutions that will drive mobile devices.
6.0 Summary
Cyber law describes the legal issues related to use of communications technology, particularly
"cyberspace", i.e. the Internet. It is less a distinct field of law in the way that property or contract are as
it is an intersection of many legal fields. Cyber law is an attempt to integrate the challenges presented
by human activity on the Internet with legacy system of laws applicable to the physical world.

1. Lofstad, S.: Trends in Cloud Computing: The Impact of Mobile Devices. Director of Data Center
Technologies at Oracle Insight. 2013.
http://www.oracle.com/us/corporate/profit/archives/opinion/011813-slofstad-1899122.html 2. Bahtovski,
A., Gusev, M.: Cloud Computing in Mobile Technologies. The 9 th Conference for Informatics and
Information Technology (CIIT 2012).
3. Shanklin, M.: Mobile Cloud Computing (A survey paper written under the guidance of Prof.
Raj Jain). https://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-10/ftp/cloud/
4. Wikipedia: Cloud Computing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing 5. Microsoft
Azure: What is cloud computing? A beginner’s guide.
https://azure.microsoft.com/en-in/overview/what-is-cloud-computing/ 6. Rouse, M.: Definition:
Software as a Service (SaaS). May, 2016.
http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/Software-as-a-Service 7. Rouse.
M: Definitaion: Platform as a Service (PaaS). September, 2017.
http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/Platform-as-a-Service-PaaS 8. Mobile
Cloud Computing – Pros and Cons. December, 2014.
https://www.getcloudservices.com/blog/mobile-cloud-computing-pros-and-cons/
9. Kleiner, C., Disterer, G.: Ensuring mobile device security and compliance at the workplace.
Conference on Enterprice Information Systems, HCist 2015, October 7-9, 2015.
10. Aldossary, S., Allen, W: Data Security, Privacy, Availability and Integrity in Cloud Computing:
Issues and Current Solutions.International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications,
Vol. 7, No. 4, 2016.
180
UNIT 2 Technologies for Wireless Communications
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Technologies for Wireless Communications
3.1.1 Radio
3.1.2 Cellular
3.1.3 Satellite
3.1.4 Wi-fi
3.2 Pros & Cons of Microwave Internet Service
3.2.1 Pros-Lower Initials Costs
3.2.2 Cons-Interference
3.2.3 Pro-mobility
3.2.4 Cons-Shared Bandwidth
3.3 Different Types of Roles
3.3.1 AM and FM
3.3.2 Shortwave Radio
3.3.3 Satellite Radio
3.3.4 Ham Radio
3.3.5 Walkie-Talkie
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
181
1.0 Introduction
Wireless communication technology defines any method of communication possible without a direct
physical connection between the two parties, largely describing systems based on radio waves. The
first wireless communication systems came into use at the end of the 19th century, and the technology
has matured significantly over the intervening years. Today, many types of devices use wireless
communication technology, allowing users to remain in contact even in remote areas.

