School of Computing , SRMIST-KTR

18CSC302J- Computer Networks

Unit I 1
 Syllabus - Unit I
 IP Header  UDP Datagram
 IP Fragmentation  Characteristics
 ARP  TCP Header
 RARP  TCP Connection Establishment Process
 ICMP  Error Control
 Introduction  Congestion Control
 Messages  Flow Control
 Debugging Tools  Multicasting & Multicast Routing Protocols
 ICMP Package  Stream Control Transmission Protocol
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𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

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 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP– An Introduction
 The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols at the
network layer Operates at higher level

Position of IP in TCP/IP protocol suite

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 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP– An Introduction

 IP is an unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol—a best-effort delivery

service.
 The term best-effort means that IP packets can be corrupted, lost, arrive out of
order, or delayed and may create congestion for the network.
 If reliability is important, IP must be paired with a reliable protocol such as TCP.

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 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP– An Introduction
 example
 The post office does its best to deliver the mail but does not always succeed. If an
unregistered letter is lost, it is up to the sender or would-be recipient to discover the loss
and rectify the problem.
 The post office itself does not keep track of every letter and cannot notify a sender of loss
or damage.
 IP is also a connectionless protocol for a packet switching network that uses the datagram
approach
 This means that each datagram is handled independently, and each datagram can follow a
different route to the destination. 6
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Datagram
Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags Fragment Offset (13)
Header

(3)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any)
Data

Data (variable length)

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𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 Version
– Version number of IP protocol IP Packet Header
– Current version is Version 4
– Version 6 has different header format
Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 8
𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 Header Length (in 32 bit words)
– Indicates end of header and beginning of payload
– If no options, Header length = 5
• Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags Fragment Offset (13)
(3)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any)
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𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 Type of Service (TOS)
– Allows different types of service to be requested
– Initially, meaning was not well defined
– Currently being defined (diffserv)
Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
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Options (if any)
𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 Packet Length (in Bytes)
– Unambiguously specify end of packet
– Max packet size = 216 = 65,535 Bytes

Bit 0
Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 11
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Packet Header

• These three fields for Fragmentation Control

Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 12
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Packet Header
 Time to Live
– Initially set by sender (up to 255)
– Decremented by each router
– Discard when TTL = 0 to avoid infinite routing loops
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 13
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Packet Header
 Protocol
– Value indicates what is in the data field
– Example: TCP or UDP Bit 31
Bit 0
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)

Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)

Source IP Address

Destination IP Address

Options (if any) 14

 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 Header Checksum
– Checks for error in the header only
– Bad headers can harm the network
– If error found, packet is simply discarded
• Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 15
𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

 Source and Destination IP Addresses

– Strings of 32 ones and zeros
Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 16
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Packet Header
 Options
– Example: timestamp, record route, source route
Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 17
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
 Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)
– Largest IP packet a network will accept
– Arriving IP packet may be larger (max IP packet size = 65,535 bytes)
 Sender or router will split the packet into multiple fragments
 Destination will reassemble the packet
 IP header fields used to identify and order related fragments

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 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Fragmentation & Reassembly

 Divide the datagram to make it possible to pass through these networks called
fragmentation.
 A fragmented datagram may itself be fragmented if it encounters a network with an even
smaller MTU.
 A datagram can be fragmented by the source host or any router in the path
 the reassembly of the datagram, however, is done only by the destination host

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𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 Identification
• – All fragments of a single datagram have the same identification
number
• Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 20
𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 Flags:
– 1st bit: reserved, must be zero
– 2nd bit: DF -- Do Not Fragment
– 3rd bit: MF -- More Fragments
Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 21
𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
• Fragment Offset (in units of 8 bytes)
– Used for reassembly of packet
– 1st fragment has offset = 0

Bit 0 Bit 31
Version Hdr Len
(4) (4) TOS (8) Total Length in bytes (16)
Identification (16 bits) Flags (3) Fragment Offset (13)
Time to Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16)
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any) 22
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Fragmentation Example

• Host A wants to send to Host B an IP datagram of size = 4000

Bytes
Ethernet
FDDI
Ring
Host A Router Host B
MTU = 1500
MTU = 4352

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𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
IP Fragmentation Example
length ID MF offset
=4000 =x =0 =0

One large datagram becomes

several smaller datagrams

length ID MF offset
=1500 =x =1 =0

length ID MF offset
=1500 =x =1 =1480

length ID MF offset
=1040 =x =0 =2960 24
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Multiple Fragmenting Points

Let MTUs along internet path be

– 1500
– 1500
– 1000
– 1500
– 576
– 1500
Result: fragmentation can occur twice
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 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Multiple Fragmenting Points

Detailed
fragmentation
example 26
 𝐈𝐏 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐫 & 𝐈𝐏 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
 The figure shows what happens if a fragment itself is fragmented.
In this case the value of the offset field is always relative to the original datagram.
a. The first fragment has an offset field value of zero.
b. Divide the length of the first fragment by 8. The second fragment has an offset
value equal to that result.
c. Divide the total length of the first and second fragment by 8. The third fragment
has an offset value equal to that result.
d. Continue the process. The last fragment has a more bit value of 0.

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 ARP & RARP

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
 Logical Addresses
 The hosts and routers are recognized at the network level by their logical
addresses

 A logical address is an internet address

 Called a logical address because it is usually implemented in software

 The logical addresses in the TCP/IP are called IP address and are 32 bits
long

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
 Physical Address
 However, hosts/routers are recognized at the physical layer by their physical
address
 A physical address is an local address
 Called a physical address because it is usually implemented in hardware
 Examples
 48-bit MAC addresses in Ethernet

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
 Translation
 We need both the physical address and the logical address for packet delivery.
 Thus, we need to be able to map a logical address to its corresponding physical
address and vice versa
 Solutions

 Static mapping

 Dynamic mapping

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
 Static Mapping
 Create a table that associates a logical address with a physical address and store
in each machine
 However, physical addresses may change A machine could change its NIC
resulting in a new physical address
 In some LANs, such as Local Talk, the physical address changes every time the
computer is turned on.
 A mobile station can move from one physical network to another, resulting in a
change in its physical address 32
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction

 Dynamic Mapping
 Use a protocol to find another address
 ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

 Map a logical address to a physical address

 RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

 Map a physical address to a logical address

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
ARP and RARP

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Position of ARP and RARP in TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
ARP Operation
 To find the physical address of another host or router on its network

 Send an ARP request message

 ARP request message

 The physical address of the sender

 The IP address of the sender

 The physical address of the receiver is 0s

 The IP address of the receiver 36

 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction

ARP Operation CONT..

 Then, ARP request message is broadcast by the physical layer

 For example: in Ethernet, MAC header’s destination address is all 1s (broadcast

address)

 Received by every station on the physical network

 The intended recipient send back an ARP reply message

 ARP reply message packet is unicast
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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
ARP Packet

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Packet Format
 HTYPE (Hardware type)

 16-bit field defining the underlying type of the network

 Ethernet is given the type 1
 ARP can be used on any physical network
 PTYPE (Protocol type)
 16-bit field defining the protocol
IPv4 is 080016
 ARP can be used with any higher-level protocol 40
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Packet Format
 HLEN (Hardware length)

 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address in bytes

 Ethernet has the value of 6
 PLEN (Protocol length)

 8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in bytes

 IPv4 has the value of 4
 OPER (Operation)
 16-bit field defining the type of packet
 (1) = ARP request, (2) = ARP reply 41
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Packet Format
 HLEN (Hardware length)

 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address in bytes

 Ethernet has the value of 6
 PLEN (Protocol length)

 8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in bytes

 IPv4 has the value of 4
 OPER (Operation)
 16-bit field defining the type of packet
 (1) = ARP request, (2) = ARP reply 42
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Packet Format
 SHA (Sender hardware address)

 A variable-length field defining the physical address of the

sender

 SPA (Sender protocol address)

 A variable-length field defining the logical address of the

sender
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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction

Packet Format
 THA (Target hardware address)

 A variable-length field defining the physical address of the target

 For an ARP request operation packet

 This field is all 0s

 TPA (Target protocol address)

 A variable-length field defining the logical address of the target

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Encapsulation of ARP Packet

 An ARP packet is encapsulated directly into a data link frame

 Type field indicates that the data carried by the frame is an ARP packet
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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Operations

 The sender knows the target’s IP address

 IP asks ARP to create an ARP request message

 The sender physical address & The sender IP address

 The target physical address field is filled with 0s

 The target IP address

 The message is passed to the data link layer to encapsulate in a data link frame

 Physical destination address is broadcast address 46

 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Operations
 Every host or routers receives the frame and since the destination address is
broadcast, pass it to the ARP

 All machines’ ARP except the one targeted drop the packet

 The target reply with an ARP reply message that contains its physical address and
is unicast

 The sender receives the reply message and knows the target’s physical address

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Four Cases to Use ARP

 Case 1: The sender is a host and wants to send a packet to another host on the same
network

 Use ARP to find another host’s physical address

 Case 2: The sender is a host and wants to send a packet to another host on another network

 Sender looks at its routing table

 Find the IP address of the next hop (router) for this destination

 Use ARP to find the router’s physical address

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Four Cases Using ARP: Case 1

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Four Cases Using ARP: Case 2

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Four Cases to Use ARP
 Case 3: the sender is a router and received a datagram destined for a host on
another network

 Router check its routing table & find the IP address of the next router

 Use ARP to find the next router’s physical address

 Case 4: the sender is a router that has received a datagram destined for a host
in the same network

 Use ARP to find this host’s physical address 51

 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Four Cases Using ARP: Case 3

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Four Cases Using ARP: Case 4

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction

An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Example 1
 A host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and physical address 0xB23455102210

 Another host with IP address 130.23.43.25 and physical address

0xA46EF45983AB.

