INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
Sociology is the systematic study of society (Macionis and Plummer, 2005).

It is the study of human society and social interactions and is, therefore, concerned with
the interactions of humans and the meaning they attach to these interactions.
The founding father of sociology is the French philosopher, Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
and he was the first to use the term “sociology” in 1838.
Comte referred to sociology as the scientific study of society and argued that all societies
develop and progress through three (3) stages: religious, metaphysical (being
philosophical), and scientific.

Sociology is an important social discipline because:

It allows for the investigation of the influence of social forces on human behaviours.

It helps the individual to understand human society and how social systems, structures
and institutions works.
It looks beyond common sense to understand human actions and interactions.

It allows for critical thinking about social issues and problems.

MODULE ONE-: SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS, PERSPECTIVES AND METHODS

FOREFATHERS OF SOCIOLOGY
Although Auguste Comte is considered the “founding father” of Sociology, he is not among the
three major founding fathers. These three are:

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Max Weber (1864-1920).

However, Auguste Comte is important to consider for his role in the development of sociology as
a discipline. These being:

Coined the term of sociology.

Developed positivism (the belief that sociology can be studied as a science).

Paved the way for the functionalist perspective – which was eventually developed by
Durkheim.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF EMILE DURHEIM

Developed the consensus perspective (functionalism)-This is the position that everything

exists in society for the purpose of benefiting society.
Relied heavily on Auguste Comte work on positivism because he also believed that
society can be scientifically studied.

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 Became the first sociologists to employ science in the study of society.

Used science to study Suicide – He examined official statistics and made comparative
studies of suicide statistics from various studies – concluded that people commit suicide
due to various social factors.
Employs the Macro approach in the study of society – This is the position that people are
powerless and are shaped by the social institutions and forces around them – people are
just puppets of society.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF KARL MARX

Father of Marxism -Conflict perspective – The position that capitalist society is shaped
by class struggles between the ruling class and the working class.
Developed the concept of Bourgeoisie (the capitalists or ruling class) and the Proletariat
(the working class).
Consider the economic changes in society caused by the Industrial Revolution and how it
developed the capitalist class.
Expands on the problems caused by capitalism.

Used the macro approach.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MAX WEBER

Relied on the economic views of Marx but developed the Interactionism perspective (The
position that society is determine by human interactions and interpretations).
Did not agree with positivism, believed that society cannot truly be scientifically studied.

Formed the view that interaction and meaning attached to things of importance.

Used the micro approach, i.e., people have the ability to shape society.

Did not agree that social institutions shape people. Instead, it is people who shape social
institutions.
Focused a great deal on social change – In his book, the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism, he argued that society underwent a revolutionary transformation moving from
ancient slavery to capitalism. He accounted this change to changing values and the spread
of Protestantism – gives a religious undertone.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE CARIBBEAN

The development of sociology in the Caribbean was influenced by:

The history of the region (such legacies as slavery, emancipation, indentureship,

colonialism and independence have shaped the social institutions and structures of the

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region).

The influence of major sociological perspectives such as functionalism, Marxism and

Interactionism have assisted Caribbean sociologists to better understand social changes in

the region. Caribbean sociologists draw reference from these theories to develop an

understanding of Caribbean society. For example, M.G. Smith (1965) relied heavily on

the Conflict perspective to develop the plural society thesis. Also, Kamau Braithwaite

(1971) relied heavily on the consensus perspective to develop the Creole society thesis.

The economic changes of the Caribbean (the move from an agricultural economy to a

manufacturing one – led to changes in stratification, mobility and the occupational changes).

Political reforms in the region (pre and post- independence era)

The work of pioneers in the field.

MAJOR CARIBBEAN THEORISTS

M.G. Smith –>The Plural Society Thesis

Kamau Braithwaite – The Creole Society Thesis

Edith Clarke – The Development of Afro-Caribbean families

Lloyd Braithwaite – The Stratification System in the Caribbean

Dereck Gordon – Social Stratification and Social Mobility in Jamaica

Carl Stone – The Class Society

Raymond Smith – The Impact of Plantation Slavery on Families

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

1. Sociological Imagination

Coined by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills

It is the ability to shift from one perspective to another.

The ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each other.

The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.

2. Sociological perspective

Coined by Sociologist Peter Berger.

Invites sociologists to look at familiar surroundings in a fresh way.

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 Emphasizes that our social backgrounds influence our attitudes, behaviours, and life
chances.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECIVES

Sociology as a subject is comprised of persons who research on phenomena in an effort to

explain their existence. Many of these adopt a similar view/perspective of how and why society
exists and grouped according to the perspective/view they hold.

Hence a sociological perspective is simply a group of theorists who share common view as to
why society exists.

There are three major perspectives in sociology:

Functionalist

Conflict/Marxist

Interactionist

Other minor perspectives exist such as the:

Feminist |Phenomenologist | Post Modernists

FUNCTIONALISM

Known as a macro perspective/theory because it takes a holistic view of society instead

of looking at individual action.
Also called a structural theory because it looks at the structure of society.

Founded by Aguste Comte, pioneered by Emil Durkheim, developed and made famous
by Talcott Parsons.
Functionalism operates on the belief that society is like a human body made up of
interrelated organs, each with its own purpose (function).
All organs are interdependent and must perform their function for the body in this case -
society) to exist.
In society, the organs are the institutions e.g. (family, education, church, juridical system
etc.). Each institution must perform its function for the society to exist.
Each institution must also perform its function in tandem with the other institutions;
hence a stable society is made up of a group of interrelated functional institutions.
In performing its function each institution provides society with a functional prerequisite
i.e., an element or activity that is necessary for society's survival.
One example of a functional pre-requisite is the value consensus, a societal agreement on
what is right or wrong.
The value consensus is provided through socialization, where children learn what is
accepted as right and what is seen as wrong in their particular society.

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 The teaching of these shared norms and values lead to the consensus/agreements
necessary to stabilize the society. Without these shared beliefs, society would disintegrate
into chaos (what Durkheim calls anomie).
Just imagine if we all didn't share the view that we should stop at red light and go at
green. Imagine the chaos if some thought that red meant go and some thought that it
meant stop. For simple reasons like that the value consensus is a functional pre-requisite
(a necessity for society's survival).
Functionalists also believe the norms of a society are the basis for its laws and they
govern social behaviour.
Those who adhere to the laws are rewarded while those who deviate are punished.

POPULAR FUNCTIONALIST IDEAS/THEORIES

TYPES OF SOLIDARITY: DURKHEIM

1.Mechanical Solidarity – Unity sprung from similarity: It is really social cohesion based upon
the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society, and largely dependent on common
rituals and routines. Common among prehistoric and pre-agricultural societies and lessens in
predominance as modernity increases.

