Frying Oils

Monoj K. Gupta
MG Edible Oil Consulting International, Lynnwood, WA, USA

1. INTRODUCTION

Fried foods have provided culinary delight to people worldwide for centuries. It is difficult
to determine when and where frying was first used by mankind. However, there is evidence
that man used fried products long before the modern civilization reinvented fried products.
Modern-day frying involves sophisticated equipment, techniques, ingredients, and packaging.
This is because the industrial fried products require long shelf life for warehousing, distribu-
tion, and sale.
In the frying process, food, such as vegetables, meat, or seafood, is brought in direct contact
with hot oil. The food surface becomes golden yellow to dark brown in color and develops a
pleasant fried food flavor.
Frying is done in homes, restaurants (food services), and at large industrial operations. Pan
frying or griddle frying is done mostly at homes or at the restaurants. In this process, a thin
layer of oil is heated on a skillet or a griddle. The food is fried in the layer of oil and fried until
completion.
Restaurants also use batch fryers, where the food is placed in a wire basket, which is lowered
into a bed of hot oil. The basket is removed from the hot oil when the product is fully fried.
The restaurants follow their guidelines on the frying temperature and time of frying. Both
frying temperature and frying time vary with the products fried.
Large-scale production of snack food is done in deep fat fryers. These are either batch or
continuous fryers. In a batch fryer, the food is added into a large pan of hot oil. The oil is heated
either directly from under the fryer or in an external heater. In the latter case, the oil is continu-
ously recirculated into the pan, and in a batch kettle, it is stirred with a stirrer. Formerly, manual
stirring was common but modern kettles are generally equipped with mechanical stirrers. Fried

Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Seventh Edition, edited by Fereidoon Shahidi.
Copyright © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/047167849X.bio023.pub2
1
2 FRYING OILS

product is generally removed and spun through a centrifugal device to remove the excess oil
from the product surface. The product is salted and/or seasoned and packaged. The recovered
oil is reused.
In a continuous fryer, the food enters the fryer at one end is fried and taken out from the
other end. The products that tend to get lighter with frying but have high moisture content in the
feed are submerged in the bed of hot oil with the help of a submerging belt. Submerging is done
for a specified time depending on the type of food being fried and the degree of dehydration
desired. The oil in the fryer is heated directly or indirectly as described in the Chapter on
Frying of Foods and Snack Food Production.
Products in the above procedures are fully fried and are ready for consumption. There
is another industrial method of frying that is used quite extensively. This is known as the
par-frying process. The food is partially dehydrated in an industrial fryer and flash frozen at
−20 ∘ C (−4 ∘ F). The packaged par-fried food is stored at −5 ∘ F (20.6 ∘ C) to −10 ∘ F (23.3 ∘ C)
and distributed in freezer trucks. The product remains in a freezer at the destination. It is taken
out of the freezer and fried immediately without thawing. Most common par-fried products are
French fries, potato wedges, breaded chicken, coated vegetables, frozen fish fillet, cheese-filled
vegetables, coated cheese sticks, etc. This reduces the manpower requirement and prepara-
tion times at the restaurants and provides a great deal of convenience and cost savings to the
restaurants and food services.
Advancement in the packaging materials and packing methods has enabled the industrial
frying operations to extend the shelf life of the fried products so they can be stored, dis-
tributed, and marketed over several weeks to several months, without losing freshness in the
product. This has provided a tremendous boost to the growth of the packaged fried food
industry.
Oil plays a great role in determining the storage stability and the quality of the fried product.
However, oil is also prone to oxidation, which leads to rancidity of the product in storage.
Use of packaging material with high oxygen, high moisture barrier properties and then use of
nitrogen flush, can significantly reduce oil degradation and moisture pick-up by the product
resulting in increased shelf life of packaged fried food.
Frying oil has been available to man in various parts of the world. Most of the time, a specific
oil has been selected for frying because it is locally available. Man also has moved from the
crude expelled oils to refined oils as the oil processing technology advanced. In addition, the
availability of most oils across the world has also increased due to improved transportation
and storage systems developed over the years. Consumers have been exposed to the taste of
products fried in different types of oil for quite some time now. Production of other than the
indigenous oils has also become common where the local climate, soil conditions, and overall
agronomy have been favorable to a particular type of oilseed or oil palm trees.
In spite of the widespread distribution of various types of oils across the world, it is found
that there are regional preferences for particular oils in fried foods. For example, cottonseed
oil was considered as the “gold standard” for potato chips in the United States. This is largely
because cottonseed oil was the primary vegetable oil grown in the United States when potato
chips were introduced 150 years ago at Saratoga Falls, New York [1].
Similarly, the Mexican consumers prefer sesame seed oil or safflower oil in fried snack
foods. Consumers in the Indian sub-continent prefer peanut (groundnut) oil in fried snacks,
most Canadians consumers prefer foods fried in canola oil. Consumers in Argentina prefer
high oleic sunflower as frying oil. Bias towards the original indigenous oil can be found in
every oil-producing country. Availability and the necessity for sufficient supply of the oil have
 APPLICATIONS OF FRYING OIL 3

played a great role in local selection of oil for frying products. For example, the Mexican
consumers have accepted palmolein for frying snack foods because the fried food has good
flavor and taste, although they prefer safflower oil or sesame seed oil. Acceptance of palmolein
in Mexico has been influenced by the fact that sesame seed and safflower oils are in short supply
and more expensive and palmolein produces good fried food at reduced cost.

2. ROLE OF OIL OR FAT IN FRYING

Oil provides several important attributes to the fried product that makes the fried food palatable
and desirable to the consumers, these include:

• Texture
• Fried food flavor
• Mouthfeel
• Color
• Appearance
• Fried food flavor
• Aftertaste

Fortunately, oil has also been an excellent heat transfer medium for dehydration of the
food during frying. Some mechanical engineers in the frying industry tend to treat the oil as a
true heat transfer medium. However, the frying industry has learned the role of oil as a major
contributor in the fried food acceptability by the consumers. This will be discussed in great
detail in the subsequent discussions in this chapter. The readers will find that oil plays a much
greater role than just being a heat transfer medium in frying.

3. APPLICATIONS OF FRYING OIL

As previously mentioned, frying oil is used in homes, restaurants (food services), and industrial
frying operations. Home fried food is consumed almost immediately after it is fried. At restau-
rants, the fried food is generally made to order and consumed within minutes of its preparation.
Frying oil is always considered acceptable at homes or restaurants when it produces good fla-
vor and texture in the food. There is little or no concern regarding the shelf life of the fried
product at either of these locations.
Shelf-stable packaged industrial products, on the other hand, are packaged and distributed
for sale. Some of these products may require weeks or months for their distribution and sale.
Therefore, the products must maintain good flavor and texture during storage and distribution
in order to be acceptable to consumers when they are purchased. The oils (fats) used for indus-
trial frying must have good oxidative and flavor stability in order to achieve good shelf life for
the products. In this chapter, one will be able to understand the requirements that are critical
for industrial frying oils. All subsequent discussions on oils in this chapter will be pertain-
ing to industrial frying, although, the same criteria apply in restaurant as well as for domestic
frying.
4 FRYING OILS

4. SELECTION OF FRYING OIL

The following criteria [2] are applied for the selection of oil for industrial frying:
1. Product flavor
2. Product texture
3. Product appearance
4. Mouthfeel
5. Aftertaste
6. Shelf life of the product
7. Availability of the oil
8. Cost
9. Nutritional requirements
Flavor, aroma (fried-food aroma), and appearance are generally the first three attributes that
the consumers look for in the fried food. Subsequently, the consumer judges the fried food for
texture, mouthfeel, and aftertaste. Thus, the first five items from the above list are the most
important attributes for consumer acceptance of the product.
Product shelf life is important for quality and economic reasons. All products require a
certain number of weeks or even months for distribution and sale. The product flavor and
texture must be acceptable to the consumer at the time it is consumed. The texture of the
product (soft-texture as well as staleness) is caused by moisture pickup by the product during
storage. This can be corrected through proper initial moisture control in the product as it is
packaged and by using appropriate packaging material with good moisture barrier property.
Oil quality and oil flavor stability greatly influence the flavor stability of the product in storage.
Availability and cost of oil are important economic factors. Even the best performing frying
oil is not be beneficial to the business if it is not available in sufficient quantities.
The cost of oil is extremely critical for the industry. Most fried snack foods contain 20–40%
oil. Therefore, the snack food company has to minimize the delivered cost of oil at the plant.
Sometimes, the procurement department purchases oil from suppliers that sell oils at lower
costs that do not have good quality management system in place. This ends up costing money
and goodwill for the snack food company in the long run.
Nutritional value of oil in the snack food has become important. To meet today’s consumer
demand the frying oil must have the following attributes:
1. Low in saturated fat
2. Low in linolenic acid
3. High oxidative and flavor stability
4. Not hydrogenated (trans-fat free)
Today’s consumers look at the total fat content, total saturated fat content, and look for zero
trans-fat in foods. Fried foods contain high percentage of oil. Therefore, it is more challenging
for the fried food manufacturers to deliver fried products that meet the consumer expectation
on the oil in product. At the same time, the fried product must have shelf life for months,
In order to manage the warehousing and distribution of the product. Use of garden-variety
soybean, canola, or sunflower oil to fry nonfrozen shelf-stable fried products is not feasible
because of the high polyunsaturated fatty acid contents of these oils. Cottonseed, corn oil, and
 THE FRYING PROCESS 5

