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 Computed tomography
INTRODUCTION
A CT scan or computed tomography scan (formerly known as computed axial tomography or CAT
scan) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to get detailed images of the body noninvasively
for diagnostic purposes. The personnel that perform CT scans are called radiographers or radiology
technologists.

PRINCIPLE-
CT is based on the fundamental principle that the density of the tissue passed by the x-ray beam can be
measured from the calculation of the attenuation coefficient. ... Attenuation values of the x-ray beam are
recorded and data used to build a 3D representation of the scanned object/tissue.

INSTRUMENTATION AND WORKING PROCESS

1. A motorized table moves the patient through a circular opening in the CT imaging system.
2. As the patient passes through the CT imaging system, a source of x rays rotates around the inside of the
circular opening. A single rotation takes about 1 second. The x-ray source produces a narrow, fan-shaped
beam of x rays used to irradiate a section of the patient's body. The thickness of the fan beam may be as
small as 1 millimeter or as large as 10 millimeters. In typical examinations there are several phases; each
made up of 10 to 50 rotations of the x-ray tube around the patient in coordination with the table moving
through the circular opening. The patient may receive an injection of a "contrast material" to facilitate
visualization of vascular structure.
3. Detectors on the exit side of the patient record the x rays exiting the section of the patient's body being
irradiated as an x-ray "snapshot" at one position (angle) of the source of x rays. Many different
"snapshots" (angles) are collected during one complete rotation.
4. The data are sent to a computer to reconstruct all of the individual "snapshots" into a cross-sectional
image (slice) of the internal organs and tissues for each complete rotation of the source of x rays.

Advances in Technology and Clinical Practice

CT Fan Beam

Today most CT systems are capable of "spiral" (also called "helical") scanning as well as scanning in the
formerly more conventional "axial" mode. In addition, many CT systems are capable of imaging multiple
slices simultaneously. Such advances allow relatively larger volumes of anatomy to be imaged in relatively
less time. Advancement in the technology is electron beam CT, also known as EBCT. Although the
principle of creating cross-sectional images is the same as for conventional CT, whether single- or multi-
slice, the EBCT scanner does not require any moving parts to generate the individual "snapshots." As a
result, the EBCT scanner allows a quicker likeness acquisition than conventional CT scanners.

TYPES-

1. Spiral CT
2. Electron beam tomography
3. CT perfusion imaging

Spiral CT
Spinning tube, commonly called spiral CT, or helical CT, is an imaging technique in which an entire X-ray
tube is spun around the central axis of the area being scanned. These are the dominant type of scanners on
the market because they have been manufactured longer and offer a lower cost of production and purchase.
The main limitation of this type of CT is the bulk and inertia of the equipment (X-ray tube assembly and
detector array on the opposite side of the circle) which limits the speed at which the equipment can spin.
Electron beam tomography
Electron beam tomography (EBT) is a specific form of CT in which a large enough X-ray tube is
constructed so that only the path of the electrons, travelling between the cathode and anode of the X-ray
tube, are spun using deflection coils. This type had a major advantage since sweep speeds can be much
faster, allowing for less blurry imaging of moving structures, such as the heart and arteries Fewer scanners
of this design have been produced when compared with spinning tube types, mainly due to the higher cost
associated with building a much larger X-ray tube and detector array and limited anatomical coverage.
CT perfusion imaging
CT perfusion imaging is a specific form of CT to assess flow through blood vessels whilst injecting
a contrast agent Blood flow, blood transit time, and organ blood volume, can all be calculated with
reasonable specificity. This type of CT may be used on the heart, although sensitivity and specificity for
detecting abnormalities are still lower than for other forms of CT.] This may also be used on the brain, where
CT perfusion imaging can often detect poor brain perfusion well before it is detected using a conventional
spiral CT scan. This is better for stroke diagnosis than other CT types.

X-ray
INTRODUCTION-

X-rays are a type of radiation called electromagnetic waves. X-ray imaging creates pictures of the inside
of your body. The images show the parts of your body in different shades of black and white. This is
because different tissues absorb different amounts of radiation.

PRINCIPLE
CT, radiography, and fluoroscopy all work on the same basic principle: an X-ray beam is passed through
the body where a portion of the X-rays are either absorbed or scattered by the internal structures, and
the remaining X-ray pattern is transmitted to a detector .

INSTRUMENTATION AND WORKING PROCESS

1. X-rays occupy a band within the electromagnetic spectrum higher in frequency (between 0.10 and 10 nm
wavelength) than ultraviolet radiation and lower in frequency than gamma rays (less than 10 pm
wavelength). At such a high frequency, the amount of energy they carry is awesome. They pass with
minimal loss through most substances and their ionizing potential is substantial.

2. X-rays today are generated from X-ray vacuum tubes consisting of an anode and a cathode, heated by an
adjacent energized tungsten filament. Electrons, carrying a negative charge, boil out of the hot cathode
(operating in the 40-kV range) and fly toward the positive-biased anode. Raising the filament and cathode
temperature increases the electron current, determining the intensity of the final X-ray beam. Raising the
bias determines the energy of incident electrons.

3. An electron, sufficiently energized, striking a metal object causes it to emit an X-ray photon. The voltage
difference between the cathode and anode determines the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the anode
and in turn the kinetic energy or penetrating power of the emitted X-ray photon.

