Wave Star Energy

Wave Star bølgekraftmaskine 1:40 skala model

Job 453105
Ref. No. FU4301 Prepd. KIN
Edition 1 Checked MNSJ
Date 31-12-2004 Appd. KIN

RAMBØLL TEKNIKERBYEN 31 DK-2830 VIRUM TEL +45 4598 8300 FAX +45 4598 8520
 Table of contents

1. Introduction 1
1.1 The principle of opperation 1

2. Objectives 3

3. Results 4
3.1 Power calculations in regular waves: 4
3.2 Power production in irregular waves 6
3.3 Sensitivity to wave period in irregular sea 7
3.4 Array interactions 10

4. Conclusions 13

5. Methodology 14
5.1 Linear theory for heaving motion of the float 14

Annex I WaveStar multi-float system performance calculation

Ref. No.FU4301 I
1. Introduction
The development of the Wave Star aims at integrating known technology and applying
offshore technology in an innovative way.

The present report is prepared for Wave Star Energy with the financial support from
the PSO funding programme. Rambolls task in this project is to provide an independ-
ent assessment on the energy production based on well-documented numerical model-
ling techniques, integrating the hydrodynamic coefficients related to the float geome-
tries calculated and reported by Aalborg University [1].

Figure 1 Artist impression of the Wave Star wave energy converter.

The numerical models describe the operation of the system in normal wave condi-
tions and it is expected that in stormy conditions, the generator is cut off, and the
floats moves, without applying significant forces on to the structure.
The mechanical structure is placed sufficiently high above the water surface, so
even the highest waves cannot reach the structure.
1.1 The principle of operation
The machine is based is on rows of floats which are all fixed by leavers to a hori-
zontal shafts, with one-way bearings. The slowly revolving shafts are connected
through a gearbox to a generator, similar to the method used in a wind turbine. The
length of the row of floats is at least a wavelength. When a wave passes, the first

Ref. No.FU4301 1
 float is lifted upwards, because of the buoyancy, and the leaver locks onto the
shaft, when the speed exceeds the revolving speed of the shaft. This generates a
torque to the shaft. When the wave descends, the grip of the shaft is loosened and
the float moves freely down to a lower position until the next wave appears. The
next float in line, adds a similar torque to the shaft. The shaft in this way integrates
the torque from all upward moving floats at a fixed rotational speed – a speed that
is determined by the gearing and the generator speed.

Figure 2. Principle of operation

On the opposite side, there is a similar row of floats and an additional shaft, which
is driven in the opposite direction.

Ref. No.FU4301 2
2. Objectives
The objectives of the present report are to calculate the energy production from one
float and from a row of five floats for waves with different directions of incidence. It
is the objective to use well-documented numerical modelling techniques, and to make
the results comparable. The hydrodynamic coefficients related to the float geometries
has been calculated and reported by Aalborg University [1].

The following tasks are included

1. Power calculation in regular waves

Calculate the average power produced by a single float of diameter 10
meter in a regular 2 meter heigh wave with wave periods ranging from 4
sec. to 12 sec. This task should be seen as a reference i.e. for comparison
with experimental results in regular waves. In theory the power produced
in regular waves of a certain wave period is proportional the wave height
squared and the results presented for 2 meter can be extrapolated to any
wave height.

2. Power calculations in irregular sea conditions

Calculate the average power produced by a single float of diameter 10 in
a irregular sea condition with a significant wave height of 2.5 m and aver-
age wave period of 5.5 sec. Further calculate the sensitivity to wave peri-
ods and the average power production in sea conditions corresponding to
the Danish part of the North Sea.

3. Array interaction in irregular sea conditions

Calculate the power produced by an array of 5 floats of diameter 10 with
incident waves of direction 0º, 30º, 45º, 60º, and 90º and with gabs be-
tween the floats of 0, 2m, 5m and 10m respectively. The power calcula-
tions for the array is carried out in the same sea condition as task 2 with a
significant wave height of 2.5 m and average wave period of 5.5 sec.