palmolein oils can meet the shelf life. However, both cottonseed oil and palmolein have high
saturated fat contents. Cottonseed and corn are grown in limited areas and, therefore, the oil
supply is also limited. Palmolein is facing the challenge of sustainability issue and is somewhat
downplayed at the moment.
Modified composition seed oils, containing lower saturates and higher monounsaturates,
have been the focus in the oilseed industry for the past several decades. These oils exhibit very
good oxidative stability and are highly suited for shelf-stable nonfrozen fried food products.
Productions of these oilseeds are on the rise, so is their acceptance by the regulatory agencies
in various counties. This has been discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
It is a difficult challenge for the snack food industry to meet the consumer demand on oil
nutrition in fried foods and deliver the product with high product stability, because the supply
of the modified composition high-stability oils is not adequate at a reasonable price. Palmolein
has no trans-fat but it is high in saturated fat. Garden varieties of soybean oil and canola oils
must be hydrogenated for industrial frying in order to obtain satisfactory fry-life for the oils
as well as the shelf life of the product fried in these oils. Thus, these oils will have trans-fat.
Moreover, it is important to recognize the fact that the joint supply of palm oil and soybean
oil constitutes almost 80% of the world’s oil consumption [2]. There is not enough of either
of these two oils to supply the world’s total oil needs. Corn oil and cottonseed are grown in
limited geographic areas of the United States where they are facing stiff competition against
other cash crops. In addition, the demand for cotton has also declined. This has also been a
contributing factor for the decline of the cottonseed oil supply. Therefore, nutritional needs in
fried snack foods can be met in limited geographic areas and at a higher cost.

5. THE FRYING PROCESS

Frying is a complex process where simultaneous heat and mass transfer, as well as chemical
reactions, take place [2]. In this process, the hot oil supplies the heat to the product being fried.
Heat turns the internal moisture of the food product into water vapor. The water vapor comes
out of the product through the outer surface (see Figure 1). This is why one can always see

Oil surface

Food

Heat
Water vapor
Figure 1. Conceptual heat and mass transfer during frying. (Reproduced with the permission of MG
Edible Oil Consulting Int’l. Inc.)
6 FRYING OILS

bubbles around the food being fried. Bubbling is vigorous at the beginning when the food is
added into the hot oil and stops when the moisture in the product drops to a low level.
This is the model where the food is dehydrated to a very low moisture level such as potato
chips or tortilla chips. However, there are other products, that are par-fried and the product
is flash-frozen at a temperature of −20 ∘ C (−4 ∘ F). Products, such as frozen fish fillet, and
tempura, where the crust is fried but the food in the interior still remains frozen as the products
leave the fryer and enter the flash-freezer. In case of spring rolls, the vegetable or shrimp inside
remain unfried, while the crust is fried and formed.
The food product undergoes dehydration during frying. At the same time, several physical
changes and chemical reactions occur in the food as well as the frying oil, as described in the
following sections.

5.1. The Changes Occurring in the Food

• The food loses moisture

• The food surface develops a darker color (sometimes, hard crust)
• The fried food develops a firmer texture (or crust)
• The food also develops fried flavor and aroma

5.2. The Changes Occurring in the Oil

• The fresh oil passes through a breaking-in period during which the fried food appears
quite bland
• Fried food flavor develops as the frying process continues
• Along with flavor development, the oil undergoes the following chemical reactions:
1. Hydrolysis
2. Autoxidation
3. Oxidative polymerization, and
4. Thermal polymerization
• The oil in the fryer becomes darker

The oil quality and the fried food flavor go through an optimum stage. Thereafter, both oil
quality and product flavor decline [3]. All of the above chemical reactions alter the chemical
structure of the oil molecules. The unsaturated fatty acids are mostly affected. Some desirable
as well as undesirable chemical compounds are formed in the oil during frying [4]. Oil in the
freshly fried foods contains the same compounds that are present in the fryer oil. The desirable
compounds help provide good flavor to the freshly fried product. Sometimes, the undesirable
oil components can affect the fresh product flavor. In many instances, a fried product with good
initial flavor may develop oxidized or rancid flavor during storage. This is because the products
of oil oxidation are strong catalysts and cause further degradation of the oil (contained in the
product) during storage. This phenomenon is quite pronounced when the oil is abused in the
frying process. Therefore, oxidative stability of the oil in packaged fried foods is critical for
achieving the desired shelf life for the product, and at the same time, undue abuse of the oil in
frying is extremely harmful and undesirable for the oil and products fried in it.
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING IN OIL DURING FRYING 7

Darkening of the product surface, also called the browning reaction, is produced by the
chemical reaction between the frying oil or oil present in the food (lipids in general) and pro-
teins, and saccharides present in the food. This reaction is known as Maillard reaction [5, 6],
which is responsible for the following:

1. Brown or dark brown surface appearance of the fried product

2. Fried flavor of the product

Browning reaction also provides some protection against photooxidation [7, 8], which will
be discussed later.

6. CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING IN OIL DURING FRYING

It has been mentioned earlier that several chemical reactions take place in the oil during frying
[9, 10]. These include hydrolysis, autoxidation, oxidative polymerization, and thermal poly-
merization, as explained in the following sections.

6.1. Hydrolysis
In this process, an oil (triacylglycerol (TG), also known as triglyceride) molecule reacts with a
molecule of water, releasing a molecule of fatty acid [11], commonly known as free fatty acid
(FFA), and a molecule of diacylglycerol (DG, also called diglyceride). The reaction scheme is
shown as follows:

Triacylglycerol + H2 O = Free fatty acid (FFA) + Diacylglycerol

Although, it is common for the oil to undergo this reaction during frying, presence of a sur-
factant is required for hydrolysis to occur. Hydrolysis cannot occur unless oil and water form
a solution [12]. Oil and water do not mix except at very high temperatures under high pressure
at 500 ∘ F (260 ∘ C) or higher, water boils at 212 ∘ F (100 ∘ C), at sea level. Therefore, one can
expect that very little oil and water solution should result at frying temperatures (300–415 ∘ F
or 149–213 ∘ C) unless there is a small amount of surfactant present in the fryer [13, 14]. A
surfactant can facilitate the formation of an oil/water solution during frying. This is primarily
responsible for generating the FFA and diglyceride as well as monoglyceride in the fryer oil.
Several sources of surfactants are listed in the following section, which can solubilize oil and
water in the frying process.

6.1.1. Fresh Oil Fresh frying oil is obtained by refining palm oil or seed oils. It would be
essential to briefly discuss the vegetable oil refining process for the readers to understand how
various processing steps can potentially impact the quality of freshly refined oil. Vegetable oils
are refined principally by:

1. Physical refining process

2. Chemical refining process
8 FRYING OILS

Mixed with
Crude oil Heated to Vacuum acid clay Critical
refining dried and under tanks
temperature vacuum 1. Day tank
and 2. Work tank
Water bleached
degummed Centrifuged to
remove soap

Work Bleached oil is

Acid tank further
degummed processed:
Mixed with
hot water Hydrogenated
Acid Winterized
pre-treated Product
formulation
Day Centrifuged
tank to remove the Deodorized
residual soap Stored
Mixed with and water
caustic
solution

Figure 2. Chemical refining process. (Reproduced with the permission of MG Edible Oil Consulting Int’l.
Inc.)