At the end of this unit, the student will able to
• Understands laws binds to cyberspace
• Know their rights in data and privacy protection
• Learn from existing scenarios of cybercrimes in India
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Technologies for Wireless Communication
3.1.1 Radio
Open radio communication was one of the first wireless technologies to find widespread use, and it still
serves a purpose today. Portable multichannel radios allow users to communicate over short distances,
while citizen's band and maritime radios provide communication services for truckers and sailors. Ham
radio enthusiasts share information and serve as emergency communication aids during disasters with
their powerful amateur broadcasting equipment, and can even communicate digital data over the radio
spectrum.
3.1.2 Cellular
Cellular networks use encrypted radio links, modulated to allow many different users to communicate
across a single frequency band. Because individual handsets lack significant broadcasting power, the
system relies on a network of cellular towers, capable of triangulating the source of any signal and
handing reception duties off to the most suitable antenna. Data transmission over cellular networks is
possible, with at least, modern 3G systems capable of speeds approaching that of wired DSL or cable
connections. Cellular providers typically meter their service, charging customers by the minute for voice
and by the megabyte for data.
3.1.3 Satellite
Satellite communication is another wireless technology that has found widespread use in specialized
situations. These devices communicate directly with orbiting satellites via a radio signal, allowing users
to stay connected virtually anywhere on Earth. Portable satellite phones and modems feature more
powerful broadcast and reception hardware than cellular devices due to the increased range, and are
correspondingly more expensive. For semi-permanent or permanent installations, such as outfitting a
182
ship for satellite communication, a more traditional communication system may link to a single satellite
uplink, allowing multiple users to share the same broadcast equipment.
3.1.4 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a form of low-power wireless communication used by computers and hand-held electronic
devices. In a Wi-Fi setup, a wireless router serves as the communication hub, linking portable devices
to a wired internet connection. These networks are extremely limited in range due to the low power of
the transmissions, allowing users to connect only within close proximity to a router or signal repeater.
Wi-Fi is common in home networking applications, allowing users to link devices without running
lengths of cable, and in commercial applications where a business may provide wireless Internet
access to their customers. Wi-Fi networks may be free to use, or their owners may secure them with
passwords and access restrictions.
3.2 Pros & Cons of Microwave Internet Service

Microwave radio transmission has been used for wireless data transmission since before the terms
wireless broadband or WiFi came into common usage. It was primarily used by businesses to connect
separate office buildings or locations. Transmission was limited by slower data speeds, line-of-sight
connections and bandwidth issues. The development of WiMAX -- Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access -- technology has improved upon these shortcomings.
3.2.1 Pro -- Lower Initial Costs

The costs of installing a microwave tower are significantly less than those of installing traditional buried
cable systems, such as DSL or cable. WiMAX technology has a greater range than traditional WiFi and
is not limited to line-of sight access, providing for a larger potential customer base per tower. WiMAX
operates on frequencies both licensed and non-licensed. The system is governed by IEEE 802.16
standards, which provides a feasible economic model and regulated environment for wireless carriers.
3.2.2 Con -- Interference

Radio frequency (RF) transmissions can be adversely affected by weather conditions and terrain.
Temperature, humidity, precipitation and wind can all cause interference with RF communications.
Topographical features like hills and valleys can reflect or block signals. The density and height of
nearby trees will also affect reception. Lakes, rivers and other water formations are extremely reflective
surfaces in regards to radio transmissions. Large buildings can also create a "shadow" which leaves a
dead spot directly behind the structure. These obstacles necessitate proper layout and planning of the
wireless networks to minimize signal degradation.
3.2.3 Pro -- Mobility

WiMAX was the first of the Fourth Generation, 4G, wireless technologies. Fixed networks can provide
service within a 30 mile area. As long as a customer is within that range they are able to access the
service. Mobile networks have a range of about 2.5 miles, providing even greater flexibility and
availability of connection.
3.2.4 Con -- Shared Bandwidth
183
All connections within range of a tower share the same bandwidth. WiMAX offers speeds up to 70Mbps,
but this is attainable only in ideal conditions and with a single user. Connection speeds are significantly
reduced as more and more users connect to the network. Slower speeds also result from being farther
from the tower.
3.3 Different Types of Radios
Radio communication, first developed at the turn of the 20th century, remains a significant part of the
technology landscape despite decades of innovation and scientific breakthroughs. Radios work by
transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves that move invisibly at the speed of light, carrying
music and speech in a coded form that depends on the type of radio used. Over the decades, radio has
evolved into many different types, each of which fulfills different needs.
3.3.1 AM and FM
Amplitude modulation, or AM radio, is one of the oldest forms of wireless broadcasting. With AM, an
audio signal rapidly modifies the strength of radio waves in a process called modulation; an AM receiver
decodes the modulation back into sound. With the introduction of the transistor in the 1960s, pocket-
sized AM radios became a reality for the first time. Although AM's coding scheme is simple, its sound
quality is only fair, and it is vulnerable to electrical noise. FM, which was developed in the 1930s, relies
on the modulation of the radio signal's frequency and not its strength. The higher radio frequencies
used for FM as well as the modulation scheme give it much better sound quality with less noise than
AM.
3.3.2 Shortwave Radio