 The two hosts are on the same Ethernet network

 Show the ARP request and reply packets encapsulated in Ethernet frames

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Example 1

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ARP– An Introduction
Example 1

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ARP– An Introduction
Proxy ARP
 Used to create a subnetting effect

 A router running a proxy ARP

 Its ARP acts on behalf of a set of hosts

 If it receives an ARP request message looking for the address of one of these host

 Router sends an ARP reply announcing its own hardware (physical) address

 After the router receives the actual IP packet, It sends the packet to the
appropriate host or router 58
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP– An Introduction
Example
 Administrator need to create a subnet without changing the whole system
 Add a router running a proxy ARP

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ARP– An Introduction
Proxy ARP

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ARP–Package
 Five components in an ARP package

 A cache table

 Queues

 An output module

 An input module

 A cache-control module

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ARP–Package
ARP COMPONENTS

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ARP–Package

 CACHE TABLE
 Inefficient to use ARP to each datagram destined for the same host or router

 Introduce the cache table

 Cache table: an array of entries that contains the following’s entries

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP–Package
 Content of a Cache Table Entry State:
 FREE: the lime-to-live for this entry has expired

 PENDING: a request for this entry has been sent, but the reply has not yet been received
 RESOLVED: the entry is complete and valid
 Hardware type
 Protocol type
 Hardware length
 Protocol length
 Above fields are all the same as in the ARP packet 64
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ARP–Package

 Content of a Cache Table Entry State:

 Interface number

 Queue number: ARP uses numbered queues to enqueuer the packet waiting for address
resolution

 Attempts: the number of times an ARP request is sent out for this entry

 Time-out: the lifetime of an entry in seconds

 Hardware address: the destination hardware address

 Protocol address: the destination IP address 65

 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP–Package
 Content of a Cache Table Entry State:

 Interface number

 Queue number: ARP uses numbered queues to enqueuer the packet waiting for
address resolution

 Attempts: the number of times an ARP request is sent out for this entry

 Time-out: the lifetime of an entry in seconds

 Hardware address: the destination hardware address

 Protocol address: the destination IP address 66

 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP–Package
QUEUES

 ARP package maintains a set of queues to hold the IP packets while ARP tries to
resolve the hardware address

 Packets for the same destination are usually enqueued in the same queue

 The output module sends unsolved packets into the queue

 The input module removes a packet from the queue and sends it, with the resolved
physical address, to data link layer for transmission

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ARP–Package
Output Module
 Wait until an IP packet from the IP software
 Check the cache table if receiving a IP packet
 If found and state = RESOLVED
 Passed to the data link layer for transmission
 If found and state = PENDING
 Send packet to this queue and wait
 If not found
 Create an entry with state = PENDING
 Create a queue and enqueue this packet
 Send an ARP request

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ARP–Package
Input Module

 Wait until an ARP packet (request or reply) arrives and check the cache table

 If found state = PENDING

 Copy the target hardware address in the packet

 Change the state to RESOLVED

 Set the value of TIME-OUT for this entry

 Dequeue the packets from the corresponding queue and set them to the data link
layer
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ARP–Package
Input Module (Conti…)

 If found and state = RESOLVED

 Copy the target hardware address in the packet

 Set the value of TIME-OUT for this entry

 This is because the target hardware address could have been changed

 If not found

 Create a new entry and adds it to the table

 If the packet is a request

 Send an ARP reply 70

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ARP–Package
Cache Control Module

 Maintain the cache table by periodically check the cache table, entry by entry

 If state is PENDING

 Increment the value of attempts by 1

 If (attempts greater than maximum)

 Change the state to FREE and Destroy the corresponding queue

 Else

 Send an ARP request 71

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ARP–Package
Cache Control Module

 If state is RESOLVED

 Decrement the value of time-out by the value of elapsed time

 If (time-out <= 0)

 Change the state to FREE

 Destroy the corresponding queue

 If state is FREE

 Continue to the next entry

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Original Cache Table
State Queue Attempt Time-out Protocol Addr. Hardware Addr.
R 5 900 180.3.6.1 ACAE32457342
P 2 2 129.34.4.8
P 14 5 201.11.56.7
R 8 450 114.5.7.89 457342ACAE32

P 12 1 220.55.5.7
F
R 9 60 19.1.7.82 4573E3242ACA
P 18 3 188.11.8.71
73
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP–Package
Example 2

 The ARP output module receives an IP datagram from the IP layer with the
destination address 114.5.7.89

 It checks the cache table and finds that an entry exists for this destination with the
RESOLVED state

 It extracts the hardware address, which is 457342ACAE32, and sends the packet and
the address to the data link layer

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ARP–Package
Example 3

 Twenty seconds later, the ARP output module receives an IP datagram from the IP
layer with the destination address 116.1.7.22.

 It checks the cache table and does not find this destination in the table

 The module adds an entry to the table with the state PENDING and the Attempt
value 1

 It also creates a new queue for this destination and enqueues the packet

 It then sends an ARP request to the data link layer for this destination
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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
Cache table for Example 3
State Queue Attempt Time-out Protocol Addr. Hardware Addr.
R 5 900 180.3.6.1 ACAE32457342
P 2 2 129.34.4.8
P 14 5 201.11.56.7
R 8 450 114.5.7.89 457342ACAE32
P 12 1 220.55.5.7
P 23 1 116.1.7.22
R 9 60 19.1.7.82 4573E3242ACA
P 18 3 188.11.8.71 76
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP–Package
Example 4

 Fifteen seconds later, the ARP input module receives an ARP packet with target
protocol (IP) address 188.11.8.71
 The module checks the table and finds this address

 It changes the state of the entry to RESOLVED and sets the time-out value to 900

 The module then adds the target hardware address (E34573242ACA) to the entry

 Now it accesses queue 18 and sends all the packets in this queue, one by one, to the
data link layer
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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
Cache table for Example 4
State Queue Attempt Time-out Protocol Addr. Hardware Addr.
R 5 900 180.3.6.1 ACAE32457342
P 2 2 129.34.4.8
P 14 5 201.11.56.7
R 8 450 114.5.7.89 457342ACAE32
P 12 1 220.55.5.7
P 23 1 116.1.7.22
R 9 60 19.1.7.82 4573E3242ACA
P 18 3 188.11.8.71 78
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
ARP–Package
Example 5

 Twenty-five seconds later, the cache-control module waits up

 The time-out values for the first three resolved entries are decremented by 60

 The time-out value for the last resolved entry is decremented by 25

 The state of the next-to-the last entry is changed to FREE because the time-out is zero

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ARP–Package
Example 5 (Conti…)

 For each of the three pending entries, the value of the attempts field is
incremented by one

 Then, the attempts value for one entry (the one with IP protocol address
201.11.56.7) is more than the maximum
 the state is changed to FREE, the queue is deleted

 An ICMP message is sent to the original destination

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
Cache table for Example 5
State Queue Attempt Time-out Protocol Addr. Hardware Addr.
R 5 840 180.3.6.1 ACAE32457342

P 2 3 129.34.4.8
F
R 8 390 114.5.7.89 457342ACAE32
P 12 2 220.55.5.7
P 23 2 116.1.7.22
F
R 18 875 188.11.8.71 E34573242ACA 81
 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
RARP–Package

 A diskless machine is usually booted from ROM

 It cannot include the IP address

 IP address are assigned by the network administrator

 Obtain its logical address by the physical address using the RARP protocol

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RARP–Package
F
RARP RARP Operation

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RARP–Package
F

The RARP request packets are

broadcast;
the RARP reply packets are
unicast.

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RARP–Package
Packet Format

 The format of the RARP packet is the same as the ARP packet

 Except that the operation field is

 Three for RARP request message

 Four for RARP reply message

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𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
RARP–Package RARP Packet

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𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
RARP–Package

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 𝒜𝑅𝒫 & 𝑅𝒜𝑅𝒫
RARP
Alternative Solutions to RARP

 When a diskless computer is booted, it needs more information in addition to its IP

address

 The subnet mask

 The IP address of a router

 The IP address of a name server

 RARP cannot provide this extra information

 Two protocols, BOOTP and DHCP, can be used instead of RARP 88

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
89
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– An Introduction
 Why ICMP?
 IP has no error – reporting or error correcting mechanism
 Scenarios in which the error occurs..
 What happens if something goes wrong?
 What happens if a router must discard a datagram but it cannot find a router to
the final destination.
 because the time-to-live field has a zero value
 What happens if the final destination host must discard all fragments of a
datagram due to time limit? 90
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– An Introduction
 The above are some examples situations where an error has occurred and the IP has
no built-in mechanism to notify the original host.
 It depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to provide an error control.
 ICMP –Internet Control Message Protocol
 It is a companion to the IP protocol

Position of ICMP in the network layer

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 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– An Introduction
 ICMP -network layer protocol.
 messages are not passed directly to the data link layer.
 The messages encapsulated inside IP datagrams before going to the lower layer .
 The value of the protocol field in the IP datagram is 1 to indicate that the IP data is an
ICMP message

ICMP Encapsulation 92
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– Message
 ICMP message is of Two categories:
 Error-reporting Messages
 This report problems that a router or a host may encounter when it
processes an IP packet.
 The query messages
 helps network manager get specific information from a router or another
host.
 For example, nodes can discover their neighbors.

