PROBABILITY

QUIZRR 3

PROBABILITY
To begin with, you all must have heard of this term though not in academic sense but relating
to many other events in your life. Some famous examples are
1. In Betting, chances of winning of India.
2. While playing Lodu, the probability of occuring 6 on the face of a dice.
3. While playing cards, etc.
This chapter is one of those Chapters which will be utilized throughout your life irrespective of
academics. Notion is that this is a very difficult chapter which is wrong. This is an easy though
TRICKY chapter.
So without beating around the bush we will come directly to the point and will keep the approach
as direct as possible.

1. SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS

1.1 Experiment
An experiment is an operation which can result in more than one way.
Random Experiment : An experiment whose outcome can not be predicted with certainty is
called a random experiment.
Examples : (i) “Throwing an unbiased die” is a random experiment because when a die is
thrown we can not say with certainty which one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 will come up.
(ii) “Tossing of a fair coin” is a random experiment because when a coin is tossed
we can not say with certainty whether either a head or a tail will come up.
(iii) “Drawing a card from a well-shuffled pack of cards” is a random experiment.
Note : (i) A pack of cards consists of 52 cards in 4 suits i.e.,
(a) spades () (b) Clubs ()
(c) Hearts () (d) Diamonds ().
Each suit consists of 13 cards. Out of these, spades and clubs are black faced cards, while
hearts and diamonds are red-faced cards. The aces, kings, queens, Jack (or knave) are
called face cards or honour cards.

1.2 Sample Space

The set of all possible results of a random experiment is called the sample space of that experiment
and it is generally denoted by S.
Examples : (i) If we toss a coin, there are two possible results, namely a head (H) or a tail (T).
So, the sample space in this experiment is given by
S = {H, T}.
(ii) When two coins are tossed, the sample space
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
where HH denotes the head on the first coin and head on the second coin,
Similarly HT denotes the head on the first coin and tail on the second coin.

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1 .3 Event
An event is a subset of the sample space S.
Example :
Let us consider the experiment of tossing a coin. This experiment has two possible outcomes :
heads (H) or tails (T).
 sample space = S = {H, T}
We can define one or more events based on this experiment. Let us define the two events A and
B as :
A : heads appears B : tails appears

It is easily seen that set A (corresponding to event A) contains outcomes that are favourable to
event A and set B contains outcomes favourable to event B. Recalling that n(A) represents
the number of elements in set A, we can observe that
n(A) = number of outcomes favourable to event A
n(B) = number of outcomes favourable to event B
 n(S) = number of possible outcomes
Here in this example, n(A) = 1 ; n(B) = 1 and n(S) = 2.
(ii) When we throw a die then any one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 will come up. So
the sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

1.4 Elementary Event

An event having only a single sample point is called an elementary or simple event.
For example When two coins are tossed,the sample space S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} then the event
E1 = {HH} of getting both the heads is a simple event.

1.5 Mixed Event or Compound Event or Composite Event

An event other than elementary or simple event is called mixed event.
For example (i) When two coins are tossed,the sample space
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Then the event E = {HH, HT, TH} of getting at least one head, is a mixed event.
(ii) When a die is thrown, the sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6}
Let A = {2, 4, 6} = the event of occurrence of an even number
B = {3, 6} = the event of occurrence of a number divisible by 3.
Here A and B are mixed events.

1.6 Equally likely Events

The given events are said to be equally likely if none of them is expected to occur in prefernce
to the other.

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For example : (i) When an unbiased coin is tossed then occurrence of head or tail are equally likely
cases and there is no reason to expect a ‘head’ or a ‘tail’ in preference to the other.
(ii) When an unbiased die is thrown, all the six faces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are equally
likely to come up. There is no reason to expect 1 or 2 or 3 or 5 or 6 in preference
to the other.

1 .7 Independent Events :
Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of onedoes not depend on the occurrence
of the other.
Let E1 = {1, 3, 5} = the event of occurrence of an odd number
and E2 = {2, 4, 6} = the event of occurrence of an even number.
Clearly, the occurrence of odd number does not depend on the occurrence of even number.
So, E1 and E2 are independent events.

1.8 Complementary Event :

Let E be an event and S be the sample space for a random experiment then complement of E as
denoted by E´ or Ec or E . Clearly, E´ means E does not occur.
Thus E´ occurs  E does not occur.
For example When an unbiased die is thrown then the sample space S = {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6}.
If E = {1, 3, 6} then E´ = {2, 3, 5}

1.9 Exhaustive Cases (Events) :

For a random experiment A, set of cases (events) is said to be exhaustive if one of them must
necessarily happen everytime the experiment is performed. For example whena die is thrown
cases (events) 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, form an exhaustive set of cases (events.)

Probability of occurrence of an event :

I. Mathematical or a Priori or Classical Definition of Probability :

Let S be the sample space, then the probability of occurrence of an event E is denoted by
P(E) and is defined as

n(E) number of elements in E

P(E) = =
n(S) number of elements in S

number of cases favourable to event E

=
total number of cases
Event
(i) When a coin is tossed, sample space S = {H, T}
Let E = the event of occurrence of a head.
Then E = {H}

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n(E) 1
 P(E) = Probability of occurrence of head = =
n(S) 2
(ii) When a die is tossed, sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let A = the event of occurrence of an odd number = {1, 3, 5}
Let B = the event of occurrence of a number greater than 4 = {5, 6}.