Palm oil and coconut oil are refined by the physical refining process. The crude oil is
bleached with acid-activated clay and citric acid at elevated temperatures under vacuum. The
objective is to remove phosphorus (phospholipids), trace metals, oil decomposition products,
and some of the color bodies from the crude oil. The volatile impurities in the bleached oil are
then removed via steam distillation under very low absolute pressure and high temperature in
a deodorizer.
Physical refining process is fairly simple and is environmentally friendly and more eco-
nomical for palm oil, coconut oil, and palm kernel oil (not used for frying). The process may
not remove the trace impurities if the bleaching step is not done properly.
Seed oils are refined mostly by the chemical refining process where the crude oil is first
degummed either chemically or via enzymatic process. The degummed oil is then intimately
mixed with a caustic (sodium hydroxide) solution under controlled conditions. The caustic pri-
marily reacts with the FFAs to form soap (in this case, sodium soap of fatty acids). The soap
is removed from the refined oil using a centrifuge. Aside from FFAs, some of the phospho-
lipids, trace metals, and some of the color bodies from the crude oil are also removed and they
appear in the soap phase. The soap is processed further to regenerate fatty acids. The refined
oil is water washed to reduce the soap and then bleached with acid-activated clay and citric
acid at elevated temperatures under vacuum. The bleached oil is either deodorized to make
liquid oil or is hydrogenated to make shortening and margarine and the formulated product is
then deodorized. The schematic flow diagram for the chemical refining process is shown in
Figure 2.
Various processing steps are involved in vegetable oil refining. Each step is controlled under
specific operating standards and oil quality standards in order to produce the best quality
refined oil. Oil-refining procedures have been discussed in detail in another chapter in this
series. However, the processing steps, and their impacts on the hydrolytic and oxidative stabil-
ity of fresh oil, will be briefly discussed here. The impacts of improper processing on hydrolytic
stability of the freshly refined vegetable oil are listed below.
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING IN OIL DURING FRYING 9

1. Higher than the normal level of phospholipids, calcium, or magnesium left in the fresh
oil [15, 16] as a result of:
• Poor quality crude oil
• Incomplete degumming and refining steps that leave high levels of phosphorus, cal-
cium, and magnesium in the oil
• Poor bleaching condition, leaving high levels of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium,
and oil decomposition compounds in the oil
• Poor harvest and storage conditions for the seeds before crushing, producing crude oil
that is hard to refine.
2. Soap left in the oil as a result of poor water washing and bleaching [17].
3. High levels of DG and monoacylglycerol in the refined oil as a result of the [18] factors
listed below:
• Poor-quality crude oil that requires excess caustic treatment
• Repeated refining of the crude oil because of poor crude oil quality
• Caustic overdose in the refining step as a result of poor process control
• High temperature in refining.

6.1.2. Food Surfactants can originate from the food itself. Food products contain many nat-
urally occurring components that have surface-active properties. The metals, naturally present
in the food, can form soap by reacting with the FFAs in the oil. The coating materials on
breaded products contain acid-phosphates of sodium, magnesium, or calcium. These metal
ions react with FFAs in the oil to form soaps. Soaps, thus formed in the oil, can produce an
oil/water solution in the fryer and promote hydrolysis in the oil.

6.1.3. Oil Decomposition Products Some of the oil decomposition products have
surface-active properties. These compounds can promote hydrolysis of the fryer oil in a
manner somewhat similar to soaps.

6.1.4. Poor Rinsing of the Fryer After Sanitation Soap is left in the fryer when it is not
completely rinsed after sanitation, leaving residual caustic, or soap in the system. This can
promote hydrolysis in the fryer oil. Leftover soap or detergent in the fryer after sanitation and
incomplete rinsing of the fryer happens to be one of the major sources of detergent and the
cause of rapid rise of the FFA in fryer oil. Presence of leftover alkali in the fryer after sanitation
can be detected when the fryer is filled and the oil is being heated for drying. In the event there
is residual alkali in the fryer or in the system, a layer of foam (NOT BUBBLES) appears on
the surface of the oil. The oil in the fryer system must be discarded, the fryer thoroughly rinsed
and the pH of the final rinse water must be equal to that of the fresh water used in the rinsing
process (NOT a pH = 7).

6.2. Autoxidation
Oil is oxidized during frying. Oxidized fatty acids develop flavor in the fried food [19]. The
compounds known to impart good fried food flavor are lactones and certain aldehydes. Most
of these compounds originate from linoleic acid. Autoxidation is one of the major reactions
taking place during frying [19–23] and, subsequently, in the oil present in the packaged product
in storage.
10 FRYING OILS

Autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is initiated by a free radical, which is formed in the
oil when an unsaturated fatty acid is exposed to oxygen in the presence of a metal initiator,
such as iron, nickel, or copper. The fatty acid could be a fatty acid moiety on a TG molecule
or it could be a FFA molecule that is either present in the fresh oil or produced in the oil from
hydrolysis during frying. The reaction mechanism for autoxidation involves several steps as
described in the following sections.

6.2.1. Step 1: Initiation Metal initiator produces a free alkyl radical from an unsaturated
fatty acid molecule. The following conditions are required for this reaction step:

• There must be a metal initiator (iron, nickel, and copper) in contact with the unsaturated
fatty acid
• Heat generally accelerates the process of free radical formation and the subsequent reac-
tion steps
• Phospholipids, monoacylglycerol, and DG can reduce the interfacial tension between
oil and air. This increases the amount of contact between the oil and oxygen in frying,
promoting autoxidation
• Calcium and magnesium form food (especially coating material) in reaction with the FFA
in the fryer oil, forming soaps. These can behave in the same way as the phospholipids,
causing increased autoxidation in the fryer oil.

6.2.2. Step 2: Reaction with Oxygen The free radical reacts with a molecule of oxygen,
forming a peroxy (alkoxy) radical. Presence of oxygen is absolutely necessary. This is why oil
does not oxidize when it is stored under vacuum or saturated with nitrogen.

6.2.3. Step 3: Propagation In this step, the peroxy radical reacts with a molecule of unsat-
urated fatty acid, forming a molecule of hydroperoxide and releasing another free alkyl radical,
which can then react with an oxygen molecule to form a peroxy (alkoxy) radical. This step
becomes rapid and more complicated when the oil contains linolenic acid.
Hydroperoxides are very unstable and decompose into a series of aldehydes, ketones,
hydrocarbons, alcohols, and many more reaction products as the oil-oxidation process
continues. In reality, these reactions can continue during storage of the packaged product,
as the oil in the product continues to break down via autoxidation and develops oxidized or
rancid flavor in the product.

6.2.4. Step 4: Termination Free radicals can react with each other. This occurs when:

1. There are no more unsaturated fatty acids left in the system, or

2. When there is no more oxygen present in the system

7. SOURCES OF FREE RADICALS

Free radicals are formed whenever oil containing unsaturated fatty acids is heated in the pres-
ence of a metal initiator [24], such as iron, nickel, or copper. Free radicals are formed in the
oil during frying. The metal initiator in the frying process can come from several sources as
given below:
 POLYMERIZATION 11

1. The food being fried

2. The oil itself
Trace metals are present in crude vegetable oils at parts per million (ppm) levels.
Researchers have shown that soybean oil flavor can deteriorate from autoxidation, even at an
iron content as low as 0.3 ppm [25] in the deodorized oil. Metal initiators initiate autoxidation
in all vegetable oils and animal fats.
Trace metals in the crude oil are removed in the refining and, primarily, in the bleaching
steps [26–31]. Inadequate bleaching of the oil can leave trace metals at high concentration
in the oil. This can promote autoxidation in the fryer. In addition, atmospheric bleaching,
poor vacuum in the vacuum bleacher, high temperature in the bleacher, or poor vacuum in
the deodorizer can produce free radicals in the fresh oil [32]. These free radicals can rapidly
oxidize the oil in a fryer.

8. POLYMERIZATION

There are two types of polymers formed in the fryer oil [24]. These include:
• Oxidative polymers
• Thermal polymers

8.1. Oxidative Polymers

Oxidative polymers are formed in autoxidation when the free radicals terminate each other
as under autoxidation. When a TG molecule breaks down during autoxidation, the partial TG
molecules are not removed even in the deodorization process, which is carried out at high
vacuum and high temperature. These partial triglyceride molecules can react with each other,
forming dimers, trimers, or polymers. This can happen during oil processing and also during
frying.
The oxidative polymers do not always impart an off flavor to the freshly fried food. How-
ever, an off flavor in the packaged product might be observed within a few days after production
and may exhibit oxidized or rancid flavor in the product before expiration of the code date on
the package. This is because of the following events that might occur:
• The oxidative polymers are highly unstable. They can decompose while the fried product
is in storage
• Some of oxidative polymer molecules may contain a higher amount of oxygen than the
TG molecule. When these oxidative polymers decompose, they produce free radicals and
release some oxygen [33]
• The free radicals and the released oxygen can continue the autoxidation process in the
product during storage
• This phenomenon can be observed in packaged fried products, even when the product
is packaged in nitrogen flushed packaging, using a film that has high nitrogen barrier
property
• This reaction can progress even when the above product is stored in a freezer
• Some researchers have called this reaction “hidden oxidation” [34]
12 FRYING OILS

Improperly processed oil can have high concentrations of free radicals even after deodor-
ization [33]. This can compound the situation, producing rapid oxidation of oil during frying.

