Lecture 1

Digital Integrated
Circuits
A Design Perspective
The Devices
© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

The Diode
The diodes are rarely explicitly used in modern integrated

circuits
However, a MOS transistor contains at least two reverse biased
diodes that impact the behavior of the device. In particular, the
voltage dependent capacitances contributed by these parasitic
elements play an important role in the switching behavior of the
MOS digital gate.
Typically, diodes are also often used as Electro-Static Discharge
(ESD) Protection devices to protect chip inputs and outputs.
Therefore, a review of diode fundamentals is desirable

(especially reverse bias conditions)

The Diode
The pn-junction is the simplest of the semiconductor devices
• It consists of two regions of p- and n- type materials

• Both the regions are separated by a thin transition region – such a device is called
a step or abrupt junction device
• p-type material is doped with acceptor impurities (e.g., boron). Thus, holes are the
dominant majority carriers.
• n-type material is doped with donor impurities (e.g., phosphorus). Thus, electrons
are the dominant majority carriers.
B Al A
SiO2 A Al
A
p
p
n
n B
B
One-dimensional diode symbol
Cross-section of pn-junction in an IC process representation

The Diode
Bringing the p- and n-type materials together causes a large concentration
gradient at the boundary.
Electron (hole) concentration changes from a high value in the n-type (p-
type) material to a very small value in the p-type (n-type) material
This gradient causes:
electrons (holes) to diffuse from n (p) type material to p (n) type material
movement of mobile electrons (holes) leaving behind immobile donor
(acceptor) ions in n (p) type material. The p (n) -type material is negatively
(positively) charged in the vicinity of the pn-boundry.
The region close to the junction from where all mobile carriers have left is
called depletion (space charge) region.
The remaining immobile ions create an electric field across the boundary
causing drift current
Under equilibrium condition: drift currents are equal and opposite to
diffusion currents (zero net flow)

Depletion Region
hole diffusion
electron diffusion
(a) Current flow.
p n
hole drift
electron drift
Charge ρ
Density
+ x (b) Charge density.
Distance
-
Electrical ξ
Field x
(c) Electric field.
V
Potential
ψ0 (d) Electrostatic
x potential.
-W 1 W2
P is more heavily doped than n (NA>ND), where NA and ND are the acceptor and
donor concentrations
Depletion Region
Under zero-bias condition, there exists a voltage across the junction,
called built-in potential
This potential (Φ0 ) has the value
 N AND 
Φ 0 = Φ T ln  2 
n
 i 
kT
ΦT = = 26mV at 300K
q
The quantity ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration in a pure sample

of the semiconductor. It equals approximately 1.5 x 1010 cm-3 at
300K for silicon

Diode: Static Behavior
Assume forward biasing – potential of p is raised w.r.t. n-region.
This applied potential lowers the potential barrier.
Thus, the flow of mobile carriers across the junction increases

as the diffusion current dominates the drift current.
These carriers traverse the depletion region and become

minority carriers.
Eventually, these minority carriers recombine with the majority

carriers.
The net result is a current flowing through the diode from the p-
region to the n-region, and the diode is said to be forward-
biased.

Forward Bias
Metal contact to n-region

Metal contact to p-region
pn (W2)
pn0
Lp
np0
-W1 0 W2 x
p-region n-region
diffusion
Typically avoided in Digital ICs
Reverse Conduction
Potential of p is lowered w.r.t. n. This results in a reduction
in diffusion current, and the drift current becomes
dominant.
Thus current flows from the n to p regions. Since the

minority carriers is very small, this drift component is very
small.
Thus, it is fair to say that the diode operates as a non-

conducting or blocking device when reverse-biased (i.e.,
one way conductor).

Metal contact to p-region
Reverse Bias
Metal contact to n-region

pn0
np0
-W1 0 W2 x
p-region n-region
diffusion
The Dominant Operation Mode

Diode I-V Characteristics
Deviation due to
recombination

Diode: Static Behavior
Ideal diode equation
I D = I S (eVD / ΦT − 1)
Is is the saturation current (function in diode area and doping levels)
When VD<<0, ID=-IS

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Digital Integrated

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

 The diodes are rarely explicitly used in modern integrated

Therefore, a review of diode fundamentals is desirable

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

• It consists of two regions of p- and n- type materials

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

 The quantity ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration in a pure sample

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

Thus, the flow of mobile carriers across the junction increases

These carriers traverse the depletion region and become

Eventually, these minority carriers recombine with the majority

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

Metal contact to n-region

 Thus current flows from the n to p regions. Since the

 Thus, it is fair to say that the diode operates as a non-

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

Metal contact to n-region

The Dominant Operation Mode

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

When VD<<0, ID=-IS

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Devices

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The diodes are rarely explicitly used in modern integrated

The quantity ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration in a pure sample

Thus current flows from the n to p regions. Since the

Thus, it is fair to say that the diode operates as a non-