2.Organic Solidarity – Unity sprung from interdependence: It is really social cohesion based
upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other. Common among
industrial societies as the division of labour increases. Though individuals perform different
tasks and often have different values and interests, social order and survival of society depends
on their reliance on each other to perform their specific task.

ROBERT K. MERTON - LATENT AND MANIFEST FUNCTIONS

Functionalists who believe that (they?) have both manifest (intended) and latent (unintended)
functions. The latent function of stratification and the collective goals is crime, as those who
can't succeed in "legitimate activities” will turn to crime.

TALCOT T PARSON'S AGIL MODEL

Parson's model of social stability is represented by the acronym AGIL, which represents the four
basic functions that all social systems in society must perform if they are to persist/ exist.

1.Adaptation: The problem of acquiring sufficient resources for human survival - economic
function.

2.Goal Attainment: The problem of settling and implementing goals.

3.Integration: The problem of maintaining solidarity, stability or coordination among the sub-
units or sub-groups of the system.

4.Latency: The problem of creating, preserving, and transmitting the system's distinctive culture
and values (socialization).

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5.Social structure: In sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby
human beings in a society interact and live together - social strata.

CRITICISMS OF FUNCTIONALISM

The functionalist perspective is often said to be utopian as it ignores the conflicts that
exist in society.
The functionalist takes it for granted that all the institutions in the society are functional
(playing their respective roles properly), and hence there is little, or no conflict and
societies will be constantly stable.
They give no account for dysfunctional families that provide inadequate socialization for
children, education systems or institutions that impart very little knowledge or
governments that are corrupt.
It is also said to be overly deterministic as it gives little relevance to human free will.
Instead, it argues that the institutions will control what humans do and do not do.

MARXISM/CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

There are many theories that make up the conflict perspective, but the most popular of all
and the one that has become synonymous with the conflict perspective is Marxism.
Called a historic-macro theory, the Marxist theory, developed by Karl Marx, looked to
history for proof of its views.
Like functionalism, it is also known as a macro theory because of its holistic views of
society.
Karl Marx built his theory on the basis that humans have always needed to produce (be it
food or shelter) to survive.
Production has two (2) components: 1. The social relationship that governs production,
and 2. The technical aspect i.e., the forces of production - land, capital, raw material, and
scientific knowledge.
These two components of production make up the infrastructure or economy of society.

All other institutions (school, churches etc.) are a part of the superstructure and are
shaped and will facilitate the type of infrastructure/economy a society has.
Thus, the values we learn at school or from our religious institutions are determined by
the economy and the values the economy needs us to have.
Karl Marx argues that throughout history there has always existed two (2) groups, the
rich who own the means of production and control the superstructure and the pool who
only own their labour.
He contends that the capitalist era we live in (just as it was throughout history) there is a
dialectic relationship (a conflicting relationship between interdependent groups) between
the rich/upper class (bourgeoisie) and the poor / lower class (proletariat).

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 This as though both groups are needed to produce (those with the means of production
must work with those with the labour) the upper-class (bourgeoisie) who the means of
production (land capital etc.) have always exploited the lower class (proletariat)who
provide the labour necessary to produce wealth.
The proletariats are exploited as though their labour is used to produce the products. The
small bourgeoisie group retains majority of the profits from the products and pays the
proletariats a very small amount called wages.
The bourgeoisie maintain this exploitive system by using the different institutions in
society such as the Education System, Judicial System and Religion to dominate and
indoctrinate the proletariat. These institutions teach the False Class Consciousness.
The false class consciousness is the upper-class doctrine which tells the lower-class that
society is fair and equal, and that the suffering of the poor is due to their own
inadequacies. Thus, the poor are less likely to fight against the exploitive bourgeoisie.
Religion is the most effective perpetrator of the false class consciousness as it teaches
that all things are ordained by God, hence if you are poor that's the way God wanted it.
Additionally, it says we should wait until after death to get our just rewards instead of
fighting for it now. The exploitation has been happening since the beginning of time and
continues in capitalism. However, the proletariat will one day see the fallacies of the false
class consciousness, tire of the exploitation and join together in a bloody revolution
against the bourgeoisie. This revolution will lead to a new economic era called
Communism.
In a communist economy, all men are equal hence there will be no exploitive social
relationships, no conflict to cause a revolution and so this era will last forever.

CRITICISMS OF MARXISM

Many critics argue that the Marxists have a utopian view of the future, as they predict a
communist era where all men are equal. However, theorists such as Thomas Hobbes
argue that man is too selfish for any such era to be a reality.
Marx is said to be economically deterministic as he sees the nature of the eco my
determining all other institutions (the superstructure) and social relationships It means he
ignores the individual's ability to make his own choices according to the interactionist,
and the impact of gender and patriarchal relationships according to the feminists.
Marx argues that the proletariat revolution will result from the destruction of the false
class consciousness, and the disappearance of religion. However, critics argue that there
is no evidence that religion that has been around since the beginning of time will
disappear, and if it doesn't, then the false class consciousness will continue to be
promoted hence no revolution will take place.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONALISM

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 This perspective was developed by George Herbert Mead and posits that individuals
place meanings on objects in society and these meanings determine their behaviour.
Interaction between individuals is only possible when the meanings of the symbols are
shared. For example, because the symbols (the words) in the English language are shared
we can all communicate.
We interact by interpreting the symbols around us and act according to how we see
ourselves. E.g., if we see a man with a knife approaching which we interpret to mean
danger, and we see ourselves as cowards then we will run, but if we see ourselves as
brave then we will stay.
Mead adds that in our minds we have a concept of “self.” The self has two parts the “I”
(our own beliefs about who we are, or our natural self) and the “me” (what we are
socialized to be).
The “me" or the socialized self stems from our interaction with the “generalized other"
(society). In essence the “me” is who society tells us to be.
Mead posits that the “me” is developed in childhood during the ‘Play' and the 'Game'
stages. Through playing games children learn that there are different roles they have to
play at different times, even if they don't want to. They learn that society has certain
expectations of them which they have to fill if they want to be accepted. They start to
understand the importance of stifling the “I” and becoming the “me.”