For all calculations the same float geometry is used. The float geometry has been
selected by Aalborg University based on the report on the wave exiting force and
hydrodynamic coefficients. The report contains data for a few different float ge-
ometries. The float geometry selected for the present report is shown on figure 3
below. The float diameter is10 meter in its water plane, spherically shaped with a
radius of 7,5 m. and a volume of V = 78,5 m3, a draught of 1,91 m. [2].

Figur 3. Float geometry from AUC [2].

Ref. No.FU4301 3
3. Results
The results presented in this study are based on hydrodynamic calculations using
linear first order theory as described in chapter 5.

3.1 Power calculations in regular waves:

The results in terms of power generated by a single float in regular waves are
shown in the table 1 below. The wave height is 2 meter and the wave period is
varied from 4 sec. to 12 sec. In each wave situation the applied damping has been
optimised in order to extract most energy. The amount of damping is expressed by
the damping factor rd.

T [sec] 4 6 8 10 12
H [m] 2 2 2 2 2
z [m] 0,92 1,22 1,32 1,38 1.38
rd 0,85 1,83 3,01 4,12 5,27
P [kW] 56 94 103 97 88
Pw [kW/m] 16 24 31 39 47
CWR [%] 34 40 33 25 19

Table 1. Power calculations in regular wave height of 2 meter.

T [sec] Wave period

H [meter] Wave height
z [meter] Float excursion (lowest to highest possition)
rd Damping factor
P [kW] Generated power
Pw [kW/m] Incident power per unit length
D [m] Float diameter
CWR [%] Capture width ratio

The incident power in regular waves can be calculated as:

ρg 2 2
Pw = H T
32π

The Capture With Ratio is calculated as:

P
CWR =
D ⋅ Pw

Ref. No.FU4301 4
 The calculations show that the float is able to absorb about 100 kW of power from
the 2 metre high waves in quite a wide range of wave periods from 6 seconds up to
10 seconds if optimal damping is applied.

Performance regular waves

120

100
Power [kW] or CWR [%]

80

Power(H=2m)
60
CWR

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Wave period

Figure 4. Power production in regular waves of height 2 meter and capture with ratio.

The results in terms of capture with ratio show that the single float will absorb
power from a wave crest that is about 40 % of the float diameter. As the wave pe-
riods become longer the power in the wave increase proportionally to the wave
period, but as the power output remains the same the CWR decrease to about 20%.

Ref. No.FU4301 5
3.2 Power production in irregular waves
In the real sea the waves are not regular but irregular. Short and longer waves are
mixed and wave heights seem to vary randomly and appear in groups.

The energy production in irregular wave conditions however can be calculated

using the same mathematical model as in regular waves, but applying a spectrum
to describe the distribution of energy on different frequencies in the sea state.
The sea state is defined from two parameters the significant wave height Hs and
the average wave period Tz.

Hs [m] Significant wave height

Tz [sec] Average wave period

In the North Sea a central estimate of the average wave period Tz for each signifi-
cant wave height Hs shows a relation

Tz = Hs *sec/m + 3 sec

Hs [m] <0.5 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 >4,5

Tz [sec] 4 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0
rd 1,6 2,1 2,6 3,2 3,8
Pabs [kW] - 8 39 94 171 263
Hours / year 966 4103 1982 944 445 330 Total
MWh / year 32,6 76,7 89,1 76,1 86,8 361

Table 2. Power calculations for dominating sea states in the North Sea, indicating the
number of hours each sea state is prevailing.

For each of these five sea states the theoretical absorbed power is calculated and
multiplied with the number of hours the sea state prevails. Summing up the
contribution from each sea state the 10-meter float in theory can produce 361
MWh/Year.

If the rated power of one float is 263 kW then the full load hours (FLH) will
amount to FLH = 361.000/ 263 = 1387 hours

If the rated power is reduced say at 120 kW i.e. by applying non-optimal damping
in the larger sea states than the energy production of-course will be reduced but the
full load hours increased. This can be a useful strategy when calculating the over-
all cost including the cost of generator and transmission equipment.