Shortwave radio lies in a range of frequencies from 1.7 to 30 megahertz, just above the AM radio band
in the U.S. Because of the way its frequencies interact with the Earth's ionosphere, shortwave
broadcasts can travel thousands of miles -- under some circumstances, listeners can tune in anywhere
on Earth. Government and commercial stations broadcast on shortwave frequencies to provide news,
information and other content. For example, the U.S. government runs WWV, a station that gives
accurate time information, at 2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz.
3.3.3 Satellite Radio

One of the newest forms of broadcasting, satellite radio is a commercial, subscription-based service
that uses a network of satellites to transmit signals over wide areas. Unlike traditional AM and FM
broadcasts, satellite radio is digitally encoded, requiring a special receiver. Even with the receiver, you
cannot tune in unless you have a paid subscription; a computer chip in the receiver locks out any
channels not paid for. Advantages of satellite radio include good sound quality, nationwide coverage
and access to material that sidesteps the Federal Communications Commission's ban on profanity.
3.3.4 Ham Radio

An amateur or "ham" radio operator broadcasts and receives signals over a restricted set of frequencies
set aside by the FCC; ham radio requires special training, licensing and equipment. As with shortwave,
ham radio broadcasts can travel thousands of miles depending on the time of day and other conditions.
For many, ham radio serves as an interesting and entertaining hobby, as operators learn practical radio
skills and form friendships with operators in other countries. In times of natural disaster, local
communications may be knocked out; ham operators are known to step in to pass along life-saving
information.
184
3.3.5 Walkie-Talkie
A walkie-talkie is a portable, handheld device that sends and receives radio signals, usually within a
range of about a mile. Walkie-talkies are used by two or more people to communicate in situations
where cell phone service is poor or unavailable, such as in remote locations or in buildings. Because
walkie-talkies have low power and short range, you don't need a special license to operate them; they
interfere little with other radio signals
Discussion
Discuss any two cybercrimes in your country.
Discuss the classification of crimes under the IT Act 2000.

Answer
The following acts are cyber crime in the I.T. Act 2000:- Without permission of the authorized user
x) Accessing or securing access to computer system or network. xi)
Downloading, coping or extracting any data or information. xii)
Introducing any computer, virus or contaminant in the computer.
xiii) Disrupting the working of the computer.
xiv) Disrupting the access of the computer of an authorized user. xv) Providing
assistance to ensure unauthorized access to the computer. xvi) Tampering with computer
source documents. xvii) Hacking of computer system.
xviii) Carring on activities that are not in compliance with the provisions of the Act.
What are the amendments to the Indian Penal Code?

Answer
The Indian Panel Code (IPC) details actions that constitute a crime and the punishments prescribed for
such actions. It elaborately classifies crimes based on interests that are intended to be protected. The
classification includes :- vi) Offences against body vii) Offences against property viii) Offences against
marriage ix) Offences against public tranquility
x) Offences against state Some important aspects have to be weighed while determining whether a
crime has been committed or not.
5.0 Conclusion
Cybercrimes are a new class of crimes which are increasing day by day due to extensive use of
internet these days.
185
6.0 Summary
Technology Act, 2000 was enacted with prime objective to create an enabling environment for
commercial use of I.T. The IT Act specifies the acts which have been made punishable. The Indian
Penal Code, 1860 has also been amended to take into its purview cybercrimes.
Flat & Nested Distributed Transactions - GeeksforGeeks
UNIT 3 Wireless Cellular Systems
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Wireless Cellular Systems
3.1.1 Cellular Concepts
3.1.2 Frequency Reuse
3.1.2.1 Interference and Reuse
3.1.3 Multiple Access
3.1.3.1 FDMA
3.1.3.2 TDMA
3.1.3.3 CDMA
3.1.4 Systems Capacity
186
3.1.4.1 Channel Capacity
3.1.4.2 Cellular Capacity
3.1.4.2.1 Cellular analog Capacity
3.1.4.2.2 TDMA/ EDMA Capacity
3.1.4.2.3 CDMA Capacity
3.1.5 Modulation and Coding
3.1.5.1 Modulations
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Wireless communications are especially useful for mobile applications, so wireless systems are often
designed to cover large areas by splitting them into many smaller cells. This cellular approach
introduces many difficulties such as how to avoid interference, or how to hand-over from one cell to
another, while maintaining good service quality. Coverage, capacity, interference, and spectrum reuse
are important concerns of cellular systems; this chapter reviews these aspects as well as the
technologies, tools, and standards used to optimize them.