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 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– Message

ICMP Messages

94
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– Message format
 8-byte header
 variable-size data section.
 The first field, ICMP type, defines the type of the
message.
 The code specifies the reason for the particular message type.
 The checksum field .
 The rest of the header is specific for each message type.
 The data section in error messages carries information for finding the original packet
that had the error 95
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– Message format

General format of ICMP MESSAGE

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 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT

Error Reporting Messages

 One of the main responsibilities of ICMP is to report errors.
 IP is an unreliable protocol, error checking and error control are not a
concern of IP.
 ICMP always reports error messages to the original source.
 Error correction is left to the higher-level protocols.
 Error messages are always sent to the original source

97
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Error-
reporting
messages

Important ICMP error messages:  No ICMP error message will be

 No ICMP error message will be generated for a datagram having a
generated in response to a datagram multicast address.
carrying an ICMP error message.  No ICMP error message will be
 No ICMP error message will be generated for a datagram having a
generated for a fragmented datagram special address such as 127.0.0.0 or
that is not the first fragment. 0.0.0.0.
98
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Destination Unreachable
 A router cannot route a datagram or a host cannot deliver a datagram then the
datagram is discarded
 The router or the host sends a destination-unreachable message back to the
source host

Destination-unreachable format
99
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Destination Unreachable

Contents of data field for the error messages

 The code field for this type specifies the reason for discarding the datagram:
 Code 0. The network is unreachable, possibly due to hardware failure
 Code 1. The host is unreachable. This can also be due to hardware failure 100
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Destination Unreachable
Code 2. The protocol is unreachable. An IP datagram can carry data belonging to
higher-level protocols such as UDP, TCP, and OSPF. If the destination host receives a
datagram that must be delivered, for example, to the TCP protocol, but the TCP
protocol is not running at the moment, a code 2 message is sent.
Code 3. The port is unreachable. The application program (process) that the datagram
is destined for is not running at the moment.

101
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Destination Unreachable
Code 4. Fragmentation is required, but the DF (do not fragment) field of the datagram
has been set. In other words, the sender of the datagram has specified that the
datagram not be fragmented, but routing is impossible without fragmentation.
Code 5. Source routing cannot be accomplished. In other words, one or more routers
defined in the source routing option cannot be visited.
Code 6. The destination network is unknown. This is different from code 0. In code 0,
the router knows that the destination network exists, but it is unreachable at the
moment. For code 6, the router has no information about the destination network.102
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Destination Unreachable
Code 7. The destination host is unknown. This is different from code 1. In code 1, the
router knows that the destination host exists, but it is unreachable at the moment. For
code 7, the router is unaware of the existence of the destination host.
Code 8. The source host is isolated.
Code 9. Communication with the destination network is administratively prohibited.
Code 10. Communication with the destination host is administratively prohibited.

103
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Destination Unreachable
code 11. The network is unreachable for the specified type of service. This is different
from code 0. Here the router can route the datagram if the source had requested an
available type of service.
Code 12. The host is unreachable for the specified type of service. This is different
from code 1. Here the router can route the datagram if the source had requested an
available type of service.
Code 13. The host is unreachable because the administrator has put a filter on it.
104
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Destination Unreachable
Code 14. The host is unreachable because the host precedence is violated. The
message is sent by a router to indicate that the requested precedence is not permitted
for the destination.
Code 15. The host is unreachable because its precedence was cut off. This message is
generated when the network operators have imposed a minimum level of precedence
for the operation of the network, but the datagram was sent with a precedence below
this level.
105
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Source Quench
 There is no flow-control or congestion-control mechanism in the IP protocol.
 A source-quench message informs the source that a datagram has been discarded
due to congestion in a router or the destination host.
 The source must slow down the sending of datagrams until the congestion is
relieved.

Source Quench Format 106

 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Time Exceeded
 The time-exceeded message is generated in two forms:
1. Whenever a router decrements a datagram with a time-to-live value to zero, it
discards the datagram and sends a time-exceeded message to the original source.
2. When the final destination does not receive all of the fragments in a set time, it
discards the received fragments and sends a time-exceeded message to the original
Source

107
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Time Exceeded
 In a time-exceeded message, code 0 is used only by routers to show that the value of
the time-to-live field is zero. Code 1 is used only by the destination host to show that
not all of the fragments have arrived within a set time.

Time Exceeded format

108
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Parameter Problem
If a router or the destination host discovers an ambiguous or missing value in any field
of the datagram, it discards the datagram and sends a parameter-problem message
back to the source.
Code 0. There is an error or ambiguity in one of the header fields. In this case, the
value in the pointer field points to the byte with the problem. For example, if the value
is zero, then the first byte is not a valid field.
Code 1. The required part of an option is missing. In this case, the pointer is not used.
109
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT

A host usually starts with a small routing table that is gradually augmented and
updated. One of the tools to accomplish this is the redirection message..
 Code 0. Redirection for a network-specific route.
 Code 1. Redirection for a host-specific route.
 Code 2. Redirection for a network-specific route based on a specified type of service.
 Code 3. Redirection for a host-specific route based on a specified type of service
 An echo-request message can be sent by a host or router. An echo-reply message is
sent by the host or router that receives an echo-request message.
110
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT

111
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
Echo Request And Reply

 An echo-request message can be sent by a host or router. An echo-reply message is

sent by the host or router that receives an echo-request message.
 Echo-request and echo-reply messages can be used by network managers to check
the operation of the IP protocol.
 Echo-request and echo-reply messages can test the reachability of a host. This is
usually done by invoking the ping command.

112
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
Timestamp Request and Reply
 The timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages to determine the round-
trip time needed for an IP datagram to travel between them
sending time = receive timestamp − original timestamp
receiving time = returned time − transmit timestamp
round-trip time = sending time + receiving time

 Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages can be used to calculate the round-

trip time between a source and a destination machine even if their clocks are not
synchronized.
 The timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages can be used to synchronize
two clocks in two machines if the exact one-way time duration is known. 113
 Echo-request and echo-reply messages

Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply

message format

114
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
Timestamp Request and Reply
 original timestamp: 46 receive timestamp: 59
 transmit timestamp: 60 return time: 67
 sending time = 59 − 46 = 13 milliseconds
 receiving time = 67 − 60 = 7 milliseconds
 round-trip time = 13 + 7 = 20 milliseconds
 Time difference = receive timestamp − (original timestamp field + one-way time
duration)
 Time difference = 59 − (46 + 10) = 3
115
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Checksum Calculation
The sender follows these steps using one’s complement arithmetic:
1. The checksum field is set to zero.
2. The sum of all the 16-bit words (header and data) is calculated.
3. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
4. The checksum is stored in the checksum field.

116
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– MESSAGE FORMAT
Checksum Testing
The receiver follows these steps using one’s complement arithmetic:
1. The sum of all words (header and data) is calculated.
2. The sum is complemented.
3. If the result obtained in step 2 is 16 0s, the message is accepted; otherwise, it is
rejected.

117
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL

 To check whether host or router is alive and running

 To trace the route of a packet.
 Two tools that use ICMP for debugging: ping and traceroute
Ping
 The ping program to find if a host is alive and responding.
 Command : ping the ip of the host.(ping 152.18.1.3)
 The source host sends ICMP echo request messages (type: 8, code: 0);
 The destination, if alive, responds with ICMP echo reply messages.
118
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
Ping cont…
 Starts the sequence number from 0; this number is incremented by one each time a
new message is sent.
 ping can calculate the round-trip time.
 Inserts the sending time in the data section of the message.
 When packet arrives it subtracts the arrival time from the departure time to get the
Round-Trip Time (RTT).
 The TTL (time to live) field is encapsulates an ICMP message as 62, which means the
packet cannot travel more than 62 hops 119
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
Example : $ ping fhda.edu
PING fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 56 (84) bytes of data.
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=0 ttl=62 time=1.91 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=1 ttl=62 time=2.04 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=2 ttl=62 time=1.90 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=3 ttl=62 time=1.97 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=4 ttl=62 time=1.93 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=5 ttl=62 time=2.00 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=6 ttl=62 time=1.94 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=7 ttl=62 time=1.94 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=8 ttl=62 time=1.97 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=9 ttl=62 time=1.89 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=10 ttl=62 time=1.98 ms
--- fhda.edu ping statistics ---
11 packets transmitted, 11 received, 0% packet loss, time 10103 ms
rtt min/avg/max = 1.899/1.955/2.041 ms
120
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
Ping cont…
 it prints the statistics of the probes
 Ping data bytes as 56 and the total number
 number of packets sent,
of bytes as 84.
 the number of packets received.
 8 bytes ICMP header+ 20 bytes of IP header
 the total time
to 56 =84
 the RTT minimum, maximum,
 ping defines the number of bytes as 64(56
and average.
+ 8).
 Interrupts message ctrl+c.
121
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
TRACE ROUTE
 The traceroute program in UNIX or tracert in Windows.
 It is used to route the packets from source to destination.
 Example Scenario

