ADC-ASSIGNMENT-2

(ANSWERS)

1. Explain the importance of Pre-emphasis and De-

emphasis circuits in FM. Sketch a typical Pre-
emphasis and De-emphasis circuit.

Importance of Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM

In FM (Frequency Modulation) systems, pre-emphasis and de-emphasis

play a crucial role in improving the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), especially
for higher audio frequencies:

 Problem: High-frequency audio signals naturally have lower amplitudes

compared to low-frequency components. When transmitted over an FM
channel, they become more susceptible to noise introduced during
transmission and reception. This leads to a degradation in SNR and overall
audio quality.
 Pre-emphasis (at the Transmitter):
o Pre-emphasis boosts the amplitude of high-frequency audio signals before
modulation. This counteracts the anticipated noise-related losses that are
more severe at higher frequencies.
o Improves signal-to-noise ratio for high frequencies after transmission.
 De-emphasis (at the Receiver):
o De-emphasis attenuates the boosted high-frequency signals after
demodulation, restoring them to their original levels.
o Since the higher frequencies were also boosted with noise during
transmission, the de-emphasis process reduces the impact of noise,
resulting in an overall improvement in SNR.
Typical Circuits
 Pre-emphasis Circuit: A simple high-pass RC filter is used to selectively
boost high frequencies.
  De-emphasis Circuit: Complementary to the pre-emphasis
circuit, it's a low-pass RC filter that attenuates the pre-emphasized
high frequencies.

2. Give comparison of Wideband and Narrowband

FM.

Here's a comparison of Wideband FM (WFM) and Narrowband FM (NFM):

Feature Wideband FM (WFM) Narrowband FM (NFM)

Modulation High (m > 0.3) Low (m < 1)
Index (m)
 Bandwidth Much larger than the Approximately equal to the
modulating signal modulating signal
bandwidth (approximately bandwidth (2B)
2B, where B is the
modulating signal
bandwidth)
Spectrum Contains many sidebands Contains fewer sidebands
spread over a wider concentrated closer to the
frequency range carrier frequency
Noise More resistant to noise Less resistant to noise due
Performance due to wider bandwidth to lower power distribution
and higher power and fewer sidebands
distribution across
sidebands
Applications FM radio broadcasting, Two-way radio
high-fidelity audio communication (e.g.,
transmission walkie-talkies, police
radios), data transmission
requiring lower bandwidth
efficiency
Complexity Requires wider bandwidth Easier to implement and
allocation, making it more requires less bandwidth,
demanding on spectrum making it more spectrum-
resources efficient

3. Write a short note on Full carriers AM transmitters

Full Carrier AM Transmitters

Full carrier AM transmitters are the classic design used for AM (Amplitude
Modulation) radio broadcasting. In this system, the audio signal to be
transmitted modulates the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave.
 Key Components:
 RF Oscillator: Generates the high-frequency carrier wave. This oscillator
must be highly stable to maintain a consistent broadcast frequency.
 Audio Amplifier: Amplifies the audio signal (e.g., voice, music) to a level
suitable for modulating the carrier.
 Modulator: The core component where the audio signal modifies the
amplitude of the carrier wave, creating the AM signal.
 RF Power Amplifier: Boosts the power of the modulated AM signal for
efficient transmission.
 Antenna: Radiates the amplified AM signal into space for reception by
radio receivers.
Advantages:
 Simplicity: Full carrier AM systems are relatively simple in design and
operation.
 Wide Coverage: AM signals, especially in the medium wave band, can
travel significant distances due to groundwave propagation and skywave
reflection.
Disadvantages:
 Power Inefficiency: A significant portion of the transmitted power is
dedicated to the carrier, even when there's no audio input. This makes full
carrier AM less power-efficient than other modulation techniques.
 Susceptibility to Noise: AM signals are prone to interference from
electrical noise sources, which can affect audio quality.
 4. A carrier is frequency modulated with a sinusoidal
signal of 2 khz resulting in a maximum frequency
deviation of 5 khz. Find i) Modulation index ii)
bandwidth of modulated signal.