• Explain international laws and treaties
• Explain international cyber-attacks previously occurred
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Wireless Cellular Systems
3.1.1 Cellular Concepts
Providing wireless service over wide areas requires different schemes to efficiently use spectrum in
different locations while avoiding interference.
187
3.1.2 Frequency Reuse
Covering a large geographic area with limited amount of spectrum leads to the reuse of the same
frequency in multiple locations; this leads to co-channel interference considerations, meaning
interference from different areas (or cells) that use the same frequency channel.
Co-channel interference considerations are usually approached by considering the following

parameters:
• St: total number of RF channels available (given the amount of spectrum and channel width
dictated by technology standard),
• S0: number of channels per cell, which reflects system capacity at a given location,
• K: the reuse factor, the number of cells that is repeated to provide coverage over a large area.
The three quantities are linked by the straightforward relation:
The reuse factor K is therefore an important parameter for capacity. The lowest reuse factor ( K = 1)
maximizes capacity; but this has to be balanced with interference considerations: indeed a higher reuse
factor (K = 3, 4, 7, or higher) provides more distance between cells using the same frequency, which
lowers interferences.
3.1.2.1 Interference and Reuse

Spectrum reuse causes interference; quantifying them require us to consider how a signal propagates
from one cell to another. Assume a propagation model using a power path loss exponent n, that is a
model where power decays in 1∕Rn (R being the distance separating transmit station from receiver).
This means that the ratio of received power to transmit power may be expressed as Pr ∕Pt = A∕Rn, where
A is some constant.
188
Figure 31: Frequency reuse patterns