The Traceroute Program Operation 122

 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
Trace route cont….
 In above example Given the topology, A packet from host A to host B travels through
routers R1 and R2.
 The traceroute program find the address of router R1 & RTT between host A and
router R1.
 The program repeats steps a to c three times to get a better average round-trip time.
a. Host A sends a packet to destination B using UDP the message is
encapsulated in an IP packet with a TTL value of 1. The program notes the time the
packet is sent 123
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
Trace route cont.….
b. Router R1 receives the packet and decrements the value of TTL to 0. It
then discards the packet (because TTL is 0).
c. In receiver the ICMP messages uses the source address of the IP packet to
find the IP address of router R1 and also makes note of the time the packet has
arrived.
 The traceroute program repeats the previous steps to find the address of router R2
and the round-trip time between host A and router R2.
 The round-trip time between host A and host B. 124
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
Trace route cont.….
Example: The traceroute program to find the route from the computer
voyager.deanza.edu to the server fhda.edu. The following shows the result.
$ traceroute fhda.edu
traceroute to fhda.edu (153.18.8.1), 30 hops max, 38 byte packets
1 Dcore.fhda.edu (153.18.31.25) 0.995 ms 0.899 ms 0.878 ms
2 Dbackup.fhda.edu (153.18.251.4) 1.039 ms 1.064 ms 1.083 ms
3 tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 1.797 ms 1.642 ms 1.757 ms

 In the above example the destination is 153.18.8.1.

 TTL value is 30 hops.
 The packet contains 38 bytes: 20 bytes of IP header, 8 bytes of UDP header, and 10
bytes of application data.
125
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– DEBUGGING TOOL
Trace route cont.….
 The router is named Dcore.fhda.edu with IP address 153.18.31.254.
 The Round Trip Time
 1. 0.995 milliseconds,
 2. 0.899 milliseconds
 3. 0.878 milliseconds
 The router is named Dbackup.fhda.edu with IP address 153.18.251.4.
 The third line shows the destination host.
126
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– Package
 To handle the ICMP sending and receiving messages
 ICMP package made of two modules:
 input module
 output module

ICMP package 127

 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– Package
Package cont..
Input Module
 Handles all received ICMP messages.
 Invoked when an ICMP packet is delivered from the IP layer.
 If the received packet is a
 request - the module creates a reply and sends it out.
 redirection message - Uses the information to update the routing table.
 error message - It informs the protocol about the situation that caused the
error. 128
Input Module Pseudo code

ICMP_Input_module (ICMP_Packet)
{
If (the type is a request)
{
Create a reply
Send the reply
}
If (the type defines a redirection)
{
Modify the routing table
}
If (the type defines other error messages)
{
Inform the appropriate source protocol
}
Return
}
129
 𝕴𝖓𝖙𝖊𝖗𝖓𝖊𝖙 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕸𝖊𝖘𝖘𝖆𝖌𝖊 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕴𝕮𝕸𝕻)
ICMP– Package
 An ICMP message cannot be
Package cont.. created for four situations:
Output Module  an IP packet carrying an ICMP
 Responsible for creating request, error message.
solicitation, or error messages requested by  a fragmented IP packet.
a higher level or the IP protocol.  A multicast IP packet.
 receives a demand from IP,UDP, or TCP to  an IP packet having IP address
send one of the ICMP error messages. 0.0.0.0 or 127.X.Y. Z.
 IP request is first allowed
130
Output Module Pseudo code
ICMP_Output_Module (demand)
{
If (the demand defines an error message)
{
If (demand comes from IP AND is forbidden)
{
Return
}
If (demand is a valid redirection message)
{
Return
}
Create an error message
If (demand defines a request)
{
Create a request message
}
Send the message
Return
} 131
132
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP – An Introduction
 Connectionless service
 Unreliable transport protocol.
 No flow control / No Acknowledgement
 Process to Process communication
 Powerless
 It uses minimum of over heads
 No reliability is obtained using UDP
 Less interaction between sender and receiver
133
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
USER DATAGRAM

User datagram hearde format

 Above picture depicts user data gram format

 UDP packets are called user datagrams(messages)
 It has fixed size header of 8 bytes
134
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Datagram various fields
 Source Port Number:
• 16 bits long – port ranges from 0-65535.
• This port number will be used by the source host for identification.
 Destination Port Number:
• 16 bits long.
• Used by the process running on the Destination machine.
• Application level service on end machine

135
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Datagram various fields
 Length:
UDP length=IP length – IP headers Length

 Length field specifies the entire length of UDP packet (including header).
 It is 16-bits field and minimum value is 8-byte, i.e. the size of UDP header
itself.
 A user datagram is encapsulated in an IP datagram.
 Checksum:
• This field is used to detect errors over the entire user datagram (header
plus data) 136
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services
 Process to Process communication
 UDP provides process-to-process communication using sockets, a combination of IP
addresses and port numbers. Several port numbers used by UDP.

137
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…
 cannot send a stream of data to
 Connectionless services: UDP, It will chop them into
 Connectionless service. differentrelated user datagrams.
 Flow control:
 Each datagram is independent
 No Flow Control and no window
even it comes from same source
mechanism.
and delivered in same destination.
 The receiver may overflow with
 The datagrams are not numbered.
incoming messages.
 No connection establishments is
 UDP should provide for this
done
service, if needed 138
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…
 Error Control: Checksum
 Three sections: a pseudo header, the
 No Error control mechanism UDP header, and the data coming
except for checksum from the application layer.

 Sender is unknown about the loss

and duplication.
 When error detects in receiver the
datagram is discarded

Pseudoheader for checksum calculation

139
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…

Check Sum Calculation 140

 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…
 UDP receives data and add UDP
 Congestion Control header then pass to IP with socket.
 IP add its own header using value 17
 It is a connectionless protocol so in protocol filed.
congestion control not provided.  Indicating UDP protocol.
 The IP datagram is then passed to the
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation data link layer.
 Encapsulation  The data link layer receives the IP
 A process send message through datagram and passes it to the physical
UDP layer.
 Along pair of socket address and  The physical layer encodes the bits
the length of data. into electrical or optical signals and
sends it to the remote machine.
141
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…

 Decapsulation:
 At the destination host:
 the physical layer decodes the
signals pass to data link layer.
 The data link layer uses the
header (and the
trailer) to check the data.
 If there is no error
 the header and trailer are
dropped , datagram is passed to
IP.
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
142
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…

 The header is dropped and the user datagram is passed to UDP with the sender
and receiver IP addresses.
 Checksum is to check the entire user datagram.
 the header is dropped and the application data along with the sender socket
address is passed to the process.
 The sender socket address is passed to the process in case it needs to respond to
the message received.

143
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…
Queuing in UDP

144
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…
Queuing in UDP
 At the client site, when a process starts, it requests a port number from the
operating system. Some implementations create both an incoming and an outgoing
queue associated with each process. Other implementations create only an
incoming queue associated with each process
 process wants to communicate with multiple processes, it obtains only one port
number and eventually one outgoing and one incoming queue. The queues opened
by the client are, in most cases, identified by ephemeral port numbers. The queues
function as long as the process is running. When the process terminates, the queues
are destroyed.
 The client process can send messages to the outgoing queue by using the source
port number specified in the request
145
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…
Queuing in UDP
 The client process can send messages to the outgoing queue by using the source
port number specified in the request
 UDP removes the messages one by one and, after adding the UDP header, delivers
them to IP. An outgoing queue can overflow
 It happens the operating system can ask the client process to wait before sending
any more messages

146
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…

Applications of UDP:
Used for simple request response communication when size of data is less hence there
is lesser concern about flow and error control.
It is suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.
Following implementations uses UDP as a transport layer protocol:
NTP (Network Time Protocol)
DNS (Domain Name Service)
BOOTP, DHCP.
NNP (Network News Protocol)
Quote of the day protocol
TFTP, RTSP, RIP, OSPF.
UDP is null protocol if you remove checksum field. 147
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Services cont…

When to use UDP? Reduce the requirement of computer resources.

When using the Multicast or Broadcast to transfer.
The transmission of Real-time packets, mainly in multimedia applications

148
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Package

UDP design
149
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Package
 The UDP package involves five components:

 Control-Block Table

 UDP has a control-block table to keep track of the open ports.

 Each entry in this table has a minimum of four fields: the state, which can be FREE
or IN-USE, the process ID, the port number, and the corresponding queue number.