8.2. Thermal Polymers

Polymerization of oil occurs under heat with or without the presence of oxygen. Heat can
cleave the oil molecule or fatty acid. These cleaved compounds can then react with each other,
forming large molecules. These polymers are referred to as thermal polymers. In the frying
process, excessive fryer heat and excessive fryer downtime can produce high levels of thermal
polymers. Thermal polymers can be detected in the fresh product by expert panelists because
they generally impart a bitter aftertaste to the fried food.

9. COMPLEXITY OF OIL REACTIONS IN FRYING

The reactions in the oil in the frying process are very complex. Figure 3, published by Fritsch,
and modified by M. K. Gupta for ehe ease of illustration shows the various pathways for oil
reaction in the fryer [9].
Figure 3 shows that autoxidation reaction produces alcohols and acids, among others. Some
of these are dibasic acids, i.e., they contain two carboxylic acid groups (–COOH). This is why
oil expelled from a highly oxidized or rancid fried product can exhibit a higher FFA content
than the fryer oil sampled at the same time as the product. This does not mean that the oil in

Steam
volatiles
antioxidants

Absorption Vaporization

Steam
Aeration

Oxidation Food
Oxygen Hydrolysis Hydrolysis

Oxidation Solubilization FFA’s

diglycerides
monoglycerides
Colored compounds
food lipids Free
Hydroperoxides Radicals
conjugated dienes

Dehydration
Fission Dimers
Heating Trimers Further
Further Alcohols Epoxides oxidation
oxidation Aldehydes Dimers Alcohols
Cyclic compounds Hydrocarbons
Acids Hydrocarbons

Polymerization
Figure 3. Reactions in oil during frying. (Reproduced with the permission of MG Edible Oil Consulting
Int’l. Inc.)
 COMPLEXITY OF OIL REACTIONS IN FRYING 13

the product was hydrolyzed in storage. It means the oil was abused at the time the product
was packaged and the autoxidation process continued in the oil in the product during storage.
The above phenomenon can be observed in fried food even if the product is packaged under
nitrogen flush.
Figure 3 indicates that there are several reactions that take place simultaneously in the fryer.
Also, the degradation of product flavor is associated with oxidation and other reactions in
the oil. Therefore, it is important to note that measurement of FFA in the fryer oil does not
necessarily represent the absolute quality of the oil. This is because the FFA content in the
fryer oil ranges from 0.25% to 0.40% for most snack food products. In many frying operations,
a portion of the fryer oil is replaced by fresh oil when the FFA level exceeds 0.35%. At this
low level of FFA, there is little correlation between the FFA and the degree of oxidation of the
fryer oil. FFAs in the fryer oil could be considered as a valid oil quality indicator, where the
FFAs are allowed to go >0.5% in the fryer.
In fact, the author conducted the following experiment on a commercial potato chip fryer
to prove that the high level of FFA in the oil was not a determinant for poor flavor in the fresh
product. The test procedure and the observations are listed as follows:

• The fryer was filled with fresh oil

• Pure oleic acid at 2% level was added into the fryer oil and circulated for complete mixing
• The make-up oil also contained 2% of added oleic acid
• The fryer was operated under normal operating conditions
• The fresh product did not have any objectionable flavor from high FFA content of the
fryer oil
• The flavor of the product was affected only after the oil began to get oxidized.

It was mentioned earlier that the standard procedure in the snack food industry is to discard
oil when the FFA in the fryer oil reaches or exceeds 0.5%. The experimental oil contained 2%
FFAs, and yet the product flavor was unaffected until the oil began to get oxidized.
Referring to Figure 3, one can see that a multitude of reactions occur in the fryer oil simulta-
neously. This includes hydrolysis, autoxidation, polymerization, and many others. Therefore,
the fryer oil should also be analyzed for the state of oxidative and polymeric degradation aside
from FFAs. The threshold values of these oil attributes will not be the same for all types of
fried food for flavor acceptability. The specific analysis needs to be established through shelf
life study and consumer acceptability tests on the products in order to establish the threshold
values of the oil quality attributes for product acceptability. It is a difficult and lengthy process
to identify and quantify the specific compound or compounds in the fried food that makes the
consumer reject it for poor flavor.
The following techniques are generally applied by the snack food companies to identify and
quantify the compound or compounds (markers) that are responsible for consumer acceptance
or rejection of the product for unacceptable flavor:

• A well-designed shelf life test protocol including oil and corresponding product sampling
procedures are outlined
• Highly skilled analysts to analyze oil breakdown products in the fryer oil and in the
product (fresh and stored)
14 FRYING OILS

• A well-designed consumer test or multiple tests to determine the point at which the prod-
uct flavor is found to be unacceptable
• Identification and quantification of the oil-degradation compounds that are responsible
for the rejection of the product for unacceptable flavor
• Establishing statistical correlation between the oil-quality parameters (also called mark-
ers) and consumer test results to establish the threshold value for the marker/markers
responsible for product failure.
• The data are correlated with the initial oil quality data from the oil samples collected
from the fryer at the time of product collection.
• The fryer oil discard point can then be correlated to the oil quality markers at which the
product was deemed unacceptable by consumers. The markers and the threshold values
are expected to be different for different products.

10. ANALYTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FRESH FRYING OIL

Based on the prior discussions, it can be stated that frying oil must meet the following quality
criteria:

1. Good oxidative stability

2. Low levels of trace impurities in the fresh oil to prevent rapid hydrolysis and oxidation
during frying

Oxidative stability of the oil depends primarily on its polyunsaturated fatty acid content.
This includes linolenic and linoleic acids. Linolenic acid containing three-double bonds is
most prone to oxidation; linoleic acid is less reactive than linolenic acid. As the number of
double bonds increase in the fatty acid, the relative rate of oxidation increases at higher than a
linear rate [35].

Fatty acid Relative rates of oxidation

Stearic acid 1
Oleic acid 10
Linoleic acid 100
Linolenic acid 150

Linolenic acid content must be low in order to provide maximum oxidative stability to
the oil. This is why the garden variety soybean and canola oil, which contain about 8–10%
linolenic acid in the natural state, are not suitable for frying shelf stable fried products that
are stored at normal temperatures. These oils must be hydrogenated to reduce the linolenic
acid content to <2% (determined by the capillary GC (Gas Chromatographic) method [2]) in
order to be used to produce shelf stable fried products. Poor frying stability in sunflower oil
comes primarily from the high level of linoleic acid. Therefore, sunflower oil must also be
hydrogenated to reduce its linoleic acid content to 35% or lower for industrial frying. Table 1
lists the analyses of the most commonly used industrial frying oils.
 IMPACT OF TOCOPHEROLS AND TOCOTRIENOLS IN FRYING OIL 15

TABLE 1. Analyses of common industrial frying oils and fats.

Analysis pH Soy pH Canola Corn Cottonseed pH Sun Palm olein Frying shtg.

FFA% <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05

PV <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
IV 100 90 118–130 98–118 100 55–58 75–78
±4 ±2 ±4
M.Pt (∘ F) 75 70 — — 70 75 105–109
(Max) AOM (h) 35 70 16 16 25 60 >100
(minimum)
FAC (%)
C-14 — — — — — 1.0–1.5 —
C-16 10 4 11 22 7 39–43 —
C-18 5 2 2 2 4 4–5 —
C-18 : 1 55 75 20 19 53 40–44 —
C-18 : 2 28 12 60 53 35 12–14 —
C-18 : 3 <1.5 <1.5 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <0.5 —
C-20 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 —
C-22 — — — — — — —
C-22.1 — <0.5 — — — — —
%Trans 25 25 — — 25 — 35
SFI @ (∘ F)
50 ∘ F <10 <10 — — <10 — 20–26
70 ∘ F <1 <1 — — <1 — 18–24
82 ∘ F — — — — — — 14–18
92 ∘ F — — — — — — 12–16
104 ∘ F — — — — — — 4–8

PH, Partially hydrogenated; frying shtg, frying shortening; FFA, free fatty acid; PV, peroxide value; IV, iodine value; M.Pt.,
melting point; AOM, active oxygen method; FAC, fatty acid composition; SFI, solid fat index (50 ∘ F = 10 ∘ C; 70 ∘ F = 21.1 ∘ C;
80 ∘ F = 26.7 ∘ C; 92 ∘ F = 33.3 ∘ C; 104 ∘ F = 40 ∘ C).