Mead emphasizes the three(3) principles:

1. Ascribed meanings: Human action is based on the meanings ascribed to objects.

2. Communication: The meanings we place on symbols are due to our interaction with others.

3. Interpretation: Before we act, we seek to interpret the symbols before us.

ETHNO-METHODOLOGY

Founded by Harold Garfinkel in the 1960's, this theory postulates that reality and social
order is a cognitive construction i.e., it is done in the mind.
Individuals make sense of society according to a set of un-written rules to which they
subscribe, the documentary method. These rules guide their interpretations of their
situation and the interpretation then determines how they behave.
Hence, two persons can be in the same situation and behave differently. This is because
their cognitive processes and consequent interpretation of the situation are different.

INTERACTIONALISM

Focuses on individual interaction instead of society on the whole. It is therefore called a

micro-theory.

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 Argues that human behaviour is not determined by society or social systems, instead it is
dependent on human interactions, the meanings we allocate to the actions of others and
the situations in which we find ourselves.
Thus, whether I decide to run or fight if confronted; is not determined only by my
socialization from society's institutions, but my assessment of the situation I am in, and
the meanings I affix to the actions of others. For example, I may fight if I interpret my
aggressors trembling to mean fear, or I may run if I interpret it to mean extreme anger.
Above all, our behaviour is determined by our self-concept and our interaction with
others.
Our self -concept (view of our self) is based on how we believe other people see us. It is
your view of others view of you. This view of self will guide our behaviour and
interactions with others. The process through which we form a view of ourselves (our
self-concept) is called the looking glass self. This term was introduced by Charles
Cooley. Interactionism was pioneered by Charles Cooley.

DRAUMATURGY

The concept of dramaturgy was developed by Canadian-born Sociologist Erving

Goffman.
Erving Goffman understood social interaction as if it were a play performed on stage for
an audience.
He believed that people performed roles for each other and that we learn how to play our
roles better from others whom we interact with.
A key element of this theory is front stage and backstage.

Front Stage and Back Stage

In simple terms, “Front stage” is the type of behaviour people engage in when they know
others are watching while “Back stage” is what they do when no one is watching.
An example of “Front Stage” is a classroom lecture , where everyone has a role to play ,
the teacher’s whose role is to teach and the students whose role is listen and ask questions
if needed. In the back stages of life one can be themselves as they have no role to play
and can also prep themselves for the return to front stage.

Impression Management

A key aspect of dramaturgy is Impression Management.

Impression Management is a very important part of the dramaturgical perspective. It is

the effort to control or manipulate others’ impressions of us on front stage.
This aspect is very important in the development of social relationships and the
maintenance of these relationships.
Goffman said that people use things he referred to as sign vehicles to portray ourselves to
others.

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Sign Vehicles

Sign vehicles is the term used by Goffman to refer to how people use appearance ,
manner of interacting and social setting to communicate things about themselves.
Simply , these are thing we use to convey impressions to people we interact with.

Goffman sometimes referred to these things as props and non-verbal communication.

Our appearance such as the things we wear conveys a certain impression of us.

Manner of Interacting also gives off a certain impression about us. It conveys specific
attitudes of us , through verbal and non-verbal communication. Especially non-verbal
communication.
Lastly, social setting is what it sounds like, it is the physical setting where socialization
takes place. How we arrange our spaces conveys a lot of information about us.

CULTURE

What is culture?

Ralph Linton the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they
learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.

Clyde Kluckholm a ‘design for living’ held by the members of a Society.

TYPES OF CULTURE

1.Material Culture

Tangible and concrete objectives created by a society to reflect their interest and pre-
occupation.
These include material articles that society creates for survival.

2.Non-Material Culture

Intangible components of our way of life e.g., language, norms, values and ideas.

Therefore, culture is both concrete and abstract, that is, we can observe it through cultural objects
as well as abstract through thinking, feeling and believing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1.Culture is Shared

Each society consists of agreements on what the norms and values are. Although persons
may exhibit different norms, there is a general consensus of what is
acceptable in each society.

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2.Culture is Learnt

Culture is not innate, you are not born with it, it has to be taught to you.

3.Culture is Transmittable

Culture is passed down from generation to generation. If culture is not transmitted it will
die.
Although each generation might add new elements to the culture of a society, for it to
remain and be constantly accepted, it has to be transmitted.

4.Culture is Adaptive

Culture must adapt to changes in society.

5.Culture is Dynamic

It varies from society to society and era to era.

The culture of your grandparents or parents is not identical with your own.(Generation
gap).

Components of Culture

Symbol

Values

Beliefs

Norms

Mores

Folkways

Prescriptive

Proscriptive

Material culture

TYPES OF CULTURE

1.High culture: The elite

2.Popular culture: Common to the wider society.

3.Subculture: Shares some elements with the general culture but still maintains

unique elements.

4.Counterculture: “Outright rejection of conventional ideas or behaviour” ~Macionis.

CULTURAL CHANGE

1.Invention: New objects, ideas and social patterns are created.

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2.Discovery: New purposes are found for existing resources.

3.Diffusion: This refers to the spread of a cultural trait, ideas or behaviour from one society to
another.

CULTURAL VARIABILITY

Cultures vary around the world, some are similar, some are different.

Difficulty adjusting to a new culture is known as culture shock.

RESPONSES TO CULTURAL VARIABILITY

1.Ethnocentrism

Individuals cast judgment on another’s culture on the basis of their own value and belief
systems. This can lead to segregation, discrimination and oppression.

2. Cultural Relativity

Objectivity should be applied to understanding cultures. As such cultural practices must

be understood within the context and environment that it occurs.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CULTURE

1.Functionalism

Society is a stable system comprised of interdependent and interrelated parts.

Culture functions to maintain this order and stability.

It acts as the ‘glue’ between members of a society

Cultural Universals are traits that are a characteristic of every society. E.g., Family
(Murdock), funeral rites and jokes.
Culture facilitates the commonality of values ( a value consensus) which is imperative if
a society is to avoid anomie (chaos).

Critique

Cultural stability ignores the impact of change.

Cultural universals ignore the relevance of cultural diversity.

Some cultural patterns dominate others reflecting the constant power struggle in society.

2.Marxist/Conflict Theory

Inequality and conflict are characteristic of society.

One group usually dominates all others in society.

‘Common” values reflect the culture of the dominant class.

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 Perpetuate inequalities and spread the doctrine of the false class consciousness.

Lower class persons may try to develop their own culture, but attempts are stifled as their
culture is seen as inferior and non-productive.
Culture is established in order to oppress members of a society.

“Culture in its many forms may thus serve as a mechanism for encouraging people to
accept the existing social order uncritically as a means of winning consent” (Macionis).
Inequality allows for change.

Critique

Fails to identify the areas in society that promote integration.

3.Sociobiology

Sociobiology argues that culture evolves naturally similar to how species evolve.

