Surveying I Chapter 1

CHAPTER-ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition

Surveying: -is defined as an art of making measurements of the relative position of

natural and man-made features on the earth’s surface either graphically or numerically.

In order to gain a clear understanding of the procedures for making surveying measurements
on earth’s surface, it is necessary to be familiar with the meanings of certain basic terms.

Vertical line: - at any point on the earth’s surface is the line that follows the direction of
gravity at a point. At a point there is only one (single) vertical line.

Vertical plane: - at a point is any plane that contains the vertical line at the point. There are
unlimited numbers of vertical planes at a given point.

Horizontal line: - It a point is any line that is perpendicular to the vertical line at that point.
At a point there are an unlimited number of horizontal lines.

Horizontal plane: - at a point is the line that is perpendicular to the vertical line at the point.
There is only one horizontal plane through a given point.
A vertical angle: - is an angle measured in a vertical plane.
A Horizontal angle: - is an angle measured in a horizontal plane between two vertical
planes.
Elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a given reference level surface. The
difference in elevation between two points is vertical distances between two level surfaces
contain the two points.

1.2 Need for Surveying

Though it is impossible to predict when surveying started it is possible to assume surely that it
was as old as early civilization. Because every type of construction needs surveying as a
prerequisite whatever may be its type.

All types of engineers, as well as architectures, foresters, and hydrologists, are concerned with
surveying as a means of planning and laying out their projects, surveying is needed for
subdivisions, buildings, bridges, highways, railroads canals, piers, wharves, dams, irrigation
and drainage networks, and many other projects. In addition it is required for lying out of
industrial equipment setting machinery, holding tolerances in ships and air lines, preparing
forestry and geological maps.

1.3 Types and Principles of Surveying

In general surveying is divided into two broad classes as geodetic and plane surveying

Geodetic Surveying

The study of size and shape of the earth and its gravity field is known as geodesy. Therefore,
geodetic surveying is a type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is considered.
Large areas of the earth’s surface are involved and it requires high degree of precisions.
Satellite positioning system, which can obtain the three-dimensional coordinates of any point,
is considered in this method.

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Plane Surveying

A type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is considered and relatively small areas
are under considers and, assumed that the earth’s surface is flat, i.e. it gives a horizontal
plane. Measurements plotted will represent the projection on the horizontal plane of the
actual field measurements. For example if the distance between two points A and B an a hill
side is cos , where is the angle that line AB makes with the horizontal assuming uniform
slope.

Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose

Most of these types of survey are planning type surveying.

1. Control Survey: - is a survey made to establish the horizontal or vertical positions of

an arbitrary point.
2. Topographic Survey is a survey conducted to determine the configuration of the
ground and all the features on it (man made or natural)
3. Construction Survey: - Surveys performed to locate or layout engineering works.
4. Cadastral Survey: - us a survey made to determine the lengths and directions of
boundary lines and the area of the tract bounded by these lines. Or it is simply a
survey made to establish the positions of boundary lines on the ground.
5. Hydrographic Survey: - is a survey conducted to determine the configuration of the
bottom of the body of water.
6. Route Survey: - involves the determination of the relief and the location of natural
and artificial objects along a proposed route for high– way, railroad, canal, pipeline,
power line or other utilities. The may also involve the calculation of earthwork
quantities.
7. Arial Survey (Photogrammetric Survey): - a survey conducted by means of Arial
photography.

Basic Principles

For an area or land to be surveyed, it is always possible to choose two points and to measure
the distance between them. Say base line AB was dawn on paper to scale. Other points can
now be located relative to this line by taking two other measurements and drawing them to
scale.

Different methods can be applied in locating the other points, these are:

1. Horizontal plane

a-Inter section by distance (Trilateration)

- Measure Ac and BC and C can be located
C

A B

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b- Intersection by angles (triangulation

CC -Measure <ABC and <BAC then C can be located

A   B

C- Angel and distance method (Traversing)

-Measure BC and angle ABC
Then C can be located

A B
d -Off set method B
B -AD is known measure
CD at right angel to AB
90o

2. Vertical plane
A
A - Ordinary leveling
In this method the difference of elevations b/n two points is determined using
level and leveling staff.