It has been mentioned earlier that linoleic acid is more stable than linolenic acid, but far
less stable than oleic acid. This is why regular sunflower oil, which contains as much as 65%
linoleic acid, is not suitable for frying shelf-stable industrial products. However, Table 1 indi-
cates that liquid cottonseed and corn oil are used for industrial frying, although both oils
contain over 50% linoleic acid. Sunflower oil contains 10–12% higher linoleic acid than corn
or cottonseed oil. However, this does not fully explain why corn or cottonseed oil has much
higher frying stability than sunflower oil. The value of AOM does not fully explain why corn
oil and cottonseed oil have higher frying stability than sunflower oil. This is discussed further
in the following section.

11. IMPACT OF TOCOPHEROLS AND TOCOTRIENOLS IN FRYING OIL

Tocopherols are natural antioxidants present in all vegetable oils [29]. The seed oils contain
four types of tocopherols at varying amounts as listed in Table 2.
It is important to note the difference between the seed oil and palm oil. Seed oils contain
tocopherols. Palm oil contains tocotrienols in addition to tocopherols and also a small amount
of coenzyme Q10. Both tocotrienols and coenzyme Q10 have high antioxidant properties. γ-
and δ-tocopherols, and their corresponding tocotrienols, are very effective in protecting oils
from autoxidation at high temperatures [36].
16 FRYING OILS

TABLE 2. Tocol content in typical oils.

Tocols (ppm) Sunflower Cottonseed Corn Canola Palm Oil

Tocopherols
α 403–935 136–674 160-300 100–386 130–260
β ND-45 ND-29 ND ND-140 22–45
γ ND-34 138–746 560–960 189–753 19–20
δ ND-7 ND-21 160–300 ND-22 10–20
Tocotrienols
α ND ND ND ND 44–90
β ND ND ND ND 44–90
γ ND ND ND ND 260–525
δ ND ND ND ND 70–140
Total Tocol (ppm) 440–1520 380–1200 880–1560 430–2680 600–1200

ND, Nondetectable.
Source: Food Codex.

Palm oil (also its fraction, palmolein) has good frying stability because of its high con-
tents of γ- and δ-tocotrienols, aside from the corresponding tocopherols. Tocotrienols contain
three unsaturated double bonds as compared with the corresponding tocopherols. This makes
tocotrienols more effective as antioxidants against autoxidation in the frying process.
Sunflower oil does not have good stability under heavy duty frying condition. Table 2 shows
that cottonseed and corn oils have linoleic acid contents that are very similar to that in sunflower
oil. However, both cottonseed and corn oils are excellent for heavy-duty frying. This could
be explained by the fact that sunflower oil contains primarily α-tocopherol, which is not a
good antioxidant for heavy duty frying but is good against photooxidation [37]. Cottonseed
oil contains high level of γ-tocopherol which provides oxidative stability to the oil during
heavy-duty frying. Corn oil contains antioxidants such as oryzanol, tocotrienol, and ferulic
acid, which makes the oil highly suitable for heavy-duty frying.

12. FACTORS AFFECTING FRYING OIL QUALITY

Table 3 lists the desired quality attributes for frying oils. It indicates that the oil must be low
in FFAs, peroxide value, conjugated dienes, anisidine value, monoacylglycerols (monoglyc-
eride), DGs (diglycerides), and trace impurities, such as iron, phosphorus, calcium, and magne-
sium. Each of these quality parameters has specific significance in influencing the performance
of the frying oil.
Quality of the oil starts from the seeds [38] for seed oils and from fruit palm (for palm
oil and palmolein). Seeds that are physically damaged, insect-infested, moldy, too dry, or too
moist produce poor-quality crude oil [19, 39–41]. Crude oil derived from such seeds can have
high FFAs and oil oxidation products that inherently make the oil less stable, even after normal
refining.
Excessive rain before harvest can increase chlorophyll content of the crude oil. There are
two types of chlorophylls found in oilseed: Chlorophyll-A and Chlorophyll-B. Chlorophylls
are oil soluble and produce green color in the oil. At normal concentrations, they are eas-
ily reduced in the bleaching process. It is very difficult to reduce the chlorophylls from the
 FACTORS AFFECTING FRYING OIL QUALITY 17

TABLE 3. Recommended analytical parameters for fresh frying oil (RBD oil).

Analysis Desired level Maximum level AOCS method

Free fatty acid, FFA (%) 0.03 0.05 Ca-5a-40 (12)

Peroxide value, PV (meq kg−1 ) <0.5 1.0 Cd-8b-90 (11)
Para anisidine value, pAV, AVU unit <4.0 6.0 Cd-18-90 (11)
Conjugated dienes (%) Trace <0.5 Ti-1a-64 (09)
Polar compounds (%) <2.0 <4.0 Cd-20-91 (09)
Polymers (%) <0.5 <1.0 Cd-22-91 (09)
Phosphorus PPM
• (By atomic absorption) <0.5 <1.0 Ca-12b-92 (09)
• By ICP–OES <0.5 <1.0 Ca-20-99 (09)
Iron, PPM – By ICP-OES <0.2 <0.5 Ca-17-01 (09)
Calcium, PPM – By ICP-OES <0.2 <0.5 Ca-17-01 (09)
Magnesium, PPM – BY ICP-OES <0.2 <0.5 Ca-17-01 (09)
Monoglycerides (%) ND Trace
• By Capillary GC Cd-11b-91 (09)
• HPLC-ELSD Cd-11d-96 (09)
Diacylglycerola (%) <0.5 <1.0
• By Capillary GC Cd-11b-91 (09)
• HPLC-ELSD Cd-11d-96 (09)
Lovibond red color: Cc-13b-45 (09)
• Soybean oil <1.0 <1.5
• Canola oil <1.0 <1.5
• Sunflower oil <1.0 <1.5
• Cottonseed oil <3.0 <3.5
• Corn oil <3.0 <3.5
• Palmolein <2.5 <3.0
• Peanut (groundnut) oil <1.5 <2.5
Smoke pointb (∘ F) (minimum) 460 min — Cc-9a-48 (09)
Soap, PPM — 0.0 Cc-17-95 (09)
Flavor grade 8 — Cg-2-83 (09)
Chlorophyll (ppb) <30 <30 Cc-13d-55 (09)
a Commercial palm oil may contain 5–11% diacylglycerol.
b 420 ∘ F for commercial palm oil or palmolein.

crude oil if it is obtained from seeds that are not mature or have developed higher chloro-
phylls because of excessive rain before the harvest. The normal practice is to use an excess
amount of bleaching clay to reduce chlorophylls. This reduces the natural antioxidants in the
oil, produces higher amounts of free radicals in the oil, and reduces its stability.
A high concentration of chlorophyll catalyzes photosensitized reaction (photooxidation)
in the product fried and stored in clear packages. In addition, extra bleaching of the oil can
decompose chlorophylls into pheophytenes, pheophorbides, and pyropheophorbides, which
do not have visual green color but are 10 times more active photosensitizers than their parent
compounds [42–44].
Seeds must be dried before storage. Failure to do so can increase enzyme activity in the
seeds and damage the oil inside. Moisture content, the drying process, and the storage condition
of the seeds impact the quality of the crude oil obtained from the seeds. In extreme cases, it
18 FRYING OILS

becomes very difficult to obtain refined oil with high stability and good color from poor quality
or poorly handled seeds.
Damaged seeds, whether resulting from the harvest, subsequent handling, insect infesta-
tion, mold infestation, or post-harvest storage conditions can trigger the activities of several
enzymes in the seeds [45]. These are summarized in the below sections.