Charles Darwin indicated that individuals will naturally change to adapt to the
environment in which they exist.
Thus, culture is not learnt but develops instinctively. Culture is really an adaptation to the
environs of that society. For e.g., in the Caribbean because of the tropical location we
wear thin, cool clothing while in Alaska they wear bulky garments.
Sociobiologists are of the opinion that cultural universals prevail in all societies because
people have the natural instinct to develop certain specific norms, values, which facilitate
their existences.

Critique

Critics find fault in this theory because there is not sufficient information to support the
theory, and this theory can easily be used to defend the superiority of a particular group.

THEORIES OF CARIBBEAN SOCIETY

1.Plantation Society

The “Plantation Society” theory of culture argues that the Caribbean today operates on
the same basis it did during slavery, and thus our culture is largely shaped by the same
factors they were shaped by during slavery.
George Beckford and Horowitz (1972) posits that the Caribbean society is still made up
of two groups; one large and unfree (usually the black masses) and one small free group
which is in total control of the society (the whites).
The culture of the latter is the mainstream culture; it is seen as superior and is forced on
the masses.

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 The values of the white culture become the values of the entire society, and any deviation
from the mainstream culture by the masses is stifled.
For example, speaking patios (largely spoken by the black masses and infused with
African words and slangs) is frowned up on, and all institutions demand the use of
standard English. Classical, standard English songs are seen as superior to the patois
ridden dancehall and reggae music (affectionately called “buggy yagga" by the “haters”).
Dancehall dress and dancing which is largely associated with the blacks is seen as
degrading and not fit for air play while carnival which is largely endorsed by the whites
in Jamaica is embraced and shown on national TV.

The Caribbean culture of modern day is similar to the days of the “Plantation Society” in other
ways as well:

There is still a great division between the 'haves' and the 'have-nots.'

There is still a pre-occupation with everything foreign, thus the demand for foreign
products is very high.
There is still a dependence on foreign investments to aid development.

Social stratification is based on factors such as race and colour (white is superior, black
inferior).

2.Plural Society

M.G. Smith argues that there is no mainstream Caribbean culture and that division
between groups are much deeper than a small group forcing their culture on the masses,
which all society much share (Plantation Society).
Instead, Smith argues that we live in a heterogeneous or “plural society”, with each
distinct racial group having its own culture and different versions/forms of the basic
institutions.
He argued that due to slavery and indentureship, the Caribbean society is one made up of
various races, each of which holds on to its racial traditions as a means of identity. For
this reason, the society is heterogeneous. NB: - A society is heterogeneous when the basic
institutions (family religion, education) are not shared. If it is not heterogeneous it is
homogeneous.
Thus, white families in the Caribbean are different from black families (white families
are usually nuclear, black families' single parent or extended).
The religion of the white groups is Catholicism while the black groups practice some
form of Protestantism.
The Chinese and East Indian racial groups also have their own family types, religion, etc.

The lack of homogeneity in the Caribbean society renders it unstable as there is little or
no shared norms, values and beliefs.

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 Additionally, there is much tension between the groups as walls are formed between
those like us and those who are not like us. - M.G. Smith.
Plural societies are usually unstable.

Critiques of Plural Society

(a)Braithwaite

The Caribbean is a plural society (simply because different racial groups exist)

but they do share the same basic institutions (blacks have nuclear families as well as
whites, Chinese, etc., and almost all racial groups are Christian) thus society is
homogeneous.
Though each racial group may have some sub cultural differences, there is still a
mainstream culture to which they all subscribe.
Plural societies are not always unstable it can be culturally variable but nationally
unified- “black, whites and brown; but all still Jamaican."

(b)Carl Stone(1973)

Jamaicans are not divided according to racial groups (as speculated by

Plantation Society) or cultural groups (Plural Society).

Instead, we are grouped according to occupational status and economic resources.

People do not see themselves as a part of different cultural groups but as a part of
different classes.
It is true however that different classes may have different practices, and that cultures are
class specific. But a class is not limited to any one race.

3.Creole Society(Created by Vernon Braithwaite)

Braithwaite believes that each modern Caribbean society has its own culture (a Creole
culture) which is a combination of the cultures of al European, African and Asian groups
that inhabited each island.
Through a process called Creolization, Caribbean cultures have changed or time adapting
to and adopting the practices of its many inhabitants.
Therefore, in each Caribbean society there now exists a syncretic/ creole culture which is
shared by all.
This unique culture (Creole culture) is an amalgamation of the cultures of mainly the
white and black's past inhabitants and to a lesser extent the cultures of the East Indians
and the Chinese.
The European culture is most dominant in the Caribbean creole culture, as during slavery
a process of acculturation took place where the European culture was forced upon the
slaves and to a lesser extent the indentured workers.

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 Thus. the official language of many of the Caribbean countries is still that of its European
inhibitors and European religions and family practices are still very pervasive.
That being said, the African influence is still very strong, as is seen in the food, dance,
local tongue (patois) and religions in the Caribbean islands. This is so as although
acculturation took place, interculturation (where different groups in a society influence
each other's norms) took place as well, hence the norms of the Africans were shared with
the whites and the indentured servants.

CARIBBEAN POPULAR CULTURE

Popular culture may include a range of expressions of creativity that are accessible to,
produced by, and enjoyed by the majority of a society.
Popular culture has been one important means by which, even in days of colonialism and
slavery, people were able to express their identity.
Popular culture helped to preserve parts of the heritage of the various ethnic that were
brought into the region.
Caribbean popular culture in recent years is being marketed all over the world.

Calypso, reggae, carnival, literature and steel pan have not gone unnoticed across the
globe.
Popular culture used to be associated with the grassroots of society, however, within
recent times, a greater appreciation of Caribbean popular culture has developed.

GLOBALIZATION AND CULTURE

Are we witnessing the birth of a single global culture?

Increasingly, the cultures of different societies are impacted by the global culture, thus
diminishing the differences between us and moving us toward one global culture. For e.g., jeans
and gold jewellery are found almost everywhere. The process through which the cultures of the
world are becoming increasingly similar is called cultural levelling.

Activities which impact the movement towards the global culture:

The Global Economy The flow of goods: There has never been more international
trade. The global economy has spread many of the same consumer goods (from cars and
TV shows to music and fashion) throughout the world.
Global Communication The flow of information: Satellite-based communication
enables people to experience the sights and sounds of events taking place thousands of
miles away, oftentimes as they are happening e.g., the Olympics.
Global Migration The flow of people: Knowing about the rest of the world motivates
people to move where they imagine life will be better. Moreover, today's transportation
technology, especially air travel, makes relocating easier than ever before. As a result, in

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 most countries significant numbers of people were born elsewhere including some 30
million people who are now in the United States, 11 per cent of the population).