Figure 1: Frequency reuse patterns K =3, 4, and 7, on hexagonal cells. Bold contour shows the pattern of
cells repeated to provide wide area coverage. Di shows the shortest distance between cells reusing the
same frequency.
With this model, signal to interference ratios are estimated as
where i0 is the number of co-channel cells nearest to the cell (called first tier or tier one); that number
increases with K. And Di is the distance to the tier-one cells reusing the same frequency (as shown in
figure 1). In the case of hexagonal cell approximation the expression simplifies to equation 1:
n values vary typically between 2 and 4 with the types of terrain. We will also see
that specific wireless technologies require a certain signal to noise and interference ratio (mostly based
on data rates); so equation (1) leads to a minimal acceptable value for K.
3.1.3 Multiple Access
A major requirement of cellular networks is to provide an efficient technique for multiple devices to
access the wireless system. These techniques include:
3.1.3.1 FDMA:
189
Frequency Division Multiple Access, perhaps the most straightforward, in which every user device uses
its own frequency channel. This method was used in the first generation analog systems.
3.1.3.2 TDMA:
Time Division Multiple Access, in which a radio channel is divided in time slots, and use devices use
their allocated time slots. In fact TDMA systems are often hybrid FDMA as well as multiple channels
are used, most 2G systems were TDMA.
3.1.3.3 CDMA:
Code Division Multiple Access, in which orthogonal (or pseudo orthogonal) codes are used to
differentiate user devices. CDMA is very spectrum efficient, and was used by 3G standards. There are
several approaches to achieve CDMA, such as frequency hooping (FH-CDMA) or direct spreading
(DS-CDMA).
These are the main multiple access techniques, but subtle extensions and combinations can be
devised to obtain more efficient schemes.
3.1.4 System Capacity
Wireless communications deal with at least two main concerns: coverage and capacity.
3.1.4.1 Channel Capacity
One fundamental concept of information theory is one of channel capacity, or how much information
can be transmitted in a communication channel. In the 1940’s Claude Shannon invented formal
characterization of information theory and derived the well-known Shanon’s capacity theorem. That
theorem applies to wireless communications.
The Shannon capacity equation gives an upper bound for the capacity in a non-faded channel with
added white Gaussian noise:
where C= capacity (bits/s), W=bandwidth (Hz), S∕N= signal to noise (and interference) ratio.
That capacity equation assumes one transmitter and one receiver, though multiple antennas can
be used in diversity scheme on the receiving side. The equation singles out two fundamentally
important aspects: bandwidth and SNR.
Bandwidth reflects how much spectrum a wireless system uses, and explains why the spectrum
considerations are so important: they have a direct impact on system capacity. SNR of course reflects
the quality of the propagation channel, and will be dealt with in numerous ways: modulation, coding,
error correction, and important design choices such as cell sizes and reuse patterns.
3.1.4.2 Cellular Capacity
Practical capacity of many wireless systems are far from the Shannon’s limit (although recent
standards are coming close to it); and practical capacity is heavily dependent on implementation and
standard choices.
Digital standards deal in their own way with how to deploy and optimize capacity. Most systems are
limited by channel width, time slots, and voice coding characteristics. CDMA systems are interference
limited, and have tradeoffs between capacity, coverage, and other performance metrics (such as
dropped call rates or voice quality).
3.1.4.2.1 Cellular Analog Capacity:
190
Fairly straight forward, every voice channel uses a 30 kHz frequency channel, these frequencies may
be reused according to a reuse pattern, the system is FDMA. The overall capacity simply comes from
the total amount of spectrum, the channel width and the reuse pattern.
3.1.4.2.2 TDMA/FDMA Capacity:
In digital FDMA systems, capacity improvements mainly come from the voice coding and elaborate
schemes (such as frequency hopping) to decrease reuse factor. The frequency reuse factor hides a lot
of complexity; its value depends greatly on the signal to interference levels acceptable to a given
cellular system. TDMA systems combine multiple time slots per channels.
3.1.4.2.3 CDMA Capacity:
A usual capacity equation for CDMA systems may be fairly easily derived as follows (for the reverse
link): first examine a base station with N mobiles, its noise and interference power spectral density
dues to all mobiles in that same cell is ISC = (N - 1)Sα, where S is the received power density for each
mobile, and α is the voice activity factor. Other cell interferences IOC are estimated by a reuse fraction β
of the same cell interference level, such that IOC = βISC; (usual values of β are around 1∕2). The total
noise and interference at the base is therefore Nt = ISC(1 + β). Next assume the mobile signal power
density received at the base station is S = REb∕W. Eliminating ISC, we derive:
…………… 2.5
where
• W is the channel bandwidth (in Hz),
• R is the user data bit rate (symbol rate in symbol per second),
• Eb∕Nt is the ratio of energy per bit by total noise (usually given in dB Eb∕Nt ≈ 7dB),
• α is the voice activity factor (for the reverse link), typically 0.5,
• and β is the interference reuse fraction, typically around 0.5, and represents the ratio of
interference level from the cell in consideration by interferences due to other cells. (The
number 1 + β is sometimes called reuse factor, and 1∕(1 + β) reuse efficiency)
This simple equation (2.5) gives us a number of voice channels in a CDMA frequency channel. We can
already see some hints of CDMA optimization and investigate certain possible improvement for a 3G
system. In particular: improving α can be achieved with dim and burst capabilities, β with interference
mitigation and antenna downtilt considerations, R with vocoder rate, W with wider band CDMA, Eb∕Nt
with better coding and interference mitigation techniques.
Some aspects however are omitted in this equation and are required to quantify other capacity
improvements mainly those due to power control, and softer/soft handoff algorithms. Of course other
limitations come into play for wireless systems, such as base station (and mobile) sensitivity, which
may be incorporated into similar formulas; and further considerations come into play such as: forward
power limitations, channel element blocking, backhaul capacity, mobility, and handoff.
3.1.5 Modulation and Coding