12.1. Lipase Reaction

Lipase hydrolyzes the TG molecules in presence of moisture and form FFAs, diacylglyc-
erols, or even monoacylglycerols. Monoacylglycerols are mostly removed from the oil during
deodorization, but a great majority of the DGs remain in the deodorized oil. DGs in the fresh
oil can accelerate the process of hydrolysis in the fryer. This results in rapid rise of FFA in the
fryer oil calling for its discard. This increases the cost of frying, reduces product shelf life, and
it also increases the probability early product failure during storage.

12.2. Lipoxygenase Reaction

Lipoxygenase oxidizes the unsaturated fatty acids in the oil in the seeds during storage under
the conditions described earlier [46]. There are different types of lipoxygenases in oilseeds.
Lipoxygenase-Type-II and Type-IV are more reactive than the others [46].

12.3. Phospholipase-D Reaction

This enzyme converts the hydratable phospholipids present in the seeds into nonhydratable
phospholipids [41] when the seeds contain moisture which is 14% or higher and stored at
115 ∘ F (45 ∘ C) or higher. It is undesirable to have a high level of nonhydratable phospholipids in
the crude oil because extra caustic treatment or longer contact time between caustic and crude
oil is required to reduce the nonhydratable phospholipids even after chemical or enzymatic
degumming of the crude oil before refining. This increases the potential for increased DG
content in the refined oil.
If the crude oil with high nonhydratable phospholipids is treated with extra phosphoric acid
in the degumming process, the chlorophyll may breakdown, forming pheophytenes, pheophor-
bides, and pyropheophorbides and make the finished oil more susceptible to photooxidation
[42]. High chlorophyll oils can be degummed under specially controlled enzymatic degum-
ming procedure to produce acceptable quality refined and bleached oils.
High-temperature storage of seeds can also produce darker color crude oil as a result of color
fixation [25] (this is also true for oil storage). This crude oil requires extra caustic or stronger
caustic treatment as well as extra bleaching treatment to reduce the red color. Sometimes, it is
difficult to obtain a light bleached color from crude oil that has become color-fixed even after
heavy bleaching. Extra refining and bleaching not only increases the potential to have higher
concentration of DGs in the refined oil but it also removes tocopherols from the refined oil,
reducing its oxidative stability [47].
Storage of crude oil is also critical. Prolonged storage or high-temperature storage of crude
oil can greatly affect the quality of the refined oil [48]. Long-term storage of crude oil increases
oxidation, FFAs, and nonhydratable phospholipids in the crude oil, resulting in poor-quality
refined oil. Crude oil with a high peroxide value can be refined to meet the fresh oil analytical
standards but can oxidize very rapidly in the fryer during frying.
 DISCUSSIONS ON QUALITY STANDARDS OF OILS (LISTED ON TABLE 3) 19

Aside from FFA, peroxide, aldehydes (by para-anisidine, pAV test), and conjugated dienes,
the oil must also be low in trace components as listed in Table 3.

13. DISCUSSIONS ON QUALITY STANDARDS OF OILS (LISTED ON TABLE 3)

1. The oil is either improperly processed or it is derived from poor-quality crude if the fresh
oil analysis indicates the following:
• FFA >0.05%
• Lovibond Red color is higher than normal (see Table 3)
• Tocopherol content is lower than normal (see Table 4)
2. The FFA in the oil rises rapidly in storage if it contains high levels of [45]:

Phosphorus >1 ppm

Calcium >0.3 ppm
Magnesium >0.3 ppm
Sodium >0.2 ppm
Diacylglycerols >1.5%
Monoacylglycerols >0.4%

3. The oil will oxidize rapidly in the fryer if the oil contains high levels of [45]:

PV >1.0
pAV >6.0
Iron >0.3 ppm
Conj. Dienes >0.5%
Polars >4.0%
Polymers >2.0%
Iron >0.3%

Besides fatty acid composition, low trace metals and phosphorus contents, the frying oil
also requires natural antioxidants, such as tocopherols and tocotrienols in the refined oil. The
common antioxidant levels in the most common oils are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4. Typical values of tocopherols in refined seed oils (ppm)a.

Tocopherol (ppm) Cottonseed Corn Soybean Palma Sunflower

α-Tocopherol 320 134 75 256 487

β-Tocopherol — 18 15 — —
γ-Tocopherol 313 412 797 316 51
δ-Tocopherol — 39 266 70 8
Total tocopherol 633 603 1153 642 546

Source: Refs [49, pp. 133 and 194]; [50, p. 131]; and [51].
a 150 ppm of tocotrienols.
20 FRYING OILS

14. COMMENTS ON PALM OIL

Palm oil is the largest source of oil in the world, higher than soybean oil [52]. Palm oil and
palm olein (the liquid fraction) show excellent frying performance. In addition, palm olein
produce a highly desirable fried food flavor and other attributes [53, 54].
Sometimes the commercial palm oil and palm olein contain high amounts of DGs and phos-
pholipids. This makes the oils prone to rapid hydrolysis and oxidation in frying.
DGs are produced in the fruit palm after harvest. The fruits are required to be processed
within 24 h after the harvest in order to control hydrolysis of the oil in the fruit by lipase.
This guideline cannot be followed by all palm oil processors during the peak harvest season.
As the trading rule for palm oil allows 5% FFAs in crude palm oil (CPO) and 0.25% FFA
in neutralized palm olein [55], there is no incentive for the common palm oil processors in
producing oils with lower FFAs. Commercially available palm oil and palm olein may contain
higher than 1 ppm of phosphorus after refining, which may make the FFAs go up rapidly in
the oil during frying.
During a visit at a palm plantation, it was observed by the author that:

• Fruit bunch was dropped to the ground by the harvester in the normal fashion
• 6% of the fruits in a bunch was ruptured and were separated from the bunch
• The ruptured fruits were treated for enzyme deactivation and extraction after 12 h
• The FFA in the extracted oil was 50%
• It was calculated that 3% of the FFA in the crude palm oil (CPO) from the fruit bunch
would have come from the 6% of the fruits

This may explain why the FFA is so high in commercial palm oil. Of course, that means
the DG in the crude palm oil (CPO) would also be high. It is not uncommon to find 6–8%
diglycerides in commercial CPO purchased from brokers. The author has observed 11% DG
in a commercial palm oil sample. The oil showed rapid rise of FFA in the oil during frying.
It is possible to produce crude palm oil with less than 1.5% FFA and less than 4% DGs
through careful separation of the damaged fruits from the bulk and by exercising some other
process precautions.
Some palm oil processing companies in Malaysia are producing and exporting fully pro-
cessed palm oil and palm olein with low FFAs, DGs, phosphorus, and trace metals. They
guarantee the delivered quality for the oil. These oils have shown excellent frying stability.

15. ENHANCEMENT OF FRYING OIL PERFORMANCE

Natural as well as synthetic antioxidants can improve the oxidative stability of edible oils.
Most common natural antioxidants are mixed tocopherols. tert-Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ)
is one of the most common synthetic antioxidants used in commercial frying oils. This also
costs only a fraction of the natural antioxidants.
Tocopherols are already present in the oil. The amounts and the types of tocopherols vary
with the type of oil. Most common types in seed oils have α-, γ-, and δ-tocopherols. These com-
pounds protect the oil from oxidation during processing, storage, transportation, and, also, later
in the fryer. Tocopherols terminate the free radicals by reacting with them in the autoxidation
reaction. This is why they are considered as free radical scavengers/quenchers.
 STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF FRYING OIL 21

For various reasons, as described earlier, the freshly refined oil may contain lower than the
desired level of tocopherols. In those cases, supplementing the oil with γ- and δ-tocopherols
or γ- and δ-tocotrienols can significantly improve oxidative stability of the oil. This is not
commercially practiced because of the high cost of the antioxidants.
As antioxidants are free radical quenchers, the level of the added antioxidants in the refined
oil decreases while the oil is in storage or in transit. However, one must recognize the fact that,
because of the presence of antioxidants, the free radical content of the oil is going to be low at
the time the oil is added to the fryer (provided the oil is not stored for too long or oxidized as
a result of mishandling before use).
A large portion of the TBHQ is lost during frying as a result of high heat and agitation.
Therefore, some suggest that addition of TBHQ in frying oil is not beneficial. However, it is
known that, despite the loss of TBHQ in the fryer, the finished product will have a better chance
to retain good oil flavor during storage and distribution because of the lower concentration of
free radicals in the fresh oil used in frying. It must be emphasized that the added antioxi-
dant does not necessarily protect the oil against abusive treatment during storage, handling, or
frying.
There are various synthetic antioxidants, such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHA), propyl
gallate (PG), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), etc. that are used in commercial oils;
TBHQ is known to produce the best results in frying applications.
Many countries have regulations regarding the type of antioxidants permitted for use and
also on the maximum allowable limits in foods. The snack food companies must be aware of
local regulations regarding the use of synthetic and natural antioxidants in foods.
Added tocopherols, tocotrienols, or synthetic antioxidants must be declared on the label,
according to the USFDA (United States Food & Drug Administration), if they are added to the
oil after deodorization.

16. STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF FRYING OIL

Deodorized oil must be cooled, saturated with nitrogen, and stored in nitrogen-blanketed tanks
[56]. The storage tanks can be made of carbon steel. It is not necessary to have stainless steel
tanks for freshly deodorized oil with a low FFA content as shown in Table 3. The following
guidelines are recommended for oil storage:

• Liquid oils should be stored under 86 ∘ F (30 ∘ C) and should not be stored at a temperature
higher than 104 ∘ F (40 ∘ C)
• The storage temperature of hydrogenated fats or oil containing natural solids, as palm
oil must not exceed its melt point by 10 ∘ F (5.6 ∘ C)

The best results are obtained when the deodorized oil is cooled to the above-recommended
temperatures, saturated with nitrogen as it leaves the deodorizer, and stored in nitrogen-blanketed
tanks. The headspace in the storage tank should have maximum oxygen content of 0.5% (see
Figure 4).
Loading trucks or rail cars are also critical for the quality of the oil delivered at the point of
destination. The oil can pick up air (oxygen) at the loading station, which can initiate autox-
idation in the oil during transit. The clearest indication of such a situation is found when the
oil, at delivery, shows a higher peroxide value than the certificate of analysis (written at the
22 FRYING OILS

Vacuum vent valve

Deodorized oil inlet Nitrogen

control
O2 checking line
(Maximum O2 = 0.05 %, 14 in. Dia)
Agitator

Level Thermometer
indicator

Figure 4. Schematic for deodorizer oil storage. Source: Reproduced with permission of MG Edible Oil
Consulting, Int’l.

time of loading and sent with the oil shipment). In addition, partially loaded trucks or rail
cars have more air space above the oil. This causes higher oxygen absorption by the oil during
transit. The following steps are recommended to minimize the oxygen absorption by oil during
loading and transit:

• Follow the guidelines provided above on oil temperature

• Saturate the oil with nitrogen at the discharge of the loading pump
• Bottom load the truck or rail car
• Extend the loading boom to the floor of the truck or rail car to avoid splashing of the oil
and air entrainment during loading
• Fill the truck or rail car to the maximum limit to minimize air space at the top

See Figure 5 for truck or rail car loading.

Unloading and storage of the oil is equally critical at the snack food company. Care must be
taken not to overheat any solidified hydrogenated oils containing natural solids. The oil must
be saturated with nitrogen and stored under nitrogen as described for the deodorized oil.

17. HYDROGENATION AND TRANS-FAT

Sabatier [56] conducted the first hydrogenation reaction in the vapor phase. In 1903, Normann
[57] patented the liquid-phase hydrogenation process for oils. Later, Crossfield and Sons, a
British company, purchased the patent. Procter & Gamble Company of USA acquired the
patent right from Crossfield and Sons [56] in 1909 and started to produce Crisco shortening
from cottonseed oil in 1911. The American patent on hydrogenation was under Burchenal [58]
patent, which was declared null and void in the country to clear the way to allow an all-out
expansion of hydrogenation by every American oil company.
In the hydrogenation process, unsaturated fatty acids are reacted with hydrogen gas with
the help of nickel catalyst. In this process, two hydrogen atoms are attached to the double bond
 HYDROGENATION AND TRANS-FAT 23

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR TRUCK LOADING

SYSTEM©

Top loading Overhead protection

PRV

Bottom loading

Drain

• DO NOT PURGE THE EMPTY TRUCK WITH NITROGEN. THIS CONSUMES TOO MUCH NITROGEN

• BOTTOM-FILL THE TRUCK WITH OIL SATURATED WITH NITROGEN. THIS DISPLACES MOST OF THE AIR FROM THE
TRUCK

• SOME OF THE NITROGEN, DISSOLVED IN THE OIL, IS RELEASED AND ALSO DISPLACES THE AIR FROM THE TRUCK

• PURGE THE HEAD SPACE WITH NITROGEN AFTER THE TRUCK IS FILLED.

• CLOSE THE HATCH. APPLY SEALS

Figure 5. Schematic diagram for truck loading. Source: Reproduced with permission of MG Edible Oil
Consulting, Int’l.

H H H
C C C C
H
Cis isomer Trans isomer

Figure 6. cis- and trans-Isomers of unsaturated fatty acids.

in unsaturated fatty acids. Complete hydrogenation of vegetable oils converts essentially all of
the unsaturated fatty acids to stearic acid.
During the course of transformation of the unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids,
positional isomers of unsaturated fatty acids are produced. These unsaturated fatty acid iso-
mers are known as trans-fatty acids [59], as shown in Figure 6. Complete hydrogenation of oil
eliminates trans fatty acids but increases the saturated fatty acids in the oil. This may not be
desirable for frying because of fried food attributes and also nutritional reason.
Scientists recognized the benefits of the hydrogenation process, which revolutionized the
fats and oils industry for a century. Hydrogenation of oils provides the following benefits to
the oils:

• Increased oxidative stability due to reduced level of unsaturation

• Higher concentration of saturated fatty acids
• Higher melting point
• Unique functional products like shortening and margarine

Improved oxidative stability of selected hydrogenated oil is demonstrated in Table 5.

24 FRYING OILS

TABLE 5. Effect of hydrogenation on AOM.

Analysis Soybean oil Soybean oil Canola oil Canola oil

before after before after
hydrogenation hydrogenation hydrogenation hydrogenation

Iodine value (typical) 130 100 115 90

M.P. (∘ F) — <75 — <75
AOM (h) (minimum) 12–20 >30 12–20 >70
Palmitic acid (%) 10 10 4 4
Stearic acid (%) 5 5 2 2
Oleic acid (%) 25 55 62 75
Linoleic acid (%) 50 28 21 12
Linolenic acid (%) 8 1.5 10 1.5
Erucic acid (%) — — <2.0 <0.5
Gadeloic acid (%) — — 1 0
Trans-fat (%) — >30 — >20

Liquid soybean oil and liquid canola oil contain 8% and 10% linolenic acid. This makes
both oils very prone to oxidation, especially in the frying application. Light hydrogenation can
reduce the linolenic acid to less than 2% (measured by the capillary gas chromatographic (GC)
method). This makes the oils suitable for industrial frying of shelf-stable products.
Table 4 shows that hydrogenation of soybean oil to a linolenic acid content of less than 2%
increased the active oxygen method (AOM) value from 15 h to over 30 h. Similarly, the AOM
value rose from 20 h to over 75 h for canola oil after hydrogenation to linolenic content of <2
percent. However, partial hydrogenation also produced significant levels of trans-fats in both
oils [2]. This has made the hydrogenation process less desirable in the food industry. Countries
like Denmark, Canada, and some other countries as well as some cities have placed limits on
trans-fat contents on foods.
During the past century, while trans-fats were not on the “unwanted list” in diet, the oil
technologists found that these fatty acids possessed some unique properties and used this to
achieve the following:

• Formulate margarine with sharp melting curve, similar to butter

• Beta-prime stable crystals in the shortening, which is desirable in the baking industry
• Without hydrogenation, one could not make these products using only seed oils.

In recent years, trans-fats have been under the scrutiny of nutritionists and regulatory
agencies in various countries. Multiple clinical studies have revealed trans-fats elevate of the
low-density lipoprotein (LDL), depression of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and elevation
of triglycerides TG in human blood serum [60–65]. In this respect, trans-fats behave like
saturated fats, or worse. The USFDA first released a mandatory labeling requirement that
shows that, beginning January of 2006, all food packages must indicate the level of trans-fats
on the food packaging [66]. On June 16, 2015, the USFDA declared that trans-fat is no longer
recognized as GRAS (generally recognized as safe). The FDA has allowed 3 years to the
food industry to remove partially hydrogenated oil (PHO) from all foods by June of 2018 and
allowed until January of 2020 to completely run out the remaining packaging material. The
FDA also allowed the phase-out time table for companies that are working on formulations
 ALTERNATIVES TO TRANS-FATS 25

and have petitioned to the FDA. The phase-out time table for these companies is June 2019
and to deplete the packaging material by January 2021. Denmark, Austria, Hungary, and
Latvia have established regulations on trans-fat in foods. Germany, France, and UK are still
on the fence. Australia does not have any stipulation on the food package about trans-fat.