 Input Queues

 Our UDP package uses a set of input queues, one for each process. In this design, we
do not use output queues.
150
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Package
UDP_Control_Block_Module (process ID, port
 Control-Block Module number)
 The control-block module is {
responsible for the management of the Search the table for a FREE entry.
if (not found)
control-block table. Delete one entry using a predefined strategy.
 When a process starts, it asks for a port Create a new entry with the state IN-USE
number from the operating system. Enter the process ID and the port number.
Return.
 The operating system assigns well- } // End module
known port numbers to servers and
ephemeral port numbers to clients.
 The process passes the process ID and
the port number to the control-block
module to create an entry in the table
for the process.
151
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP_INPUT_Module (user_datagram)
UDP Package {
Look for the entry in the control_block table
 Input Module if (found)
 The input modulereceives a user {
Check to see if a queue is allocated
datagram from the IP. It searches If (queue is not allocated)
the control-block table to find an allocate a queue
entry having the same port else
number as this user datagram. enqueue the data
} //end if
 If the entry is found, the module else
uses the information in the entry {
to enqueue the data.If the entry is Ask ICMP to send an "unreachable port" message
not found, it generates an ICMP Discard the user datagram
} //end else
message.. Return.
} // end module

152
 𝖀𝖘𝖊𝖗 𝕯𝖆𝖙𝖆𝖌𝖗𝖆𝖒 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝖀𝕯𝕻)
UDP Package

Output Module
 The output module is responsible for creating and sending user datagrams.
UDP_OUTPUT_MODULE (Data)
{
Create a user datagram
Send the user datagram
Return.
}
153
TCP Header

154
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Segment
 A packet in TCP is called a Segment
 Segment – Format
 Header - 20 to 60 Bytes
 In case of no options Header is of size 20 bytes
 When options are used Header size extends up to 60 Bytes
 Data from application program

Format of Segment 155

 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Header
 Size of TCP Header varies from 20 to 60 bytes

Format of TCP Header

156
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Header Contd…
 The various fields of TCP header are as follows:

i. Source Port Address vii. Control

ii. Destination Port Address viii. Window Size
iii. Sequence Number ix. Urgent Pointer
iv. Acknowledgement Number x. Options
v. Header Length xi. Checksum
vi. Reserved

157
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Header Contd…
i. Source Port Address iii. Sequence Number
 16 bit Field  32 bit field
 Defines port number of application  Defines number of first byte of data
program in host sending the segment contained in Segment
ii. Destination Port Address  Each byte is numbered for
 16 bit Field connectivity reasons
 Defines port number of application  Sequence number provides
program in host receiving the information regarding the first byte of
segment segment to destination host
158
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Header Contd…
iv. Acknowledgement Number v. Header Length
 32 bit Field  4 bit Field
 Defines the byte number the receiver  Indicates number of 4 byte words in
expects to receive from senders Header
 If ‘n’ bytes are received from sender  Value of header length varies between
‘n+1’ is sent as acknowledgement 5 (5 x 4 = 20) and 20 (20 x 4 = 60)
number vi. Reserved
 Acknowledgment and Data go hand in  6 bit field
hand  Reserved for future use
159
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Header Contd…
vii. Control
 6 bit Field
 Defines 6 unique control bits / flags
 Can be set one / more at a time
 Enables
Control Field of TCP Header
 Flow Control
 Connection Establishment, Termination
and Abortion
 Mode of TCP Data transfer
160
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Header Contd…
viii. Window Size ix. Urgent Pointer
 16 bit Field  16 bit field
 Maximum Window Size: 65, 535 bytes  Used only if urgent data is part of
 Defines Window size of sending TCP segment
 Determined by Receiver  Valid only when urgent flag is set
 Referred as (rwnd ) x. Options
 Sender must adhere to the window  Can accommodate up to 40 bytes of
size fixed by the receiver optional information

161
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Header Contd…
xi. Checksum
 16 bit field
 Mandatory in TCP
 Detects error over entire TCP
 Pseudoheader added to segment

Pseudoheader Added to the TCP Datagram

162
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
A TCP Connection
163
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection
 Connection Oriented Protocol
 Virtual path established between source and destination
 TCP Segments sent and received over Virtual path
 Enables retransmission of Lost / Damaged segments
 Waits for segments arriving out of order
 Phases of TCP Connection
i. Connection Establishment
ii. Data Transfer
iii. Connection Termination 164
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
i. Connection Establishment
 Transmission mode in TCP: Full-Duplex
 Simultaneous transfer of data between Sender and Receiver
 Mutual approval of Communication between sender and receiver mandatory
before data transfer
 Connection establishment performed through 3-Way Handshaking
 Passive Open – Server program informs TCP that it is ready to accept
connection
 Active Open – Client program intending to connect to a Server informs TCP
165
 Connection
Establishment
using 3-way
Handshaking

166
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
i. Connection Establishment Contd…
 Step 1
 Client is in active open mode
 Client sends first SYN segment and sets flag to SYN
 Initial Sequence Number (ISN) : 8000 (Random Number) sent to Server
 SYN segment (Control Segment) carries no data
 SYN segment consumes one Sequence number
 Note: No ACK / Window Size sent along with ISN
167
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
i. Connection Establishment Contd…
 Step 2
 Server sends second segment (SYN + ACK) and sets flag to SYN & ACK
 ACK - Server acknowledges receipt of first segment from Client
 SYN – Segment for communication from Server to Client
 New Sequence Number : 15000 (Random Number)
 Acknowledgement Number for Segment from client: 8001 (Inc. by 1)
 Window Size (rwnd): Set to 5000 by Server (to be used by Client)
 (SYN+ACK) segment consumes one Sequence number 168
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
i. Connection Establishment Contd…
 Step 3
 Client sends third segment (ACK) and sets ACK flag
 ACK – Client acknowledges receipt of second segment from Server
 Sequence Number : 8000 (Used in first Segment)
 Acknowledgement Number for Segment from Server: 15001 (Inc. by 1)
 Window Size (rwnd) : Set to 10000 by Client (to be used by Server)
 (ACK) segment consumes no Sequence number
169
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
i. Connection Establishment Contd…
 Synchronous Flooding Attack
 Type of Denial of Service Attack (DoS)
 Malicious attackers send large count of SYN segments to a Server
 SYN segments pretend to come from various Clients using different IP Address
 Server assumes that Clients are in active open mode and allocates resources
 Server Sends SYN + ACK segments to fake clients and waits for response
 Server runs out of resources and is unable to accept connection requests from
legitimate clients 170
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
i. Connection Establishment Contd…
 Simultaneous Open
 Client and Server issues active open mode (Rare Phenomenon)
 SYN + ACK segment sent from Client to Server and vice versa

171
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
ii. TCP Data Transfer
 Data transfer is bidirectional after connection is established
 Data and acknowledgements can be sent between client and server bidirectionally
 Example (After Connection Establishment)
 Client transmits 2000 bytes of data in 1st and 2nd segment to the Server
 Push flag (PSH) & ACK flags set for Data Segments sent by client
 Segment 1: seq(8001), ack(15001), A & P flags set, Data bytes (8001-9000)
 Segment 2: seq (9001), ack (15001), A & P flags set, Data bytes (9001 –
10000) 172
  Server sends 2000 bytes of
data in the 3rd segment
 Segment 3: seq (15001), ack
(10001), A flag set, Data bytes
(15001 – 17000)
 ACK flag set & SYN flag not
set for data segments sent
by server
 Segment 4: seq (10001), ack
(17001), A flag set, rwnd
(10000)

Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
Data Transfer in TCP 173
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
ii. TCP Data Transfer Contd…
 Flexibility of TCP
 Sending TCP uses buffer to store incoming data stream from applications
 Receiving TCP uses buffer to store arriving data and send to applications
 Disadvantage: Delayed delivery of data
 Pushing Data
 Sending TCP creates an segment and transfers immediately by setting PSH bit
 PSH bit indicates that receiving TCP must deliver the received data segment to
application program immediately 174
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
ii. TCP Data Transfer Contd…
 Data presented from application program to TCP as stream of bytes
 Consecutive positions assigned to each byte of data
 Exception: Application program needs to send Urgent bytes that needs to be
specially treated (With top priority)
 Solution: Urgent Data
 Send a data segment by setting the URG bit
 Urgent data inserted at segment beginning by the sending TCP
 End of the urgent data in segment indicated by urgent pointer field in header
175
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
ii. TCP Data Transfer Contd…
 Segment with URG bit is received by the receiving TCP
 Receiving TCP informs receiving application of the segment with URG bit

176
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
iii. TCP Connection Termination
 Connection termination initiated by the Client by default
 However, Server can also choose to close the TCP connection with client
 Options for connection termination
a) 3-way Handshaking
b) 4-way Handshaking with Half-Close Option

177
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
a) Connection Termination using 3-way Handshaking
 Passive Close – Server program informs TCP that it is ready to close connection
 Active Close – Client program intending to close connection to a Server informs
TCP
 Step 1
 Client process sends close command to Client TCP
 Client TCP sends 1st Segment (FIN) with FIN flag and ACK flag set
 FIN Segment consumes one sequence number (if it carries no data)
 Note: FIN segment may carry last chunk of data also 178
 Connection
Termination
using 3-way
Handshaking

179
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
d) A TCP Connection Contd…
a) Connection Termination using 3-way Handshaking
 Step 2
 Server TCP sends 2nd segment (FIN + ACK) to confirm receipt of FIN segment
 Server announces connection closing from its side
 2nd Segment may contain last chunk of data
 Step 3
 Client TCP sends 3rd segment (ACK) that confirms FIN receipt from Server
 Acknowledgment number – Sequence number + 1
 3rd Segment cannot carry data 180
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
b) Half Close Connection Termination
 Half Close – In client / Server communication if one can stop sending data while
the other can send data it is called an Half-Close
 The Client or Server can issue a Half-Close request
 Example – Sorting
 Client sends data for sorting to Server
 Client closes connection in Client-Server direction
 Server receives data from client & keeps connection open
 Till Sorting is completed & result sent back to Client 181
Half-Close