Limitations To The Global Culture Thesis

Critics of the global culture have put forward the following criticisms of the global culture
thesis:

People migrate to the large, wealthy Western countries; very few relocate to the poorer
nations. Thus, the flow of information and goods goes from the wealthy nations to the
poorer ones. The wealthy nations of North America and Western Europe influence the
culture of the others with little or no reciprocity (Jamaica is an exception). Hence, the
culture being produced is more a Western culture rather than a global culture.
The global culture thesis assumes that people everywhere are able to afford various new
goods and services being traded internationally. "Third World countries that experience
extreme poverty can scarcely afford the necessities much less the global brands
characteristic of globalization. Hence there is no real sharing of the global brands
necessary for the existence of a global culture.
Although many similar cultural practices are found throughout the world, people
everywhere do not attach the same meanings to them. And if symbols are not shared, then
the culture is not shared. For example, ‘locs' in Trinidad is largely seen as a hair style but
in Jamaica it should represent a particular way of life. In short, people everywhere look at
the world through their own cultural lenses and so though similar are in fact very
different.

CULTURE AND CHANGE

Causes of Cultural Change

1. Cultural Lag

Occurs when one element of culture (usually the tangible element) changes faster or
before the intangible element. The result is a disruption in cultural system and usually
cultural change.
William Oghurn (1964) observed that technology moves quickly, generating new
elements of material culture (such as test-tube babies) faster than non-material culture
(such ideas about parenthood, what a real child is) can keep up with them. The result is
cultural lag.
However, changes in one dimension of a culture usually spark changes in others thou not
necessarily at the same time. For example, more and more persons are enquiring about
test tube babies, though not many are choosing it yet.

2.Value Contradictions

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 When values conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive (achieving one makes it
difficult to achieve another). For example, the values of racism and democracy are
contradictory (democracy is all about equal rights) so one had to go.

3.Cultural Diffusion

This is the spread of cultural characteristics from one group to another or the spread of
cultural traits from one society to another. This borrowing of cultural traits from another
culture can be direct or indirect; it is voluntary and happens through factors such as trade,
inter-marriage and mass media.
There are people who think that too much cultural diffusion takes away the distinctive
qualities of the native culture. The term cultural levelling refers to the process by which
cultures become similar to one another. One can travel to just about any corner in the
world and find a McDonald's or Coco Cola.

4.Acculturation and Inter-culturation

Acculturation is the extensive changing of cultural traits of one group (usually

subordinate) by another, usually superior group. This is also called cultural assimilation.
In the Caribbean, colonialism led to the change of the culture of the Africans via
acculturation.
The long term, close contact between groups also leads to the exchange of cultural traits
between groups in society (inter-culturation) and the emergence of a new culture. This
was also evidenced in the Caribbean during colonialism where some of the norms of the
Africans were shared with the whites.

5.Innovation

Innovation is the process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture. There are two forms of
innovation:

Discovery

Invention

(i)Discovery Involves recognizing and better understanding something already in existence.

(ii)Invention Refers to the process of creating new cultural elements. Invention has given us the
telephone, the airplane, and the computer, each of which has had a tremendous impact on our
way of life.

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS

Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

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 Durkheim's study of suicide (1970) is one of the most popular studies of suicide to this
day and was an attempt by Durkheim to prove sociology could be studies in a scientific
manner.
He started by sing official statistics on suicide (empirical data) which was widely
available in Europe.
This study utilized a positivist methodology.

POSITIVISM vs INTERPRETIVISM

1.Positivism

The positivist approach believes that social phenomena is similar to natural phenomena
and so emulates the research methods used by natural scientists.
It looks at systems, structures, and institutions, viewing behaviour as largely the product
of forces outside our control. It posits that humans will have scientific reactions to
external stimuli based on their internalization of the society’s values.
Thus, it argues that sociologists should study only what they can objectively see, measure
and count, and so uses methods that generate quantitative data.
The researcher should avoid personal involvement and aim to produce value-free
evidence. Positivist thus value precision in measurement and specialize in questionnaires,
statistical analysis, standardized test and structured interviews.

2. Interpretivism

The interpretive approach argues that social phenomena differ from natural phenomena.
It argues that individuals are active and conscious beings who act with intention and
purpose based on their interpretation of their social situation.
These methods generate qualitative data – in other words, data that expresses how people
make sense of their social situations.
There is recognition of subjectivity in analysis and main research methods used are
participant observations and open-ended interviews and discussions.

TYPES OF DATA& RESEARCH

1.Quantitative Data Statistical numeric information/data.

2.Qualitative Data Narrative descriptive written information/data.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative data usually takes the form of statistical or numerical information.

Sometimes this information is expressed in the form of rate, e.g., Crime rate.

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 Durkheim believes that the analysis of statistical data can indicate both cause and
correlation.

Things To Consider

Purpose of the research

Sample size

What data collection instrument will be used? In some cases where the sample is large,
researchers prefer to use questionnaires involving close ended questions.

Main Quantitative Research Methods

Questionnaires

Structured interviews

Official Statistics

Advantages Of Quantitative Research

The study is easily replicable.

This method saves the researcher time and money (it is cost effective).

It collects standard data.

Data is easy to quantify

Validity is enhanced by the use of large samples.

It provides more objective data since the researchers may not have to interact with

the respondents.

Disadvantages OF Quantitative Research

There is no indication about the respondents’ personal state of mind. For example, their
mood, attitude, feelings etc.
Unrepresentative samples can sometimes be drawn thus leading to inaccurate and invalid
information.
Generalizations of any kind may not apply to all people in all circumstances. For
example, not all crimes are committed by lower class citizens.

SAMPLING

Sample: A group of people selected from the population who are deemed to be representative of
the population from which they are drawn( that is, they have the same characteristics as those of
the population or are selected in proportion to their numbers in the population.

Sampling Frame: Usually drawn from the population and it comprises of sampling units
possessing the social characteristics relevant to the research. For example, social class,
background, religious affiliation and educational attainment.

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Population: All the individuals who make up a particular society, group or organization with a
wide range of social characteristics such as sex, religion, age and social class.

SAMPLNG METHODS/TYPES OF SAMPLES

REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES

1.Random Sampling

This means that everyone in the population has an equal chance of appearing in the
sample, thus ensuring the sample is unbiased.