18. ALTERNATIVES TO TRANS-FATS

Home frying does not require any shelf life for the fried food. Therefore, use of any liquid oil
is acceptable for home frying. High oxidative stability is required for the frying oil used at the
restaurants or food service operations as well as for manufacturing shelf-stable products that
are packaged and distributed at ambient condition. The standard seed oils, such as those from
garden-variety soybean or canola oil, cannot be used to fry shelf-stable fried foods.
There are a few alternatives that are available to make trans-free oils for industrial frying
as well as other uses. These are described in the following sections.

18.1. Modified Composition Oils

These oilseeds have been developed over the past several decades. These oils are very low in
linolenic acid (except high oleic canola). All of these oils can be used for industrial frying
without hydrogenation. Fatty acid compositions of these oils are listed in Table 6. These oils
are in limited supply and they are relatively more expensive. Corn oil, cottonseed oil, and
palmolein have been included along with the others for comparison.

18.2. Pourable Shortening

This is made from a mixture of 90–98% liquid oil and 2–10% fully hydrogenated soybean
oil, canola oil, or sunflower oil. These fully hydrogenated oils produce crystals that are poly-
morphically beta-stable. This provides the fluidity in the pourable shortening. The blend is
specially processed to obtain the pourable consistency. When the oil is fully hydrogenated the
unsaturated fatty acids in the oil are converted to stearic acid. A very small level of unsaturated
fatty acid is left in the fully hydrogenated oil. Therefore, the use of fully hydrogenated oil does
not increase trans-fats in the blend.
Traditional liquid shortening sold in the market contains lightly hydrogenated soybean or
canola oil as the liquid fraction. These contain approximately 20–30% trans-fats. Substitution

TABLE 6. Typical fatty acid composition of modified composition oils (wt.%).a

Garden variety Garden variety Modified composition oils

Soybean Canola Sunflower Cotton Corn Palm Olive HOSO HO Canola Nu- HO
Sun Sun
Fatty acid (%) Vistive Plenish 75% 65%
Gold

Saturates 15 7 12 27 13 50 15 6 12 7 8 9 9
Oleic 23 61 16 19 29 39 75 72 75 74 67 65 82
Linoleic 54 21 71 54 57 10 9 16 16 14 21 26 9
Linolenic 8 10 <1 <1 <1 <1 – <3 <1 <5 <3 – –
a Refs [67] and [68].
26 FRYING OILS

of this lightly hydrogenated oil with one of the modified composition oils, corn oil or palmolein
listed in Table 6, would produce trans-free pourable shortening with good frying stability.

18.3. Alternative Catalysts

Platinum, palladium, or copper catalyst can produce hydrogenated oils with a lower trans-fat
content [69–71]. The hydrogenated oils produced by these catalysts contain higher stearic acid
and higher solids compared with that in oils hydrogenated with nickel catalysts. One could
choose to use either platinum or palladium catalysts to make shortenings or frying fat with
less trans-fat contents. Platinum and palladium catalysts are very costly compared to nickel
catalysts and are not commercially feasible.
Copper catalysts are cheaper and work just as well as the precious metal catalysts. However,
complete removal of catalyst from the hydrogenated oil is never possible. Copper, present in
the oil even at very low concentrations (less than 0.05 ppm) can cause rapid hydrolysis in the
oil during frying.

18.4. Hydrogenation Under High Pressure and High Agitation

Use of high reactor pressure (10–20 bars) with a high rate of agitation can produce similar
results as the precious metal catalysts [59]. However, this process cannot be carried out in the
United States, because the reactors are designed to operate at a maximum pressure of 5 bars.
There is only one oil processor in the United States that owns a high-pressure reactor, but it has
not been used to any great extent. There are high-pressure hydrogenation reactors in Europe.

18.5. Interesterification for Frying Shortening

In this process, two oils are reacted under special conditions to exchange the fatty acids from
one another [72–74] (Morten Würtz Christensen Technical Service Oils & Fats Industry,
Novozymes North America Inc., Personal Communication). A fully hydrogenated oil, such as
cottonseed, palm, soybean, canola, or corn oil, can be interesterified with any of the modified
composition oils in Table 6 to produce trans-free shortening to suit the need for frying,
baking, margarine, etc. Fully hydrogenated cottonseed or palm oil will produce beta-prime
shortening, which is desirable for baking applications. Fully hydrogenated soybean, corn, and
canola oil will tend produce beta-tending shortening.
Interesterification is done by two methods: chemical and enzymatic. The cost for making
interesterified products is very similar for both processes. The enzymatic interesterification
process is becoming more popular because it is environmentally friendly and the end product
has higher oxidative stability.

18.6. Fractionation
This is commonly done with palm oil because of the higher concentration of the tri- and disat-
urated glyceride molecules. This technique is highly developed and used in Malaysis, Europe,
South America, Far East, Mexico, and Canada. The seed oils are not suitable for this process
because of the lack of natural solids in them. This is why seed oils require hydrogenation to
create solids to make functional products.
 SUMMARY 27

19. FRYING SHORTENING VERSUS FRYING OILS

Oils are used mostly for frying snack foods. Some snack foods use a topical coating on the
product to hold the seasoning on the surface. In most cases, the spray oil needs a certain amount
of solid fat for proper adherence of the topical seasoning and also to reduce the oily surface
appearance. Coating oil or spray oil, made from seed oils, is partially hydrogenated and con-
tains trans-fats. It is possible to produce coating oil with no trans-fats by using a blend of liquid
oil, such as listed in Table 6, mixed with a very small amount of fully hydrogenated fat. This
small amount of saturated TG provides the solids needed to hold the seasoning and reduce the
oily appearance of the product.
Fried products with harder texture, such as French fries, extra crunchy fried chicken, and
like products require solid shortening. Traditionally, standard frying shortening in the United
States used to be made from hydrogenated oils. It is possible to make trans-free shortening
using either liquid shortening or interesterification technology, as described earlier.
It is unfortunate that palm oil is not acceptable to some consumers in the United States.
Supply of modified composition oil, although on the rise, is still very low. This makes it difficult
to produce trans-free shortening in large volumes.

20. SUMMARY

Frying is a mature industry. There are two major sectors of industrial frying, namely restau-
rant (food services), and large-scale manufacturing of shelf-stable products. Most large-scale
manufacturers use continuous fryers, although there are some products that are strictly fried in
batch (or kettle fryers) to achieve the desired product texture and appearance. Products made
in either type of fryer are packaged in appropriate packaging material and distributed.
Par-fried products, such as French fries, chicken, coated vegetables, etc., have become
extremely important to the fried food industry. These products are partially dehydrated, pack-
aged, and shipped in the frozen state. The end users store these products in the freezers and
fry them without thawing.
The longer shipping and distribution time required for the fried products has increased the
need for oils with higher oxidative stability in order to meet the shelf life for all fried products.
Soybean, sunflower, or canola oil needs to be hydrogenated for frying industrial-fried products
that are not distributed in the frozen condition. Heavy-duty frying shortening, used for frying
French fries, donuts, and chicken, require a high degree of hydrogenation. Hydrogenation
of oil produces trans-fatty acids. These are unsaturated fatty acids that behave like saturated
fatty acids in terms of promoting coronary heart disease (CHD). Therefore, several countries,
including the United States, have focused their attention on the trans-fatty acid content in the
prepared foods.
Palm oil and palm oil fractions contain natural solid TGs and no trans-fat. Palm oil is used
extensively by many countries to make trans-free shortening and margarine (except the United
States). Interesterification is also applied in Europe, the Far East, and South America. Some
modified composition oils have been introduced in the United States, but they are in very
limited supply. Several of these oilseeds are grown in specific geographic areas where there
is stiff competition from other cash crops. This will continue to be a challenge for the United
States in producing sufficient amounts of trans-free frying fats unless palm oil or palm olein
is accepted by the consumers in the country. On the other hand, palm oil will be in extremely
28 FRYING OILS

short supply, if the United States begins to use it because there is not enough surplus palm oil
in the world at present [52].
The Better Bean Initiative from the United Soybean Board, Monsanto and Dow Agro
Science of USA are deeply involved in growing larger quantities of modified composition
oilseeds. These oils will not require hydrogenation for industrial frying applications. Full
commercialization of this oil will take several years. In the meantime, the food industry in the
United States will have to be very creative to remove trans fat from fried foods.

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