4. Thus, the X-ray tube resembles an oscilloscope or TV cathode-ray tube except that rather than writing a
waveform trace or scanning an image on a phosphor-coated screen, the electrons strike an anode, which
emits X-photons that are directed by the geometry of the anode to pass effortlessly through the glass wall at
a prescribed location in the form of a collimated beam (not coherent as in a laser).

5. That said, readers might wonder whether LEDs may eventually replace tubes for generating X-rays. That
doesn’t look likely. It only recently became practical for LEDs to generate high UV light (around 270 nm).
The wavelength of LED light depends on the energy
band gap of the semiconductors used. There doesn’t
seem to be any semiconductor with a band gap even
in the right ballpark to produce an output at 10 nm.

ULTRA-SOUND
INTRODUCTION-

Ultrasound (US) is an imaging technology that uses high-frequency sound waves to characterize tissue. It is
a useful and flexible modality in medical imaging, and often provides an additional or unique
characterization of tissues, compared with other modalities such as conventional radiography or CT.

PRINCIPLE-

An electric current passes through a cable to the transducer and is applied to the crystals, causing them to
deform and vibrate. This vibration produces the ultrasound beam. The frequency of the ultrasound waves
produced is predetermined by the crystals in the transducer.

INSTRUMENTATION AND WORKING PROCESS-

1. Ultrasound imaging uses sound waves to produce pictures of the inside of the body. It is used to help
diagnose the causes of pain, swelling and infection in the body's internal organs and to examine a
baby in pregnant women and the brain and hips in infants. It's also used to help guide biopsies,
diagnose heart conditions, and assess damage after a heart attack. Ultrasound is safe, noninvasive,
and does not use ionizing radiation.
2. This procedure requires little to no special preparation. Your doctor will instruct you on how to
prepare, including whether you should refrain from eating or drinking beforehand. Leave jewelry at
home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.

A basic ultrasound machine has the following parts

 transducer probe - probe that sends and receives the sound waves
 central processing unit (CPU) - computer that does all of the calculations and contains the
electrical power supplies for itself and the transducer probe
 transducer pulse controls - changes the amplitude, frequency and duration of the pulses emitted
from the transducer probe
 display - displays the image from the ultrasound data processed by the CPU
 keyboard/cursor - inputs data and takes measurements from the display
 disk storage device (hard, floppy, CD) - stores the acquired imagesprinter - prints the image from
the displayed data

Hem dialysis
INTRODUCTION
Hem dialysis is a procedure where a dialysis machine and a special filter called an artificial kidney, or a
dialyzer, are used to clean your blood. To get your blood into the dialyzer, the doctor needs to make an
access, or entrance, into your blood vessels. This is done with minor surgery, usually to your arm.

PRINCIPLE
Dialysis works on the principles of the diffusion of solutes and ultra filtration of fluid across a semi-
permeable membrane. Diffusion is a property of substances in water; substances in water tend to move from
an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.[9] Blood flows by one side of a semi-
permeable membrane, and a dialysate, or special dialysis fluid, flows by the opposite side. A semi permeable
membrane is a thin layer of material that contains holes of various sizes, or pores. Smaller solutes and fluid
pass through the membrane, but the membrane blocks the passage of larger substances.

INSTRUMENTATION AND WORKING PROCESS

 In hem dialysis, the patient's blood is pumped through the blood compartment of a dialyzer, exposing
it to a partially permeable membrane. The dialyzer is composed of thousands of tiny hollow synthetic
fibers. The fiber wall acts as the semi permeable membrane. Blood flows through the fibers, dialysis
solution flows around the outside of the fibers, and water and wastes move between these two
solutions. The cleansed blood is then returned via the circuit back to the body. Ultra filtration occurs
by increasing the hydrostatic pressure across the dialyzer membrane
  This usually is done by applying a negative pressure to the dialyses compartment of the dialyzer.
This pressure gradient causes water and dissolved solutes to move from blood to dialyses and allows
the removal of several liters of excess fluid during a typical 4-hour treatment. In the United States,
hem dialysis treatments are typically given in a dialysis center three times per week.

C-Arm

INTRODUCTION
C-arms work in conjunction with patient tables that are specifically designed for X-ray imaging. A table
should allow free positioning of the C-arm around the patient. Some tables are designed to move and rotate
to allow better patient access for procedures and to aid imaging angles.

WORKING PRINICIPAL

A C-arm comprises a generator (X-ray source) and an image intensifier or flat-panel detector. The C-
shaped connecting element allows movement horizontally, vertically and around the swivel axes, so
that X-ray images of the patient can be produced from almost any angle.

A C-arm is an imaging scanner intensifier. The name derives from the C-shaped arm used to connect
the x-ray source and x-ray detector to one another. C-arms have radiographic capabilities,
though they are used primarily for fluoroscopic intraoperative imaging during surgical, orthopedic
and emergency care procedures. The devices provide high-resolution X-ray images in real time, thus
allowing the physician to monitor progress and immediately make any corrections.

X-ray image intensifier

An x-ray image intensifier (XRII) is an image intensifier that converts x-rays into visible light at
higher intensity than mere fluorescent screens do. X-ray imaging systems use such intensifiers (like
fluoroscopes) to allow converting low-intensity x-rays to a conveniently bright visible light output.
Through its intensifying effect, the viewer can more easily see the structure of the imaged object than
fluorescent screens alone. The XRII requires lower absorbed doses due to more efficient conversion of x-ray
quanta to visible light.

C-Arm MACHINE