B. Trigonometric leveling
The difference in elevations between two points can be determined by measuring the vertical
angle of the line from one point to the other and then computing the difference in elevation
from the knowledge of the slope distance or horizontal distance between two points.

C. Barometric leveling for preliminary survey not accurate.

1.4 Sources of Error precision and correction

Errors and Mistakes

No one is perfect in mature while measuring any quantity and there are no perfect instrument
with which to do the measuring. Thus the results of all measurements are imperfect and this
imperfectness is the results of errors and/or mistakes

Errors: - are inaccuracies in measurement caused by the types of equipment used for by the
way in which the equipments are used. In other words it is the difference from the true value
due to personal or instrumental imperfectness.

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Errors cannot be eliminated but they can be minimized to some degree by careful work
combined with the application of certain numerical corrections.

Mistakes: - (or blunders) are inaccuracies in measurement occurring because of some part of
the surveying operation are performed improperly (i.e. carelessness of the survey or). They
are the difference from the true value caused by the inattention of the survey or for example,
he may read a number as I when it is actually and record the wrong quantity.

Mistakes are also known as gross error and can be eliminated by adopting standard methods
of observation, booting and checking. They are random in nature.

Sources of Errors

In general there are three sources of error: people, instruments and nature. So, from this
point of view the sources of error may be summarized as follows.

1. Personal Errors: - cased by the inability of the individual to make exact observation
due to the limitations of human sight, touch and hearing. For example in estimating
the fractional part of a scale of person cannot read it perfectly and the reading will
always be either a little large or a little small.
2. Instrumental Errors: - Occur because of imperfect production of parts of the
instrument cannot be adjusted exactly with respect to each other. More over with
time the wear and tear of the instrument cause errors. These can be minimized or
even eliminated by proper design and adjustment of instrument.
3. Natural Errors: - Caused by the variations in one or more of the natural variables like
temperature, wind, moisture, magnetic variations and so on.
Types of Errors
Errors are said to be systematic or accidental based on their occurrence and sources

1. Systematic Error; -are also known as cumulative error. These arise from the methods of
measurements, the instruments used and the physical conditions at the time of
measurement must all be considered in the respect.
Expansion of steel tapes, frequency changes in electromagnetic distance measure (EDM)
instruments and collimation in a level are jest few examples of possible sources of
systematic errors. Though they are cumulative in nature some of them can be eliminated
and some and some may be minimized.
2. Accidental Errors: - (Random Errors) they are excess of systematic errors. They are
beyond the control of the observer and are random in nature.

Accuracy and Precision

As discussed earlier any measurement cannot exactly be perfect, due to errors or/and
mistakes. Hence a major concern of in surveying is the precision of the work and the objective
of the survey or is to make measurements that are both precise and accurate. The terms
accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying & yet their correct meanings are a
little difficult to grasp.

Accuracy denotes the closeness of a given measurement to the true value. It is the degree of
perfection achieved in measurement.

Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of closeness to another measurement of the

same quality. If a quality is measured several times and the value obtained are very close to
one another might not close to the true value.

Example: - consider the case with which two parties record the length of a line
having 50.357m.
1st team: 50.37m, 50.36m, 50.355m…………Avg. = 50.362m
2nd team: 50.355m, 50.356mm, 50.358m …… Avg. = 50.356m

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From the above results one can conclude the following

The first team is more accurate but less precise and second team is less accurate but
more precise. Therefore a measurement that is precise will always be accurate if it
contains no errors.

In measuring distance precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to the
distance measured and it is reduced to fraction having a numerator of unity.

Example: - If the distance of 210m is measured and the error is later estimated to
equal 0.35m, the precision of measurement is 0.35/210 = 1/ 600. This means for every
600m measurement there is an error of 1m if the work were done with same degree of
precision.

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