182
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
iv. TCP Connection Reset
 Reset Flag (RST) - Denies connection / Aborts connection / Terminates existing
idle connection
 Denying Connection
 Client requests to a non-extent server port
 Server sends segment with RST flag set and denies request
 Aborting Connection
 Client / Server TCP aborts existing connection by sending RST segment to
abort connection 183
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
A TCP Connection Contd…
iv. TCP Connection Reset Contd…
 Termination Idle Connection
 Client finds server idle or vice versa
 Client / Server sends RST segment to terminate connection
 Similar to abort

184
TCP Flow
Control

185
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control
 Creates a balance between rate of data production and the rate of data consumption
 Assumption: Channel between sender & receiver is error-free

Data Flow and Flow Control Feedbacks in TCP

186
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
1) Messages are pushed from the Sending application to TCP Client
2) Message segment from TCP Client is pushed to TCP Server
3) Messages are pulled by receiving application from TCP Server
4) Flow control feedback is sent from TCP server to TCP client
5) TCP client forwards the flow control feedback to sending application
 Opening and Closing Windows
 Buffer size of sender & receiver is fixed during connection establishment
 Window sizes of Sender / Receiver is controlled and adjusted by TCP Server
 Opening / Closing / Shrinking of client window is controlled by receiver 187
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
Scenario – TCP Flow Control
 Segment 1
 Connection request – (SYN) segment from client to server
 Initial Sequence Number (ISN): 100 (Next byte to Arrive : 101)
 Server allots buffer size = 800 (Assumption)
 Server allots Window size (rwnd) = 800
 Segment 2
 (ACK + SYN) segment from Server to Client
 Set ACK no = 101 & Buffer Size = 800 bytes 188
 Flow
Control – A
Scenario

189
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
Scenario – TCP Flow Control
 Segment 3
 ACK segment sent from client to server
 Segment 4
 Client sets window size to 800 (since rwnd from server is 800)
 Client process pushes 200 bytes of data to TCP client
 TCP client creates data segment with bytes (101-300) and sends to Server
 Client window adjusted
 Shows 200 bytes as sent but no ACK received from Server 190
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
Scenario – TCP Flow Control
 Shows 200 bytes as sent but no ACK received from Server
 Server stores 200 bytes in buffer & closes receive window
 Server indicates the next expected byte as 301
 Segment 5
 Server acknowledges receipt of 200 bytes from client & reduces rwnd to 600
 Client receives acknowledgement and resizes window size to 600
 Client closes the window (101-300) from left to right
 Client indicates the next byte to send as 301 191
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
Scenario – TCP Flow Control
 Segment 6
 Client pushes 300 more bytes to the server (Seq. No = 301 & Data = 300 bytes)
 Server stores 300 bytes in buffer
 100 bytes of data are pulled by the Client process
 So, Window size is reduced by 100 bytes to the left & opened by 100 bytes to the
right
 Overall, TCP client window size is reduced by 200 bytes
 Now, Receiver window size (rwnd) = 400 192
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
Scenario – TCP Flow Control
 Segment 7
 TCP Server acknowledges receipt of 300 bytes and sets window size (rwnd) =
400 & TCP Client reduces window size to 400
 Sender windows closes by 300 bytes from the left and opens by 100 bytes to the
right
 This process continues until all the data segments are sent from server to client and
connection gets closed
193
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
 Shrinking of Windows
 Shrinking : Decreasing window size i.e., right wall moves towards the left
 Sender window may shrink based on rwnd value defined by receiver
 Receiver window cannot shrink
 Illustration
 Upto 205 bytes of data received and acknowledged by sender
 Last advertised rwnd = 12 (Window size) & last advertised ACK No = 206
 Data can be sent from byte 206 to byte 217 (Since rwnd = 12)
 New advertised rwnd = 12 (Window size) & new advertised ACK No = 210
194
 The window after the new advertisement; Window has shrunk

195
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
 Shrinking of Windows Contd…
 Shrinking of window has occurred from byte 217 to byte 213 (Window had
moved from right to left
 Shrinking can be prevented by the relation given below:

New ACK number + new rwnd > = Lask ACK Number + Last rwnd

 To prevent shrinking,
 Wait until enough buffer locations are available in its window

196
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
 Silly Window Syndrome
 Occurs when either the sending process creates data slowly (or) the receiving
process consumes data slowly (or) both
 Silly window syndrome sends / receives data in small segments thus resulting in
poor efficiency
 Example
 A 42 byte TCP datagram is needed to send Segment with 2 bytes of data
 Overhead : 42 / 2 ⇒ Network capacity used inefficiently
197
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
 Silly Window Syndrome Created by Sender
 Sending TCP creates syndrome since sending application program creates data
slowly i.e., 1 byte at an instance
 Suggestions
 Prevent sending TCP from transmitting data byte by byte
 Sending TCP made to wait & collect data to send data in larger block
 Disadvantage: Waiting too long delays the process
 Solution
 Nagle’s Algorithm 198
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
 Nagle’s Algorithm for Silly Window Syndrome Created by Sender
i. First segment of data sent by sending TCP irrespective of the size of segment
ii. Data is accumulated in buffer by sending TCP until acknowledgment is received
from receiving TCP (or) enough data accumulated to send a segment
iii. Repeat step 2 until transmission completes
 Nagle’s algorithm works based on speed of application program and the network
speed
 Faster the application program larger the segment size
 Advantage: Simple to implement 199
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
 Silly Window Syndrome Created by Receiver
 Syndrome created when serving application consumes slowly
 Example
 1 KB data blocks created by sending application
 1 byte of consumed at a time by receiving application
 Once sending window buffer is full, window size (rwnd) becomes 0
 Solution 1: Clarks’s Solution
 Send ACK as data segment arrives
 Set rwnd = 0 iff receive buffer is half empty (or) there is enough space 200
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Flow Control Contd…
 Silly Window Syndrome Created by Receiver Contd…
 Solution 2: Delayed Acknowledgment
 Acknowledgement is withheld when segment arrives
 Receiver waits for space in incoming buffer before acknowledging
 Delayed ACK prevents sending TCP from sliding
 Delayed ACK reduces network traffic
 Note: ACK not to be delayed by more than 500 ms

201
TCP Error
Control

202
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control
 TCP – Reliable Transport layer Protocol
 Entire data stream to be delivered without error / loss / duplication
 Reliability is provided by TCP using Error Control
 Error Control includes:
 Finding and resending corrupted segments
 Resending lost segments
 Storing out-of-order segments till missed segments arrive
 Discarding duplicate segments
 Error control achieved by: Checksum, Acknowledgement and Time-out 203
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
a) Checksum
 TCP uses 16-bit mandatory checksum field
 Checksum field associated with each segment
 Checks for corrupted segment
 Invalid Checksum: Segment discarded by receiving TCP & considered lost

204
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
b) Acknowledgement
 Acknowledgement segments (ACK) carry no data & confirms data segment receipt
 Types : Cumulative and Selective Acknowledgment
 Cumulative Acknowledgment (ACK)
 32-bit ACK field used
 Acknowledges segments cumulatively (sets ACK flag to 1)
 No feedback provided for discarded, lost or duplicate segments
 Selective Acknowledgement (SACK)
 Reports out of order & duplicate segments 205
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
b) Acknowledgement Contd…
 No provision for SACK in TCP header
 SACK included as part of options field in the TCP header
 Rules for Generating Acknowledgments
1) When data is sent from sender to receiver, ACK provides the next Seq. No
expected to be received
 This results in less traffic and less segments between sender and receiver
2) In case of one in-order segment remaining, receiver needs to delay sending ACK
segment. Network traffic is thus reduced. 206
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
b) Acknowledgement Contd…
3) At no point of time there should be more than two in-order segments
unacknowledged. (Thwarts unnecessary retransmission)
4) Receiver acknowledges (ACK) an higher out-of-order sequence number
immediately leading to fast retransmission of next segment
5) Receiver sends ACK when a missing segment arrives. Segments reported as
missing are thus informed to the receiver
6) Receiver discards duplicate segment & sends ACK indicating the next in-order
segment. Lost ACK segment problems are thus solved. 207
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
c) Retransmission of Segments
 When retransmission occurs?
 Expiry of retransmission timer (or)
 Sender receives more than 2 duplicate ACK’s for 1st segment
 Retransmission after RTO
 One retransmission time-out (RTO) maintained by sending TCP for each
connection
 In case of time-out, timer is restarted by TCP & first segment of Queue is sent
 This version of TCP is called Tahoe 208
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
c) Retransmission of Segments Contd…
 Retransmission after 3 Duplicate Segments
 Also called as Fast Retransmission & followed by most implementations
 TCP version called as Reno
 If 3 identical duplicate ACK’s along with the original ACK are received for a
segment, the next segment is retransmitted
 Note: Retransmission does not wait for time-out in this case