Modulation techniques are a necessary part of any wireless system, without them, no useful
information can be transmitted. Coding techniques are almost as important, and combine two important
aspects: first to transmit information efficiently, and second to deal with error correction (to avoid
retransmissions).
191
3.1.5.1 Modulation
A continuous wave signal (at a carrier frequency fc) in itself encodes and transmits no information. The
bits of information are encoded in the variations of that signal (in phase, amplitude, or a combination
thereof). These variations cause the occupied spectrum to increase, thus occupying a bandwidth
around fc; and the optimal use of that bandwidth is an important part of a wireless system. Various
modulation schemes and coding schemes are used to maximize the use of that spectrum for different
applications (voice or high speed data), and in various conditions of noise, interference, and RF
channel resources in general.
Classic modulation techniques are well covered in several texts, and we simply recall here a few
important aspects of digital modulations (that will be important in link budgets).
The main digital modulations used in modern wireless systems are outlined in table 1.
Modulation Bits encoded by: Example

Amplitude Shift Keying Discrete amplitude levels On/off keying
Frequency Shift Keying Multiple discrete frequencies
Phase Shift Keying Multiple discrete phases BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK
Quadrature Ampl. Mod. Both phase and amplitude 16, 64, 256 QAM
Discussion
What section of the Information Technology Act (ITA) that sanction internet fraudsters?
Explain the consequence according to the Act.
5.0 Conclusion
A country’s participation in a particular international agreement becomes effective only if domestic laws
are drafted and approved that legislate the intent of the signed international agreement.
6.0 Summary
Lawmakers and law enforcement agencies, around the world, advocate the need for cyber laws that
are written in the cyber language. That is, laws that explicitly define cyber offenses and fully support
the acceptance of cyber evidence. International bodies, responding to this call, have convened and
produced treaties and conventions that, unfortunately, have fallen short of receiving total acceptance
by the member countries.
192

Contents (colorado.edu)
UNIT 4 Characteristics of Service Oriented Architecture
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main content
3.1 Service Oriented Architecture (SOA)
3.1.1 A Service
Retailer)
3.4 Understanding SOA: The Transportation Analog
5.0 Conclusion
193
6.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Ethics is, therefore, the study of right and wrong in human conduct. Ethics can also be defined as a
theoretical examination of morality or “theory of morals.” Other philosophers have defined ethics in a
variety of ways. Robert C. Solomon, in Morality and the Good Life, defines ethics as a set of “theories
of value, virtue, or of right (valuable) action.” O.J. Johnson, on the other hand, defines ethics as a set of
theories “that provide general rules or principles to be used in making moral decisions and, unlike
ordinary intuitions, provides a justification for those rules.”The word ethicscomes from the ancient
Greek word eché, which means character. Every human society practices ethics in some way because
every society attaches a value on a continuum of good to bad, right to wrong, to an individual’s actions
according to where that individual’s actions fall within the domain of that society’s rules and canons.

• Understand the use of ethical theories in ethical arguments.
• Articulate the ethical tradeoffs in a technical decision.
• Understand the role of professional codes of ethics.
194
3.0 Main Content

Service-Oriented Architecture, can be defined as "services" that provide a platform by which disparate
systems can communicate with each other. These services are essentially groups of software
components that help a company seamlessly carry out important business processes. SOA
implementation makes interoperability between heterogeneous applications and technologies possible.
The rise of SOA technology and integration in recent years is placing it as one of the most important
applications for communicating between different systems — or in this context, services.
3.1.1 A Service
Services represent building blocks that allow users to organize information in ways that are familiar to
them. These building blocks combine information about users and their behavior in a seamless fashion
to present a relatively simple interface.
A service is commonly characterized by these four properties:
5. It logically represents a business activity with a specified outcome.
6. It is self-contained
7. It is a black box for its consumers
8. It may consist of other underlying services
To further simplify this concept, an SOA service is the mechanism that satisfies a customer’s wants or
needs through a negotiated contract. Therefore, SOA is a collection of different services.
To better understand what service-oriented architecture is all about, consider this quote from industry
expert David Sprott:
Retailer)
Communication of services can involve something as simple as passing data, or it can involve a
coordination of an activity between two or more different SOA services.
One way to illustrate the SOA method is by taking a look at a large online retailer like Overstock.com.
In order for Overstock customers to make a transaction, different programs must work together
seamlessly. The various steps in the ordering process can involve various programs developed at
different times, each using their own unique platforms and technologies.
For instance, there might be one program that tracks inventory, which is different than the interface (i.e.
the Internet) the customer uses to shop. Then, there is likely an entirely different program for their
shopping cart and another for processing payment.
SOA services tie all of these various programs together so that an online shopper can quickly find out if
what they are looking for is in stock and get it shipped to their doorstep with just a few clicks of their
mouse.