Ref. No.FU4301 6
 Power Curve Float Ø10 meter

300

250
Absorbed Power [kW]

200

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hs [m ]

Figure 5. Theoretical power curve for a single 10-meter diameter float

Figure 5 shows the power curve for a single float of the wave power converter.
The generated power is shown as a function of the significant wave height. This
curve is similar to the power curves for wind turbines providing information of
power production as a function of the wind speed.

3.3 Sensitivity to wave period in irregular sea

The sensitivity to wave periods in irregular sea is calculated for a constant signifi-
cant wave height of 2,5 meter and wave periods ranging from 4sec. to 12 sec. as
shown in Table 3 and graphically on the Figure 6. The calculations shows that the
system is not very sensitive to the wave period, however the damping is adjusted
to optimum power production at each wave period. The long the wave periods re-
quire more damping compared to short wave periods in order to achieve optimum
power production. Higher damping is similar to larger torque on the shaft or larger
reacting force in the hydraulic rods opposing the motion of the floats.

Tz [sec] 4 5,5 6 8 10 12
Hs [m] 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5
rd 1.33 2,44 2,57 3,75 4,9 6,3
Pabs [kW] 50 63,6 66 66 61 55
Pwr [kW/m] 14,7 20,2 22 29,5 36,8 44
CWR [%] 33 31 30 22 16,6 12,5

Table 3. Power calculations in regular wave height of 2,5 meter

Ref. No.FU4301 7
 Sensitivity to wave period Hs = 2.5 meter

80

70

60
Power[kW] & CWR [%]

50
Pabs [kW]
40
CWR
30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Average w ave period Tz

Fig 6. Power production in a sea state with significant wave height Hs = 2,5 meter at differ-
ent average wave periods Tz and variation of Capture with ratio in irregular sea.

The power produced depending on the wave period in irregular waves shows the
same tendency as in regular waves. The float produces optimum amount of power
in wave periods between 6 and 8 sec and the system is not very sensitive to varia-
tions in wave periods

At small wave periods 2-4 sec. the vertical force is reduced, as the short waves
does not “cover the float”, at longer wave periods above 9 sec. the time interval
between each power stroke becomes longer and the wave force goes toward a con-
stant value (the buoyancy force) and the asymptotic behaviour of the power pro-
duction becomes inversely proportional to the wave period.

The power in each irregular sea state is about the same as the corresponding power
in the regular wave of same period. However the captured power is reduced from
100 kW to about 66 kW, this is a result of the irregular nature of the waves.

From the calculations above it is possible to present a power matrices that provide
more information on the system performance in a wide range of combinations of
Hs and Tz. In theory the power produced will vary proportional to the Hs squared
for a given value of Tz.

Ref. No.FU4301 8
 Tz [sec]
4 5 6 7 8 9
1 8 10 10 11 11 10
Significant wave
height Hs [m]
2 32 39 42 43 42 41
3 88 94 96 95 92
4 167 171 168 163
5 267 263 254

Table 4. Power matrices provide information on the power production in kW in different

combinations of Hs and Tz.

The presentation on power production for wave energy systems has not yet been
standardised. Due to the fact that some sea locations in other parts of the world
have a much wider span of wave periods Compared to the Danish Part of the
North Sea and Wave Power systems are much more sensitive to wave periods
compared to the present system, power matrices have been suggested as a possible
way to characterise the performance of the converter.

The performance matrices as shown in table 4 is the theoretical power production

and does not include conversion efficiencies associated with losses in the PTO
system. Ones the PTO system has been developed the conversion efficiency in
each cell can be determined.

For a single float the power matrices is independent of the wave direction. For the
fully developed system matrices must be established for each direction of inci-
dence. The next section will look at the variation of performance for an array of
five floats with incoming waves from different angles.

Ref. No.FU4301 9
3.4 Array interactions

The array interactions have been calculated in a similar way as for one float in
irregular waves (above). That is the theory is linear and the applied damping has
been optimised. The purpose of these calculations has been to evaluate how much
the average absorbed power by each float will change if several floats are placed
side by side (90º) - or if the floats are placed one after the other (0º) so that the first
float experience the full wave and the floats behind are a bit in the shelter of the
first.