209
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
d) Out-of-Order Segments
 Out-of-Order segments are not discarded by TCP
 TCP flags such segments as out-of-order and store them temporarily until missing
segments arrive
 TCP makes sure that data segments are delivered in sequence to the process

210
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Error Control Contd…
e) FSM for Data Transfer in TCP
 FSM – Finite State Machine
 Similar to Selective repeat and Go Back-N protocol
 Sender-side & Receiver Side FSM
 Assumption : Unidirectional communication
 Ignored Parameters: Selective ACK and Congestion Control
 Nagle’s algorithm / Windows shutdown not included in FSM
 Advantage: Fast transmission policy using 3 duplicate ACK segments
 Bi-directional FSM : Complex and more practical 211
 Simplified
FSM for TCP
Sender Side

212
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 Simplified
FSM for TCP
Receiver
Side

213
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
TCP Congestion
Control

214
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control
 Congestion window and congestion policy handles TCP congestion
a) Congestion Window
 Client window size (rwnd) decided by the available buffer space of Server
 Ignored entity in deciding window size : Network Congestion
 Sender window size determined by,
 rwnd (receiver advertised window size) &
 cwnd (Congestion window size)

Actual window size = min (rwnd, cwnd)

215
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
TERMINOLOGIES & ABBREVIATIONS USED
 rwnd – Sender Window Size
 cwnd – Congestion Window Size
 ssthresh – Slow Start Threshold
 MSS – Maximum Segment Size
 ACK – Acknowledgement
 RTT – Round Trip Time
 RTO – Retransmission Time-out
216
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
b) Congestion Policy
 Three phases : Slow Start, Congestion avoidance & Congestion detection
i. Slow Start (Exponential Increase)
 Assumption: rwnd > cwnd
 cwnd initialized to one Maximum window size (MSS)
 On arrival of each ACK, cwnd increases by 1
 Algorithm starts slowly & grows exponentially
 Delayed ACK policy is ignored
 Note: Consider each segment is individually acknowledged 217
Slow Start,
Exponential
Increase

218
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
b) Congestion Policy
i. Slow Start (Exponential Increase) contd…
 Initial value of cwnd = 1 MSS
No of MSS sent No of Segments RTT cwnd in MSS
Acknowledged
Nil Nil - 1
1 1 1 1 x 2 = 2 ⇒ 21
2 2 2 2 x 2 = 4 ⇒ 22
4 4 3 4 x 2 = 8 ⇒ 23
8 8 4 8 x 2 = 16 ⇒ 24219
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
b) Congestion Policy
i. Slow Start (Exponential Increase) contd…
 For Delayed Acknowledgements
 If multiple segments are acknowledged accumulatively, cwnd increases by 1
 Example: if ACK = 4 them cwnd = 1
 Growth is exponential but not to the power of 2
 Slow start stops with a threshold value ssthresh
 It stops when window size = = ssthresh
220
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
b) Congestion Policy
ii. Congestion Avoidance : Additive Increase
 Slow start increases congestion window size (cwnd) exponentially
 Congestion avoidance increases cwnd additively
 Additive phase begins when slow start reaches ssthresh i.e. cwnd = I
 Increase in cwnd is based on RTT & not on number of ACK’s

RTT cwnd in MSS

1 i
2 i+1 221
Congestive
avoidance,
Additive
Increase

222
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 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
b) Congestion Policy
iii. Congestion Detection : Multiplicative Decrease
 Size of Cwnd must be decreased in case of congestion
 Retransmission occurs during missing segments / lost segments
 Retransmission helps identify whether congestion has occurred or not
 Retransmission occurs when
 There is RTO Time-out
 On receipt of three duplicate ACK’s
 Note: In both cases, ssthresh is reduced by half (Multiplicative decrease) 223
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
b) Congestion Policy
iii. Congestion Detection : Multiplicative Decrease Contd…
a) Time-out increases possibility of congestion. TCP reacts as follows:
 Ssthresh set to half the value of rwnd
 Cwnd initialized to 1
 Slow start phase is initiated again
b) Three duplicate ACK’s indicates a weaker possibility of Congestion. Also called as
fast transmission & fast recovery. TCP reacts as follows:
 Ssthresh set to half the value of rwnd 224
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
b) Congestion Policy
iii. Congestion Detection : Multiplicative Decrease Contd…
 Cwnd = ssthresh
 Congestion avoidance phase is initiated again

225
 TCP
Congestion
Policy : A
Summary

226
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
Summarization with Example
 Assumptions
 Maximum window Size (MSS) = 32
 Threshold (ssthresh) = 16
 TCP moves to slow start
 rwnd starts from 1 and and grows exponentially till it reaches ssthresh (16)
 Additive increase increases rwnd from 16 to 20 (one by one)
 When rwnd = 20, time-out occurs
 Multiplicative Decrease: ssthresh reduced to 10 (half the window size) 227
Congestion
Example

228
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑 (𝕿𝕮𝕻)
TCP Congestion Control Contd…
Summarization with Example Contd…
 New ssthresh = 10
 TCP moves to Slow start again
 rwnd starts from 1 and and grows exponentially till it reaches new ssthresh (10)
 Additive increase increases rwnd from 10 to 12 (one by one)
 2 duplicate ACK’s are received by the sender
 Multiplicative Decrease: ssthresh reduced to 6 (half the window size)

229
𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘

230
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Introduction to Multicasting
a) Unicasting
 One Source and one Destination network
 Relationship between Source and Destination : One to One
 What is Unicasting?
 Each router in the datagram path forwards packets to only one interface
 Example
 Problem: Delivery of packet from Source to Destination (N6)
 Routers used: R1, R2 & R3
 No of Ethernet Switches: 1 231
 Solution
 R1 forwards packets using
interface 3
 R4 forwards packets using
interface 2
 Delivery from Source to
destination N6 is
network’s responsibility Unicasting – Example
 Mode of Delivery : Scenario

Broadcast to all Hosts /

Only to Destination (N6 )
232
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 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Introduction to Multicasting Contd…
b) Multicasting
 One Source and one group of Destinations
 Relationship between Source and Destination : One to Many
 Source address: Unicast Address
 Destination address: Group of one / more Destination networks
 At least one member interested in receiving the Multicast datagram
 Group address defines the group members
 Example
 Note: Unicast router replaced by Multicast router 233
 Routers used: R1, R2 & R3
 No of Ethernet Switches: 1
 Solution
 R1 forwards packets using
interface 2 & 3
 R4 forwards packets using
interface 1 & 2
 R3 forwards packet Multicasting – Example
through interface 1 Scenario

234
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Introduction to Multicasting Contd…
c) Multicasting vs Multiple Unicasting

Multicasting Multiple Unicasting

Single packet starts from the Source & Multiple packets start from the Source and
duplicated by Routers may have duplicates
Destination address in each packet Each packet has a different Unicast
remains the same for duplicates destination address
A single packet travels between two There may be multiple copies between
routers two routers
Example: Example: Group E-mail
235
 Multicasting Multiple Unicasting

Multicasting vs Multiple Unicasting

236
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Introduction to Multicasting Contd…
d) Applications of Multicasting
i. Access to distributed databases
 Information stored in more than one location
ii. Information Dissemination
 Sending same information to multiple customer
iii. Dissemination of News
iv. Teleconferencing (Permanent or Temporary group)
v. Distance Learning
 Virtual Online classes 237
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Introduction to Multicasting Contd…
e) Why Multicasting cannot be emulated with Unicasting?
 Multicasting is efficient than unicasting
 Requires less bandwidth than unicasting
 There is no delay in Multicasting
f) Broadcasting
 One Source and all hosts are Destinations
 Relationship between Source and Destination : One to All
 Internet does not support broadcasting explicitly
 Due to Huge traffic & Bandwidth issues 238
Multicast Addresses

239
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Multicast Addresses in IPv4
 Destination address for a group of hosts that are part of a multicast group
 If there are no filtering mechanisms, all the recipients will receive the message
broadcast through multicast
 Multicast Addresses in IPv4
 Block assigned for multicasting is 224.0.0.0/4
 i.e., block has 228 = 268,435,456 addresses
 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 is the address space for Multicast
 CIDR need not be assigned to every designated range
240
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘

Multicast Address Ranges

241
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Multicast Addresses in IPv4 Contd…
a) Local Network Control Block (224.0.0.1/24)
 Used for Protocol control traffic & not used for general Multicast communication
 Multicast / Multicast related protocols use this block of address
 Routers are not allowed to forward IP packets with TTL set to 1
 Packet remains in the network
b) Internetwork Control Block (224.0.1/24)
 Used for Protocol control traffic
 IP packets within this address block can be forwarded over the internet
 Example: 224.0.1.1 is used by NTP protocol 242
 Addresses
in Network
Control
Block

243
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Multicast Addresses in IPv4 Contd…
c) AD-HOC Block
 Range: 224.0.2.0 to 224.0.255.0
 Assigned to applications that does not fit in 1st or 2nd block
d) Stream Multicast Group Block
 224.1.0.0/16
 Allocated for stream multimedia
e) SAP / SDP Block
 224.2.0.0/16
 Used for Session Announcement protocol & Session Directory protocol 244
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Multicast Addresses in IPv4 Contd…
f) SSM Block
 232.0.0.0/8
 Used for Source Specific Multicasting
g) GLOP Block
 233..0.0.0/8
 Defines a range of globally assigned addresses
 Used inside an autonomous system (AS) and assigned to a 16 bit number
 AS number inserted as the 2-middle Octet in the block to create range of 256
multicast addresses 245
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Multicast Addresses in IPv4 Contd…
h) Administratively Scoped Block
 239.0.0.0/8
 Used in a particular area in internet
 Address in this block restricted to an organization