Solution:

i) Modulation Index (β):

The modulation index (β) is defined as the ratio of the maximum frequency
deviation (Δf) to the modulating frequency (fm):
β = Δf / fm

Given:

 Δf = 5 kHz (maximum frequency deviation)

 fm = 2 kHz (modulating frequency)

Therefore, modulation index (β):

β = 5 kHz / 2 kHz
β = 2.5
ii) Bandwidth of Modulated Signal:

For FM signals, Carson's rule is used to estimate the bandwidth (BW):

BW ≈ 2(β + 1)fm

where:

 β is the modulation index

 fm is the modulating frequency

Using the calculated value of β and the given fm:

 BW ≈ 2 (2.5 + 1) * 2 kHz
BW ≈ 2 * 3.5 * 2 kHz
BW ≈ 14 kHz
Therefore, the estimated bandwidth of the modulated signal is
approximately 14 kHz.

5. Explain Armstrong's method of FM generation with

a neat diagram.

Armstrong's Indirect FM Generation

Armstrong's method, also known as the indirect method, is a way to

generate wideband frequency modulation (FM) signals. It works by first
generating a narrowband FM signal and then using frequency multipliers to
increase the frequency deviation.

Key Steps:
1. Narrowband FM Generation:
o The audio signal is integrated to decrease its high-frequency content.

o The integrated signal is used to modulate the phase of a carrier signal in a

balanced modulator. This creates a narrowband FM signal with a small

frequency deviation.
2. Frequency Multiplication:
o The narrowband FM signal passes through a series of frequency multipliers

(doublers, triplers, etc.).

o Each frequency multiplier stage increases the carrier frequency and the

frequency deviation by the same factor.

3. Mixing:
o The output of the frequency multipliers is mixed with a portion of the

original unmodulated carrier signal to center the final FM signal at the

desired frequency.
Diagram

Explanation of the Diagram:

 Crystal Oscillator: Provides a highly stable carrier frequency.
 90° Phase Shifter: Shifts the phase of the carrier by 90 degrees.
 Balanced Modulator: Produces a double sideband suppressed carrier
signal (DSB-SC) that is phase modulated by the integrated audio signal.
 Frequency Multipliers: Increase the carrier frequency and frequency
deviation in multiple stages.
 Mixer: Combines the frequency multiplied signal with the original carrier to
center the FM signal at the desired frequency.
 Power Amplifier: Boosts the signal power for transmission.
 Advantages of Armstrong FM Generation:
 High Frequency Stability: Uses a crystal oscillator, providing excellent
stability.
 Wideband FM: Achieves large frequency deviations for better signal-to-
noise ratio.

6. An AM modulating signal 5*Sin (2π x 200t) is used

to modulate a carrier signal 25*Sin (2π x 25000t).
Find modulation index, percentage modulation,
frequencies of sideband components and their
amplitude. Draw the spectrum of AM wave.

AM Wave Analysis

Given:
 Modulating signal: m(t) = 5 * Sin(2π * 200t)
 Carrier signal: c(t) = 25 * Sin(2π * 25000t)
1. Modulation Index (μ):

The modulation index is defined as the ratio of the peak amplitude of the
modulating signal (half of the peak-to-peak amplitude) to the amplitude of
the carrier signal:
μ =(Peak amplitude of m(t) / Amplitude of c(t))
μ = m/Ac
μ = 5 / 25
μ = 0.2
2. Percentage Modulation (%m):

Percentage modulation is calculated using the modulation index:

%m = μ * 100%
 %m = 0.2 * 100%
%m = 20%
3. Sideband Frequencies:

The AM wave contains two sidebands:

 Upper Sideband (USB): Carrier frequency + modulating frequency (f_c +

f_m)
 Lower Sideband (LSB): Carrier frequency - modulating frequency (f_c -

f_m)

Therefore:

 Upper Sideband (USB): 25,000 Hz + 200 Hz = 25,200 Hz

 Lower Sideband (LSB): 25,000 Hz - 200 Hz = 24,800 Hz
4. Sideband Amplitude:

The amplitude of each sideband is half the amplitude of the modulating

signal:

 Amplitude of each sideband = (1/2) * Amplitude of m(t)

 Amplitude of each sideband = (1/2) * 5
 Amplitude of each sideband = 2.5
5. Spectrum:

The AM wave spectrum consists of three lines:

 Carrier: At the carrier frequency (25,000 Hz) with an amplitude of 25.

 Upper Sideband: At the upper sideband frequency (25,200 Hz) with an
amplitude of 2.5.
 Lower Sideband: At the lower sideband frequency (24,800 Hz) with an
amplitude of 2.5.
 Here's a sketch of the AM wave spectrum:

Amplitude
|
|
2.5 |------- USB (25,200 Hz)
|
|
25 |-------- Carrier (25,000 Hz) --------
|
|
2.5 |------- LSB (24,800 Hz)
|
|
Frequency

This diagram shows the relative amplitudes and frequencies of the carrier
and sidebands.