2.Simple Random Sampling

This involves selecting people through the use of a random number generator on a
computer to come up with the required number. Alternatively, there is a systematic
random sampling where every 10th, 20th name on a list( such as the electoral register) can
be selected, depending on the sample size needed.

3.Stratified Random Sampling

This divides the research population into a number of strata based on what are regarded
as significant variables, such as gender, age, ethnicity or class.
Samples are then randomly drawn from each of the strata and combined to form the final
sample.
Stratified sampling allows the researcher to ensure that all potential target groups with a
population are represented in the final sample, and that all variables considered
potentially important are covered.

4.Cluster Sampling

This can be used whenever no sampling frame is readily available.

It is based on identifying a number of clusters in the population, such as schools or

classes within schools, and then selecting individuals from within these clusters.
This is quicker than random sampling but may of course be biased.

The pre-selection of clusters means that not every individual has an equal chance of being
selected.

5.Multi-Stage Random Sampling

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 This involves the selection of a sample through various stages.

Each stage involves the selection of a sample from the previous sample chosen, until the
researcher arrives at a list of individuals.
Though an easy and cost-effective sampling method, it can lead to issues of
representativeness.

6.Spatial Sampling

This involves the study of participants at a particular event(such as a demonstration or

open-air concert), with individuals chosen randomly from those assembled there.

This is a highly targeted method which ensures that only applicable respondents are
chosen.

NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING

There are, however, times when the researcher might want to select a sample that is not
representative of the population, in other words, a non-representative sample.

1.Accidental Sampling

This involves the selection of all individuals the researcher happens to come in contact
within a given period.
Usually, the aim with this sampling method is to obtain qualitative data.

2.Purposive Sample

This involves the selection of people on the basis that they are likely to be relevant to the
subject being studied.
This means that the sample reflects judgements made by the researcher, making it biased.

3.Volunteer Sampling

This is based on people volunteering to be studied( they answer advertisements, leaflets,

posters or radio/TV appeals).
This yields useful information (since those involved are committed to the result), though
it is not remotely representative.

4.Quota Sampling

This resembles stratified sampling but instead of choosing randomly from strata within
the population, the researcher sets a quota precisely outlining the number of people
meeting certain criteria that are to be included in the sample.
So, for example, it might include the first twenty white women who appear to be under
30 who pass by.

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 This tends to be the basis of national political opinion polls and market research.

5.Snowball Sampling

In the case of snowball sampling, researchers start with very few people and ask them for
recommendations of further people to interview that fit the criteria of the study.
When interviewing these people, the same procedure is applied and gradually a sample is
built up.
It is a method often associated with participant observation.

RESEARCH METHODS

1.SOCIAL SURVEYS

Social surveys are usually large-scale research projects that collect standardized data from a large
cross section of the population. A government census is a good example. Censuses, however, are
based on the entire population, whereas sample surveys are based on a sample of the population.

There are three (3) main types of surveys:

1.Descriptive

This collects quantitative data.

The questions are usually close-ended and allow the researcher the opportunity to make
correlations about social phenomena.

2.Attitude Surveys

This asks manly close ended questions that attempt to find out people’s feelings or
opinion about a party, political figure or brand of food.
The Jamaica Gleaner has been known to conduct polls concerning the voting intentions
of the Jamaican electorate.
The St. Augustine Research Agency(SARA) also conducts attitudinal surveys about the
spiralling crime rate, racial equality and equity in employment and the relative popularity
of prominent political figures.

3.Explanatory

This type of survey, unlike the first two, seeks answers that require more than a simple
yes or no response. Respondents are given the opportunity to clarify their feelings in
greater depth.
Some Weberians have made extensive use of explanatory surveys.

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Advantages of Social Surveys

It allows sociologists to understand the world from the respondents’ point of view.

They are valid because the data is collected from a large cross section of the population.

The data can be used to make generalizations about the behaviour of society as a whole.

Statistical techniques can be used to analyse the data, thus saving the researcher time.

The selection of representative(unbiased) samples saves the researcher the time of having
to find all individuals with relevant information.
The research is easily replicable (especially by other researchers). The reliability pf the
survey is thus easy to verify.

Disadvantages of Social Surveys

The data can be invalid if a representative sample was not selected.

Once a questionnaire is used, the researcher will suffer the same disadvantages( that is,
problems of validity).

2.QUESTIONNAIRES

A questionnaire is a number of pre-set standard questions that can contain open-ended or close-
ended questions and is designed to garner statistical information.

The steps in constructing a questionnaire are summarized below:

1. Operationalize the key terms and concepts and break them down into measurable terms.
2. Formulate questions based on each sub-topic.
3. Once the questionnaire is constructed, the researcher might decide to test it before
conducting the survey. This is referred to as a pilot study (where a small group of people
with similar characteristics to those of the target sample answer the questions). Based on
their responses ,the researcher can determine a number of facts about the questions, for
example, the suitability of the wording, and the amount of non-response.

The Advantages of Questionnaires

They are usually easy to administer.

They can be used to reach a large number of people even if they are geographically
dispersed(for example, the mailed questionnaire can do this.).
They save the researcher time since a large number can be administered simultaneously.

It is not costly to produce a large number of questionnaires.

The data can be easily tabulated, measured and analysed.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

1.What is gained in reliability may be lost in terms of validity for the following reasons:

The wording may or may not intentionally, mislead the respondent.

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 The researcher’s bias affects what he deems as important in formulating the
questionnaire.
Respondents left to themselves may be noncommittal about the questions. They may thus
lie or treat the issue too lightly.
The close-ended questionnaire may force a respondent to choose an answer that does not
quite capture his feelings about the issue. YES/NO, TRUE/FALSE choices encourage
this.
Respondents may lie, forget, or lack information. The latter creates a case known as
missing data.

2.Postal questionnaires have a low rate of return (usually less than 50 percent) and may be filled
out by someone other than the intended recipient.

3.OFFICIAL STATISTICS

Official statistics are a secondary source of data.

Unlike questionnaires and social surveys, the researcher relies upon other people to
collect the data.
Statistics are numerical information about human behaviour.

They are called official because they are usually collected by the government or another
agency empowered to do so.
For instance, The Central Statistical Office (CSO) of Trinidad and Tobago collects
demographic, census and economic data.

Advantages of Official Statistics

They save the researcher time since these provide a readily available source of data.

The conclusions drawn are objective (free from bias as there is no interaction with the
respondents).
The researcher can generalize because statistics can cover data for a large number of
people.
The researcher can understand the nature of social change by comparing statistics of
different times.
The researcher can use statistics to gain a deeper understanding of human relationships.

Disadvantages of Official Statistics

1. Like all other secondary sources, official statistics can produce invalid data because producers
may be biased in collecting the data.