In October of 2009, a manifesto was created about service-oriented architecture.
This manifesto states that there are six core values of SOA:
7. Business value is more important than technical strategy.
8. Strategic goals are more valuable than project-specific benefits.
195
9. Intrinsic interoperability is greater than custom integration.
10. Shared services over specific-purpose implementations.
11. Flexibility is given more importance than optimization.
12. Evolutionary refinement is more important than pursuit of initial perfection.

Another way to think about SOA is through the analogy of transportation.
Imagine that you have to travel from your home in Ibadan to a business conference or trade show in
Kano. What are the various steps you might take to get there?
First, you will have to drive to the airport, then take a shuttle to the airport terminal. Next, you will board
the plane for Kano. After landing, you take another shuttle from the gate to the main terminal, where
you have to flag down a taxi or call an Uber to drive you to your hotel. When it is time for the conference
to start, you walk to the nearest train stop, hop on, and ride it to the conference center.
All of these various transportation methods worked together to accomplish your end goal of attending
the conference — your car, the shuttle bus, airplane, train, and even walking. There were many
individual “steps” you had to take to arrive at your final destination on time, and there were likely other
ways you could have gone about it.
For instance, instead of driving to the airport, you could have walked to a train station or bus stop and
gotten to the airport this way. Or you could have driven completely across the country, thus eliminating
your need for any other type of transportation altogether.
However, by combining numerous transportation methods you were able to get to the conference faster
and probably cheaper than if you had driven the whole way.
In this analogy of SOA, the various modes of transportation can be viewed as the different
“services” used to reach an end goal. Just like the cars, bus, train, and plane all worked together to help
you accomplish your goal of attending the conference, combining different units of software applications
(services) can help business achieve new milestones in the most efficient manner.
Discussion
Why is ethics relevant in the cyberspace?
1. What are the ten commandments for computer ethics?
Answer xi. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other
people.
xii. Thou shalt not interfere with other people‟s computer work.
xiii. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people‟s files. xiv. Thou shalt not use a
computer to steal. xv. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness. xvi. Thou shalt
not use of copy software for which you have not paid. xvii. Thou shalt not use other people‟s
computer resources without authorization. xviii. Thou shalt not appropriate other people‟s
intellectual output. xix. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program u
write. xx. Thou shalt use a computer in ways to show consideration and respect.
196
2. Explain the three levels of computer ethics. Answer
• First level: - It is the basic level where computer ethics tries to sensitize people to the fact that
computer technology has social and ethical consequences. Newspaper, TV news program,
and magazines have highlighted the topic of computer ethics by reporting on events relating to
computer viruses, software ownership law suits, computer aided bank robbery, computer
malfunction etc.
• Second level:- It consists of someone who takes interest in computer ethics cases, collects
examples, clarifies them, looks for similarities and differences reads related works, attends
relevant events to make preliminary assessments and after comparing them.
• Third level: - It referred to as „theoretical‟ computer ethics applies scholarly theories to
computer ethics cases and concepts in order to deepen the understanding of issues.
All three level of analysis are important to the goal of advancing and defending human values.
5.0 Conclusion
The role of ethics is to help societies distinguish between right and wrong and to give each society a
basis for justifying the judgment of human actions. Ethics is, therefore, a field of inquiry whose subject
is human actions, collectively called human conduct, that are taken consciously, willfully, and for which
one can be held responsible. According to Fr. Austin Fagothey, such acts must have knowledge, which
signifies the presence of a motive, be voluntary, and have freedom to signify the presence of free
choice to act or not to act.
6.0 Summary
The purpose of ethics is to interpret human conduct, acknowledging and distinguishing between right
and wrong. The interpretation is based on a system which uses a mixture of induction and deduction.
In most cases, these arguments are based on historical schools of thought called ethical theories.
There are many different kinds of ethical theories, and within each theory there may be different
versions of that theory. Let us discuss these next.