Angle of incident
waves
Array of 5 floats

Float E Float D Float C Float B Float A

gab

Figure 7. Definition of incident wave direction – (If the angle of incidence is 90 degree then
the floats in long crested waves will move identically up and down.)
The array interaction is described as the quantity called the q-factor or the magni-
fication factor, which can be above or below 1 depending on constructive or de-
structive array interaction. The “q-factor” express the average power absorbed by
the array (of five floats), compared to the power absorbed by (five) isolated floats:

Pabs (array )
q=
Pabs (onefloat ) ∗ n

The q factor sums up the interaction as the result of the diffraction force (that is the
wave exiting force) that will be experienced by each float and the reflections from
the other floats if the array is held fixed in the incoming waves. The other part is
the wave exiting forces the other floats generate by their movements – if one float
starts to move in still water it will generate waves that will case the other floats to
move.

The results of the calculations are shown on the table below and the absorbed
power of each member in the array is indicated. The average overall power for the
array is shown as well. These calculations have been performed in a wave situation
of Hs = 2.5 meter and Tz = 5.5 sec and the absorbed power from a single float is
63,6 kW

Ref. No.FU4301 10
 Wave Float A Float B Float C Float D Float E Average
Gab (m) q factor
Diction (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
0 0 79,6 51,7 44,6 37,7 29,4 48,60 0,76
0 30 75,6 50,7 45,6 40,5 32,9 49,05 0,77
0 45 70,7 50,4 48,4 47,7 41,2 51,66 0,81
0 60 65,7 51,5 53,1 57,2 52,0 55,88 0,88
0 90 63,1 59,5 59,3 59,5 63,1 60,91 0,96

2 0 74,0 50,5 45,5 41,2 31,7 48,58 0,76

2 30 70,4 49,0 47,2 45,6 39,0 50,23 0,79
2 45 66,0 48,7 51,4 54,2 49,7 54,00 0,85
2 60 61,8 49,8 56,8 65,1 61,2 58,95 0,93
2 90 64,8 62,2 63,5 62,2 64,8 63,49 1,00

5 0 71,1 52,8 47,6 44,9 35,3 50,36 0,79

5 30 68,6 52,1 50,7 53,0 45,1 53,90 0,85
5 45 65,5 52,7 56,8 63,0 59,9 59,60 0,94
5 60 62,3 54,9 64,6 73,8 70,2 65,15 1,02
5 90 67,2 69,9 73,5 69,9 67,2 69,51 1,09

10 0 67,4 55,3 49,6 46,7 39,9 51,79 0,81

10 30 66,4 56,5 54,7 55,7 52,8 57,21 0,90
10 45 64,8 59,0 62,5 69,6 70,2 65,20 1,03
10 60 63,1 62,7 70,8 79,7 77,7 70,81 1,11
10 90 67,9 75,1 77,4 75,1 67,9 72,71 1,14

Table 5. Results of array calculations for 5 floats in sea state Hs = 2.5 m and Tz = 5,5 sec
From the table 5 one can see that the array of floats will absorb less power com-
pared to five single floats if the floats are placed behind each other so that float A
gets the wave first then float B etc. (Wave direction 0) The average reduction is
about between 0.76 and 0.81 least reduction if the gab is 10 meter. If the waves hit
the array of floats from the side (Wave direction 90) so all floats move up and
down at the same time - then there is a constructive interaction if the gab is greater
than 2 meter – the average power is increased between 1 – 1.14 compared to five
single floats.

Ref. No.FU4301 11
 Array interaction Hs=2,5 m Tz = 5,5 sec

1,20

1,15

1,10

1,05
90,0
1,00
60,0
q-factor

0,95 45,0
30,0
0,90
0
0,85

0,80

0,75

0,70
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Gab [meter]

Figure 8. Plot of the results of the array calculations showing the q-factor as a function of
the gab between the floats for different angles of incidence.