(a) Crime statistics may be biased because:

Police officers may record some crimes and not others.

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 Economic statistics such as unemployment and inflation rates may be influenced by
government officials who may wish to give the impression that policies are working.

2.The validity of some official statistics such as criminal statistic, may be lowered because
people may not always report crimes considered too trivial. In addition, some victims may fear
the police or reprisal. There is always a “dark figure”.

3.Technological developments like DNA analysis and camera surveillance) may make it appear
that there are more crimes taking place now. Thus, it may be difficult for researchers to compare
past and present statistics.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research methods include the following primary or secondary forms:

Unstructured Interviews (Primary)

Participant observation (Primary)

Case studies (Secondary)

Documents (Secondary)

Qualitative research collects subjective data such as information about people's emotions,
feelings and values. The researcher usually interacts directly with respondents that is, face to face
or by actually joining in their everyday activities.

1.The Unstructured Interview

The unstructured interview is a face-to-face interactive process in which a researcher tries

to get as much useful information (as possible) from a respondent or a number of
respondents. It can take the form of a one-on-one session interview or a number of
sessions that seek to explore the topic further.
It is important that the researcher gains the respondents' trust. Factors such as the social
class, sex or ethnicity of the interviewer can influence the level of trust. W. Labov
reported that black children did not trust white interviewers as much as they did black
interviewers. Feminists insist that women are best suited to interview other women,
especially in cases of rape, assault or intimidation (by male perpetrators).
Interviewers can either employ a directive or non-directive approach. H. Becker admitted
to the use of persuasive tactics (the directive approach) to get teachers to acknowledge
their positive perception of middle-class students.

The Advantages of Unstructured Interviews

1.It offers validity by doing the following:

The researcher can detect lies or inconsistencies in the interviewee's accounts by

observing facial reactions or body language.

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 Misunderstandings can be clarified.

The researcher can understand the world from the respondent's point of view Jock
Young, in his study of marijuana users, found out that the youths started to see
themselves in terms of the police perception of them
The researcher can gain information that he never thought about asking because there are
no set questions. Such was the case of Elizabeth Bott who found that conjugal relations
were affected by spouses' social networks.

2.They may be the most practical research technique for exploring specific issues. A
questionnaire completed by a rape victim provides limited amounts of data ,but an unstructured
interview can help the interviewer understand the victim’s experiences.

3.Because small samples are used the unstructured interview can be useful for challenging or
refuting already existing theories. For example, Ann Oakley interviewed her respondents in order
to dispute Young and Willmott's claim that by 1970 the working-class family had become
symmetrical (that is, more sharing of housework, childcare and decision making).

Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews

The validity of the data can be reduced (that is, made invalid) by the observer

effect' - this occurs when the presence of the interviewer influences or inhibits the interviewee.
They may provide responses that they believe the researchers want to

hear.

The responses given may not be accurate and may not reflect real behaviour.

Respondents may lie, forget or lack the information required. To give a simple
example, some of the criminals interviewed by Laurie Taylor (1984) later con fessed that
they had made up fanciful stories about their escapades in order to see
how gullible Taylor was.
Critics of questionnaire data have pointed that interviewees may not act in accordance
with stated beliefs. When reflecting on past events they may alter their interpretation in
the light of subsequent experience.
Interviews are artificial so Cicourel has asked whether they 'capture the daily life,
conditions, opinions, values, attitudes, and knowledge base of those we study as
expressed in their natural habitat.'

2.Participant Observation

Participant observation is a research method which allows the researcher to conduct his research
by joining the group he is studying and observing their behaviour. It can be overt or covert.

Overt – Respondents are aware that the researcher has joined the group to conduct a study .

Covert - Respondents are unaware that research is taking place.

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Advantages of Participant Observation

Compared to other research techniques it is least likely to lead to sociologists imposing

their views on those they are studying.
It provides the best means of obtaining valid pictures of social reality. For e.g., with a
structured interview or a questionnaire, sociologists have already decided what is there to
be found out but in participant observation, they go to find out what is there.
It allows you to ask questions about what is seen and thus make new discoveries.

It provides a clear, first-hand picture of the 'life of ordinary people, on their grounds and
on their terms' as said by Liebow when he studied black men on corners.
In participant observation, it is also more difficult for the people being studied to lie or
mislead the researcher than it is in other research methods. The researcher is on the spot
and witness actual behaviour rather than relying upon people's accounts of their lives.
Closeness of the relationship developed with the researcher and respondents lead to more
truthful responses.
Participant observation is a particularly appropriate method for symbolic interactionists
because researchers experience many of the same events as the observed; they are better
able to put themselves in their position and to understand why they interact with others in
particular ways. For example, Pryce felt that participant observation allowed him to
understand and explain the subjective views of some West Indians in Bristol. He said,
“There is a tendency to either ignore or disregard the subjective feelings of members of
the West Indian minority: One of those subjective feelings was the belief of some that
there was no point in trying to earn a living through ordinary employment, which was
dismissed as “slave labour' and ‘shit work' (Pryce, 1979).
Participant observation studies are often carried out over an extended period of time and
it is therefore possible to study the process through which changes happen.
It is the best means of studying interaction as it is most times difficult for respondents to
describe or articulate their relationship with each other.
Participant observation may be the most practical method for studying deviant or secret
groups and activities such as gangs and homosexuality. The covert form allows the
researcher the opportunity to gain information that would not be obtained from open
methods like unstructured interviews and questionnaires.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation

1. The validity of data may be compromised in the following situations:

The covert observer may forget about information when making secret recordings (that is,
in his field notes).
The covert observer may provide his/her own interpretations of the group's behaviour
because asking for clarification may reveal the researcher's identity.

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 Overt observation is likely to produce the ‘observer effect' since the participants may
change their behaviour once under the scrutiny of the observer.

2. The data lacks reliability because:

The study takes a long time to he completed, thus social changes such as further
education or maturation may change the social outlook of the group. This makes it
impossible to study the group again.
There is no standardized way to observe people's behaviour. Sociologists will use their
own observational techniques.

Participant observation is costly and time consuming. The researcher takes very long to collect
valid data, and this may prove too expensive for the researcher especially if sponsorship is
inadequate.

At this stage you should realise that in the use of the covert or overt research form of participant
observation, what is gained in validity is lost in terms of reliability.

3. Non-Direct Observation

This involves the researcher being completely detached from the group under observation. It is
effective in experimental situations where people are observed under laboratory-like conditions.
A good example of this is the observation of Hawthorne workers' attitude to changes in their
physical environment. A similar situation involves examining people's behaviour from the
outside under laboratory conditions.