246
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
247
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 Multicast Communication: Message sent by sender to recipients of same group
 One copy of message is copied and forwarded by multicast routers
 Multicast routers must know list of groups & minimum one loyal member related to
each interface
 Information about members to be shared between multicast routers
 Information collected at two levels:
 Locally (collected by IGMP)
 Globally (propagated to other routers)
248
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) contd…

Position of IGMP in Network Layer

 IGMP collects & interprets information about group members in a network locally
 Note: IGMP is designed at the IP layer for the above said purpose

249
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 Group Management
 IGMP manages group membership
 Provides information to the multicast routers about membership status of routers
connected to a network
 Maintains a list of groups in the network which has at least one loyal member
 Without IGMP, traffic increases & more bandwidth is consumed
 Versions of IGMP: 1,2 & 3
 Version 1 & 2 provides Any Source Multicast (ASM)
 Version 3 provides Source Specific Multicast (SSM) 250
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 IGMPv3 Messages
 Two types of messages
a) Membership Query message
i. General
ii. Group Specific
iii. Group and Source Specific IGMP Messages
b) Membership Report Message

251
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 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 IGMPv3 Messages Contd…
a) Membership Query message
i. General Query Message
 Router probes each neighbor to
report the whole group
Membership Query Message Format
membership list
ii. Group Specific Query Message
 Router probes each neighbor to report if it is still interested in a specific group
 Multicast group address defined as x.y.z.t in group address field 252
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 IGMPv3 Messages Contd…
iii. Group and Source Specific Query message
 Router probes each neighbor to report it is still in a specific multicast group
b) Membership Query message format
 Important fields
 Checksum
 Number of Sources
 Aux data
 Aux Data Len 253
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 IGMPv3 Messages Contd…

Membership Report Message Format

254
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Routing Protocols

255
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols

Taxonomy of Common Multicast Protocols

256
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 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
Multicast Link state routing
 Extension of unicast routing
 Uses source based tree approach
 Node advertises every group that has any loyal member on the link
 Group information comes form IGMP
 Router creates ‘n’ groups based on Link state Packets (LSP’s)
 Note: Each router has a routing table that has ‘n’ shortest path trees
 Disadvantage: More Time & Space needed to create & Store shortest path trees
257
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
a) Multicast Open Shortest path first : MOSPF
 Data driven protocol & Extension of OSPF
 Uses multicast link state routing to create source based trees
 Group membership LSA includes hosts in the tree that’s belongs to a group
 When MOSPF router encounters a datagram with a given source and group
address
 Router constructs the Dijkstra shortest path tree

258
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
b) Multicast Distance Vector Routing Protocol
 Uses source-based trees but router does not make a routing table
 Router receives multicast packet and forwards
 After forwarding the packet the table is destroyed
 MDV uses a process based on 4 decision making strategies
i. Flooding
ii. Reverse path forwarding (RPF)
iii. Reverse Path Broadcasting (RPB)
iv. Reverse path Multicasting (RPM) 259
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
b) Multicast Distance Vector Routing Protocol Contd…
i. Flooding
 Router forwards received packets and sends to every interface except itself
 Destination group address is not checked
 Every network with active members receives the packet
 Networks without active members also receive the packet
 Flooding supports broadcast not unicast
 Disadvantage: Creation of loops
 Overcome by Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF) 260
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
b) Multicast Distance Vector Routing Protocol Contd…
ii. Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF)
 Modified flooding strategy: Only one copy is forwarded to avoid flooding
 Router forwards the copy that has travelled the shortest path from Source to
router
 RPF uses Unicast routing table to find this packet
 Looping is prevented, since there is only one shortest path from Source to Router
 Disadvantage: No guarantee that each network receives only one copy; Network
may receive multiple copies 261
 Routers: R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 &
R6
 Shortest Path : R1, R2 & R2
 R1 receives packet from
source through interface m1
 Packet forwarded
 Packet forwarded to R2 and
R3 similarly
 Note: Upstream routers
towards source always
discards packet not gone
Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF)
through the shortest path 262
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
b) Multicast Distance Vector Routing Protocol Contd…
iii. Reverse Path Broadcasting (RPB)
 Problem in RPF is overcome by eliminating duplication
 Restriction used in RPB: Only one parent router defined for each network
 Policy: For each source, router sends packet only out of interfaces which is the
designated parent
 RPB guarantees the elimination of duplicate copies
 Designated Parent: Router with the shortest path to the source
 Disadvantage: RPB broadcasts, not multicasts 263
 Reverse Path Forwarding Reverse Path Broadcasting
(RPF) (RPB)

Difference between RPF and RPB

264
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
b) Multicast Distance Vector Routing Protocol Contd…
iv. Reverse Path Multicasting (RPM)
 Multicast packet must reach networks with active members for the particular
group only
 To convert broadcast to multicast: use Pruning & Grafting
 Pruning: Prune message sent to upstream router to prune corresponding
interface
 Grafting: Graft message forces upstream router to resume sending multicast
images 265
RPF, RPB &
RPM

266
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
c) Core-Based Tree Protocol
 Group-shared tree, center-based protocol; Uses one tree per group
 One of the routers in the tree is called the core
 Procedure for sending Packet from Source to Group members:
1) Source encapsulates the multicast packet inside a unicast packet with the unicast
destination address of the core and sends it to the core
 This part of delivery is done using a unicast address
 The only recipient is the core router
2) Core decapsulates the unicast packet and forwards it to all interested interfaces
267
 3) Each router that receives the multicast packet, in turn, forwards it to all interested
interfaces

Group-shared Tree with Rendezvous Sending a Multicast Packet to the

Router Router
268
Source: Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill ISBN: 0073376043
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
d) Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)
 Consists of two protocols
i. Protocol Independent Multicast, Dense Mode (PIM-DM)
 Source-based tree routing protocol
 Uses RPF & Pruning / Grafting strategies for Multicasting
 Used when each router in involved in Multicasting
 Used in dense environment : LAN
 PIM-DM can be either be a Distance Vector Protocol (RIP) (or) Link State Protocol
(OSPF) 269
 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 & 𝕸𝖚𝖑𝖙𝖎𝖈𝖆𝖘𝖙 𝕽𝖔𝖚𝖙𝖎𝖓𝖌 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑𝖘
Routing Protocols Contd…
d) Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) Contd…
ii. Protocol Independent Multicast, Sparse Mode (PIM-SM)
 Group-shared tree routing protocol; Similar to CBT
 Simple to implement
 Rendezvous point at the Source of Tree
 No Acknowledgement required from a join message
 Characteristic: Can switch between Group shared (or) Source based Strategy

270
 𝕾𝖙𝖗𝖊𝖆𝖒 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑
Introduction to SCTP
 Reliable, Message-oriented general purpose transport layer protocol
 Capable of handling Multimedia and Stream traffic
 Designed for Internet applications
 Lies between application & network layer
 Servers a a middleman between
application programs & network
operations
 Combines best features of UDP & TCP Relationship of SCTP to other Protocols in
TCP/IP Suite 271
 𝕾𝖙𝖗𝖊𝖆𝖒 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑
Introduction to SCTP Contd…
 SCTP preserves message boundaries
 Detects lost data, duplicate data and out-of-order data
 Congestion control and flow control mechanisms available in SCTP
 Characteristics of SCTP
a) Confirmed Transmission
b) Data Fragmentation
c) Sequenced Delivery
d) Bunding
e) Fault tolerance at Network Level 272
 Conceptual Model of SCTP
273
Source: https://indigoo.com/petersblog/?p=185
 𝕾𝖙𝖗𝖊𝖆𝖒 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑
Introduction to SCTP Contd…
 Key features of SCTP
a) No head-of-line blocking
b) Message-based data transfer
c) Multihoming
d) Protection against connection flooding

274
Source: https://indigoo.com/petersblog/?p=185
 𝕾𝖙𝖗𝖊𝖆𝖒 𝕮𝖔𝖓𝖙𝖗𝖔𝖑 𝕿𝖗𝖆𝖓𝖘𝖒𝖎𝖘𝖘𝖎𝖔𝖓 𝕻𝖗𝖔𝖙𝖔𝖈𝖔𝖑
Difference between TCP, UDP & SCTP

275
Source: https://www.ionos.com/digitalguide/server/know-how/sctp/
 References
Learning Resources Used for Unit I
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “TCP IP Protocol Suite ” 4th edition, 2010, McGraw-Hill,
ISBN: 0073376043
2. https://indigoo.com/petersblog/?p=185
3. https://www.ionos.com/digitalguide/server/know-how/sctp/
Prepared By
Ms.M. Vaidehi, Asst.Prof/CSE/SRMIST/KTR
Mr. KC. Prabu Shankar, Asst.Prof/CSE/SRMIST/KTR

276
Thank You

277