7. List the methods of SSB generation and explain

Phase Shift method in detail.

Methods of SSB Generation

1. Filter Method:
o Employs a highly selective filter to suppress one of the sidebands from a

standard AM (DSB-SC) signal.

o Conceptually straightforward but can be difficult to implement with the

required filter precision for high-quality SSB.

2. Phase Shift Method:
o Uses phase-shifting networks to achieve sideband cancellation in a

balanced modulator setup.

o Relatively common technique that offers a good balance of implementation
complexity and performance.
3. Weaver's Method:
o Employs multiple stages of modulation and filtering.

o Offers greater flexibility but can be more complex to implement than the

phase shift method.

Phase Shift Method: In Detail
Concept: The phase shift method is based on the principle that if you sum
two double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) signals with specific
phase relationships, one sideband will cancel out while the other will be
reinforced.
Key Steps:
 Audio Phase Shift: The audio signal is split into two paths. One path

passes through a 90-degree phase shift network.

 Carrier Phase Shift: Similarly, the carrier signal also gets split into two

paths, with one path undergoing a 90-degree phase shift.

 Balanced Modulators: Two balanced modulators are used:

o One modulates the original audio signal with the original carrier signal.

o The other modulates the 90-degree phase-shifted audio with the 90-degree

phase-shifted carrier.
 Output Summation: The outputs of the two balanced modulators are

carefully combined (summed). The sidebands that are in-phase reinforce

each other, while those out-of-phase cancel out, producing a single-
sideband signal.
 Diagram

Explanation of the Diagram

 Audio Phase Shifter: Shifts the phase of the audio by 90 degrees.
 Carrier Phase Shifter: Shifts the phase of the carrier by 90 degrees.
 Balanced Modulators: Produce DSB-SC signals. The suppression of the
carrier is essential for the cancellation process.
 Adder: Combines the outputs of the balanced modulators.
Choice of Sideband: The sideband that is selected (upper or lower)
depends on how the outputs of the balanced modulators are combined
(sum or difference)
 8. Derive the formula for the instantaneous value of
an FM voltage and define the modulation index.
And draw the waveforms of information signal and
its FM modulated signal.

Derivation of FM Waveform and Modulation Index:

1. Instantaneous Value of FM Voltage:

Consider a carrier signal with a frequency (f_c) and a modulating signal

(m(t)) with frequency (f_m). In FM, the instantaneous frequency of the
carrier deviates from the center frequency (f_c) based on the amplitude of
the modulating signal.

The instantaneous frequency (f_i(t)) of the FM wave is given by:

f_i(t) = f_c + k_f * m(t)

where:

 k_f is the frequency sensitivity constant, which determines the amount of

frequency deviation per unit change in the modulating signal.

The instantaneous phase (φ(t)) of the FM wave is the integral of the

instantaneous frequency:
φ(t) = ∫ f_i(t) dt = 2πf_c t + k_f ∫ m(t) dt

The instantaneous value of the FM voltage (v(t)) can be expressed as:

v(t) = A_c * cos(φ(t)) = A_c * cos(2πf_c t + k_f ∫ m(t)
dt)

where:

 A_c is the amplitude of the carrier signal.

2. Modulation Index (β):

The modulation index (β) is a crucial parameter in FM that characterizes

the extent of frequency deviation caused by the modulating signal. It is
defined as the ratio of the maximum frequency deviation (Δf) to the
modulating frequency (f_m):
β = Δf / f_m
Δf can be calculated as the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency
from the center frequency:
Δf = max(f_i(t)) - f_c

Substituting the expression for f_i(t), we get:

Δf = k_f * max(m(t))

Therefore, the modulation index can also be expressed as:

β = k_f * max(m(t)) / f_m
3. Waveforms:
Information Signal (m(t)): This can be any signal carrying information,
such as audio (sinusoidal) or video (complex waveform).
FM Modulated Signal (v(t)): The FM signal is a sinusoidal wave with a
carrier frequency (f_c) experiencing frequency deviations based on the
amplitude variations of the information signal.

Imagine the information signal (m(t)) plotted on one axis and the FM signal
(v(t)) plotted on another axis (time on the x-axis). When the information
signal amplitude increases, the FM signal frequency deviates upwards, and
vice versa. The extent of deviation depends on the modulation index (β).