Alfreda D. et al. (2012). Investigating Cyber Law and Cyber Ethics: Issues, Impacts, and Practices.
Information Science Reference, USA. ISBN 978-1-61350-133-7
Baldini, Gianmarco, Botterman, Maarten, Neisse, Ricardo, and Tallacchini, Mariachiara (2016) “Ethical
Design in the Internet of Things,” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-21.
Bustard, John D. (2017), “Improving Student Engagement in the Study of Professional Ethics:
Concepts and an Example in Cyber Security” Science and Engineering Ethics, 1-16.
197
Dipert, Randall R. (2010) “The Ethics of Cyberwarfare,” Journal of Military Ethics 9:4, 384410
ICSI (2016). Cybercrime Law and Practice. THE INSTITUTE OF COMPANY SCRETARIES OF INDIA.
ISBN : 978-93-82207795.
Manjikian, Mary (2017) Cybersecurity Ethics: An Introduction, Routledge; 240 pp. Taddeo,
Mariarosaria and Glorioso, Ludovica (2017) Ethics and Policies for Cyber Operations,
Springer. EC Council (2016) Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures (Book Series, 4 volumes),
Cengage Learning
198

Csc405 Net

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Csc405 Net

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Csc405 Net

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA, DELTA STATE

COURSE CODE: CSC405

COURSE TITLE: Net-Centric Computing

Course Team G. C. OMEDE (Ph.D.) (Developer/Writer) – DELSU.

• Identify the configurations of Distributed systems

High-level coding: High-level coding is a programming language that is closer to natural

Low-level coding: Low-level coding is a programming language that is closer to machine

Some basic codes and their constructions:

Copy and try code

Copy and try code

if age >= 18:

Copy and try code

for fruit in fruits:

Copy and try code

while count < 5:

Basic communication system:

Entropy capacity of discrete noiseless channels:

Entropy capacity of continuous Gaussian noise channels:

Module 1 Net-Centric Computing Fundamentals……………………………………1

Module 2 Parallel Systems …………..………………………………………………. 25

Module 3 Distributed Systems ………………………………………………………. 62

Module 4 Distributed Transactions …………….……………………………………102

Unit 3 Concurrency………….…………………………………………………….. 121

Module 5 Mobile & Cloud Computing ………………………………………………..

Unit 1 Introduction to Mobile & Cloud Computing ……………………………….

Unit 2 Technologies for Wireless Communications ………………………………..

Unit 3 Wireless Cellular Systems ……………………………………………………

Unit 5 High Speed Wireless Networks: HiperLAN

Module 1: Net-Centric Computing Fundamentals

Overview of Net-centric computing:

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Distributed computing

Figure 1: Distributed Computing Systems

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Describe two Service Orientations

7.0 References/Further Reading

Unit 2: Mobile & Wireless Computing

Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define Wireless Communication

3.0 Main Content

Figure 2: Internet with Mobile Devices

Figure 3: Mobile Hardware

Figure 4: Mobile Software

Figure 6: Smart Phones

 Tablet PC and iPads

Figure 7: Ipads & PCs

Why is the Mobile Software important in Mobile and Cloud Computing?

4.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

1. Define Mobile Computing.

Answer • Near Field Communication

7.0 References/Further Reading

UNIT 3 Network Security

3.0 Main Content

3.2 Data as the Life-Blood of Businesses

3.4 Benefits of Network Security

3.5 Network Security Tools and Techniques

Identify and explain the benefits of network security?