Gab between floats 10 meter

1,20

1,00

0,80
q-factor

0,60

0,40

0,20

0,00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Direction of incidence

Figure 9. Array interaction between floats

Ref. No.FU4301 12
4. Conclusions
The results presented on power produced by a single float end floats in array using
linear theory are expected to be an upper limit to what is achievable. The results do
not take into account energy losses in the power conversion system or in the
transmission system.

The conclusions to the study are that the array interaction and spacing is important
to consider when designing the system.

For the present study only 5 floats have been considered and the design of the
wave star includes two lines of 20 floats. The ongoing testing at Aalborg Univer-
sity can give some indication to the overall absorbed power from such a construc-
tion, however reflections form the basin walls can also influence the results.

In order to avoid the influence of reflections from the basin walls it is obvious that
open sea testing can provide such results. In open sea however the measurements
of the incoming waves has to be given some consideration as where to measure
these as reflected waves from the device will be measured as well depending on
the distance between the wave measurements and the device.

Ref. No.FU4301 13
5. Methodology
5.1 Linear theory for heaving motion of the float

Fw

Fd Fc

Fig 10. Principle of oscillating float system

The linear model of the system is introduced as its possible to solve analytically.
In its basic formulation the equation of motion for the forced oscillating system is:

[M + a(ω )]&z& + [b(ω ) + d (ω )]z& + Sz = Fw (ωt )

M [kg] Float mass
a(ω) [kg] Added mass (hydrodynamic)
b(ω) [kg/s] Damping (hydrodynamic)
d(ω) [kg/s] Mechanical damping (PTO)
S [kg/s2] Restoring stiffness (associated with water plain area)
Fw [kg*m/s2] Wave exciting force (hydrodynamic)
ω [rad/sec] Wave frequency
t [sec] Time
z [m] Float position
z& [m/s] Float velocity
&z& [m/s2] Float acceleration

The damping is the mechanical force that extract the power from the wave induced
motion on the float. Using linear theory the damping force is proportional to the
float velocity. The damping coefficient that provides the optimal power production
depends on the wave period.

Ref. No.FU4301 14
 If there is no external damping on the system you obtain the free amplitude re-
sponse of the float to waves of different wave periods.

The Response Amplitude Operator is defined as:

zf
RAO =
A

Figure 11. Float response as function of wave period for different values of external damp-
ing.

The response from the light float is always equal or below 1.0 compared to the
response of a float with twice the oscillating mass the heavier float shows a reso-
nance peak at about 5 second waves.

The more damping the less movement of the float however the product of move-
ment per wave cycle times the damping force gives the produced power P.

The Capture Width Ratio is an expression used to indicate how much energy the
float can absorb. If the capture is 1 it means that the float absorbs the energy con-
tained in a wave front of same with as the float diameter.

P(ω )
CWR =
D ⋅ Pw(ω )

Ref. No.FU4301 15
 For the light float the capture width ratio will depend on the amount of external
damping is imposed on the float.
Point absorber theory indicates that a float optimally controlled should be able to
absorb power equal to λ/2π independent of the float diameter.

λ [m] Wave length

This corresponds to a theoretical capture width ratio of point absorbers become:

Pw (t ) ⋅ λ / 2π gT 2
PAth(T ) = =
Pw (t ) ⋅ D (2π ) 2 ⋅ D

The present point absorber is a non resonant point absorber and the amplitudes in
general smaller then the wave amplitudes. Therefore the system reaches the theo-
retical limit at very short waves and never captures more energy than what is con-
tained in a wave front about 40% of the float diameter. However it is worth to no-
tice that this “low” energy capture is maintained over a wide range of wave peri-
ods.

PAth( t) 0.4
CWR ( t , 4)

CWR ( t , 2)

CWR ( t , 1) 0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20
t

Figure 12. Capture width ratios CWR as function of wave period for different values of the
external damping. The green curve shows the theoretical capture width ratio for Point Ab-
sorbers.

Ref. No.FU4301 16