Advantages of Non-Direct Observation

The data is more objective than data obtained from participant observation
because the researcher's presence does not influence the group's behaviour.

Disadvantages of Non-Direct Observation

The validity of the data is compromised by the fact that the researcher draws
conclusions about people's behaviour with whom he did not interact (that is, his findings
may result from personal interpretation or guesswork).
Putting people under laboratory conditions creates artificiality (that is, people are aware
that their behaviour is to be observed).

4. Documents

Documents contain information usually represented in a qualitative form. There are two main
types of documents:

Personal

Historical

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Personal documents include letters, diaries, biographies and autobiographies. However, historical
documents are usually in formation written by people who lived during a particular era. For
example, Columbus's log, or accounts by plantation bookkeepers or owners.

Documents, unlike unstructured interviews and observation are secondary data sources. The data
already exists and hence it saves time for the sociologist.

The Advantages of Documents

Documents save the researcher time and money.

They provide insights into aspects of life which sociologists would otherwise have no
access to. For example, diaries can provide information about the individual's private life
that he would not easily disclose (we can see the world through the eyes of the producer).
Documents may be the most practical method of studying past events. For example, we
will rely on documents to help us understand the social and economic history of the
Caribbean.
The information from documents can be used to measure the extent of social change. For
example, planters' log entries can help us understand how social jus tice has increased
since slavery.

The Disadvantages of Documents

The main disadvantages of documents are the invalidity and unreliability of the data.

The data may be invalid because of producer bias. People may deliberately falsity
information especially if they know that their writing will attract an audience.
Information from old documents may be difficult to read and some may contain missing
pages. This affects the usefulness of the document for drawing conclusions.
Some types of documents may be extremely difficult to access (that is, they may be lost,
mis-placed or stolen).

SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Positivists

Durkheim & Comte- Sociology can be studied as a science as long as it follows the scientific
methodology, which is:

Studies only observable phenomena - nothing cognitive, as they cannot be measured or

properly understood.
It is empirical - statistical data.

It is objective – the researcher is detached from those being studied and is not influenced
by his personal beliefs or that of others - totally unbiased.

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 It is accumulative - this allows for the accumulation of a body of knowledge, that is, new
knowledge is added to what is already known.
It is theoretical – the data obtained by research is used to formulate theories that seek to
explain social phenomena.
It is value free - it should only discover and report the truth and not give moral judgment
and commentary.

1. Interpretive theorists

Sociology cannot be studied as a science as humans have consciousness and thus will not
always react in the same manner to external stimuli. This is unlike non-living things
studied in natural sciences. There can therefore be no universal law of human behaviour.
2. Weber

Weber adds that it is impossible to study sociology scientifically as to study human

behaviour one must practice 'verstehen' which includes 'placing oneself in the
respondents’ shoes. It is only through this process that the researcher can fully understand
human actions and the meanings behind them. The practice of 'verstehen' eliminates the
objectivity necessary for scientific study.

3. Phenomenologist –> Atkinson and Cicourel

Sociology cannot be studied scientifically as there can be no objectivity. Even with the
statistical data promoted by the positivists scientific methodology the information
gathered is subjective. This is so, as the process of gathering statistical data is influenced
by the perception of the person collating and analysing the data. They add that observable
phenomena is not important as only through the analysis of meanings and interpretations
can we understand human behaviour.

4. Kaplan

Sociology can't be studied using the methods the positivists mentioned above as there is
no objectivity. In fact, no science can be objective as they don't use 'reconstructed logics'
(methods of research they claim to use) but “logics in use” (methods actually used)
instead. He gives the example of Michael Lynch's observation of scientists in a laboratory
studying rats. These scientists dismissed the anomalies in the rats’ brains as they were
being influenced by their pre-set perceptions. Thus, they ignored their reconstructed
knowledge that asked for objectivity and resorted to their subjective logic in use.

5.Thomas Kuhn

Sociology can't be studied using the methods the positivists mentioned above as there is
no objectivity. In fact, no science can be objective as researchers are influenced by their
paradigm, or in the words of Gouldner their domain assumptions (taken for granted
beliefs). The researcher's paradigm determines his topics, the research methods chosen,
and the conclusions reached. Thus, the researcher seeks to “show the known, not to

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 uncover the unknown.” Kuhn adds that the accepted paradigm may be wrong which will
lead to incorrect conclusions and distorted data.

6.Realist

Sociology is very similar to natural sciences and so should be considered a science. Like
sociology, some sciences such as medicine and geology deal with unobservable
phenomena like viruses and gravity. Similarly, there are many other natural sciences like
sociology which are unable to predict with certainty. For ex ample, a meteorologist is not
always able to predict the weather. Thus, as long as sociology uses the scientific
methodology it can be considered a science.

7.Gomm

Gomm claims that there can be no objectivity in research as researchers and their
conclusions are guided by the social context of the era and those providing the funding
for the research. Thus, Darwin's theory was popular in its day because it advocated
competition and stratification in a budding capitalist society.

8.Feminism

Feminists believe that sociology and all other sciences are not objective as they are
controlled by men and thus uphold male values.

9.Postmodernists

Postmodernists state that there is no such thing as a science as science denotes the
presence of facts which denotes the presence of truth and there is no universal truth. In
the modern world facts are the opinions of the majority, and truth is what is most easily
sold.

DURKHEIM'S STUDY OF SUICIDE A PROOF OF POSITIVIST METHODOLOGY

Durkheim’s study of suicide (1970) is one of the most popular studies of suicide to this
day and was an attempt by Durkheim to prove that sociology could be studied in a
scientific manner.
He started by using official statistics on suicide (empirical data) which was widely
available in Europe.
From his analysis of those statistics, he was able to identify co-relations (various casual
relationships between independent factors and suicide (the dependent factor); for
example, he found that there was a correlation between the independent factor’s religion
and suicide, and also that there was a correlation between education and suicide.
Staying true to positivist methodology, which states that the methods of natural sciences
should be used in the study of sociology, Durkheim employed multi variate analysis

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 (which is a method widely used by natural scientists) to establish causation between the
independent variables identified and their relationship with the suicide rate.
A multivariate analysis is a tool used to test each correlation in a bid to prove which
independent variable has the strongest relationship with the dependent variable (in this
case suicide) and therefore prove that it is not just associated with it, but actually causes
it.
From his multivariate analysis. Durkheim concluded that suicide was caused from two
main factors. These two factors are integration (or a lack of integration) in society and
society's regulation (or a lack of regulation) of the individual.

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