n(A) 3 1
Then P(A) = = =
n(S) 6 2

n(B) 2 1
and P(B) = = =
n(S) 6 3
(ii) When one ball is drawn at random from a bag containing 3 black and 4 red balls (balls of the
same colour being identical or different), then sample space S = {B1, B2, B3, R1, R2, R3, R4}.
 n(S) = 7
Here the three black balls may be denoted by B1, B2 and B3 even if they are identical because
while finding probability only number of black and red balls are to be taken into account.
Let E = the event of occurrence of a red ball.
Then E = {R1, R2, R3, R4}  n(E) = 4

n(E) 4
Now P(E) = =
n(S) 7
(iii) When two coins are tossed, sample space S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
Let E = the event of occurrence of one head and one tail, then
Let E = {HT, TH}

n(E) 2 1
Now P(E) = = =
n(S) 4 2
Theorem 1. : Probability of occurrence of an event is a number lying between 0 and 1.
0  P(E)  1
Note : (i) If  is the impossible event,

n() 0
thenP() = = =0
n(S) n(S)

n(S)
(ii) If S be the sure event, then P(S) = = 1.
n(S)
(iii) P(E) = 0  E = 
and P(E) = 1  E = S
Theorem 2. : If is any event and E´ be the complement of event E, then P(E) + P(E´) = 1.

Odds in Favour and Odds Against an Event :

Let S be the sample space and E be an event. Let E´ denote the complement of event E, then
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(i) odds in favour of even E

n(E) number of cases favourable to event E

= =
n(E ) number of cases against E

(ii) odds against an event E

n(E ) number of cases against the event E

= =
n(E) number of cases favourable to event E

From definitions given above it is clear that,

Note : (i) Odds in favour of event E

n(E) n(E) / n(S) P(E)

= = =
n(E) n(E ) / n(S) P(E )

n(E) P(E)
and odds against event E = =
n(E) P(E)

(ii) If any one of P(E), odds in favour of E and odds against E is given, then other two
can be determined.
If odds in favour of an event are a : b then the probability of the occurrence of that
event is a/(a + b) and of non-occurrence is b/(a + b).

2 2 5
Ex. ii(i) If P(E) = , then odds in favour of E = and odds against E = .
7 5 2

3 11 11
i(ii) If odds against E = , then odds in favour of E = and P(E) =
11 3 14

3 8 3
(iii) If odds in favour of E = , then odds against E = and P(E) =
8 3 11

Illustration 1
If two dice are thrown simultaneously, represent the sample space and the following events.
i(i) the sum of the numbers coming up is greater than 9.
(ii) The sum of the numbers coming up is 8.
Solution :
Here random experiment is : Throwing of two dice simultaneously.
Let S = the sample space
A = the event that the sum of the numbers coming up is not less than 9.
and B = the event that the sum of the numbers coming up is 8.
Let 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 denote the occurrence of numbers 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6 respectively on a die.

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Let (m, n) denote the occurrence of m on first die and n on second die, then
S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1,5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 1),
S = (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 1), (5, 2),
S = (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}
A = {(6, 3), (5, 4), (4, 5), (3, 6), (6, 4), (5, 5), (4, 6), (6, 5), (5, 6,), (6, 6)}
and B = {(6, 2), (5, 3), (4, 4), (3, 5), (2, 6)}

Illustration 2
If three coins are tossed, represent the sample space and the event of getting two heads and
one tail and also find the number of elements in them.
Solution :
Here random experiment is : tossing of three coins.
Let S = the sample space
and E = the event of occurrence of two heads and one tail.
Let H denote the occurrence of head and T the occurrence of tail when one coin is tossed.
Then S = {H, T} ï {H, T} ï {H, T}
= {(H, H, H), (H, H, T), (H, T,H), (T, H, H),
= (H, T, T), (T, H, T), (T, T, H), (T, T, T)}
and E = {(H, H, T), (H, T, H), (T, H, H)}
Also n(S) = 8 and n(E) = 3.

Illustration 3
A coin is tossed successively three times. Find the probability of getting exactly one head
or two heads.
Solution :
Let S be the sample space and E be the event of getting exactly one head or exactly two heads,
then
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, TTH, THT, HTT, TTT}.
and E = {HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH}
 n(E) = 6 and n(S) = 8.

n(E) 6 3
Now required probability, P(E) = = =
n(S) 8 4

Illustration 4
Two dice are thrown simultaneously. What is the probability of obtaining a total score of 7 ?
Solution :
Here random experiment is : throwing of two dice at a time

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Let S be the sample space and E be the event of obtaining a total of 7.

Then S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ï {1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6}
 n(S) = 6 ï 6 = 36
Also E = {(1, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 2), (6, 1)}
 n(E) = 6

n(E) 6 1
Now required probability, P(E) = = =
n(S) 36 6
Note here that (1, 6) and (6, 1) are 2 different cases

Illustration 5
If a leap year is selected at random, what is the chance that it will contain 53 Tuesdays ?
Solution :
A leap year has 366 days i.e. 52 complete weeks and two days more. These two days will be the
two consecutive days of a week. A leap year will have 53 Tuesdays if out of the two consecutive
days of a week selected at random one is a Tuesday.
Here random experiment is : Selection of two consecutive days of a week.
Let S be the sample space and E be the event that out of the two consecutive days of a week one
is a Tuesday, then
S = {(Monday, Tuesday), (Tuesday, Wednesday),
= (Wednesday, Thursday), (Thursday, Friday),
= (Friday, Saturday), (Saturday, Sunday), (Sunday, Monday)}
 n(S) = 7
and E = {(Monday, Tuesday), (Tuesday, Wednesday)}
 n(E) = 2

n(E) 2
Now, required probability, P(E) = =
n(S) 7

Illustration 6
What are the odds in favour of throwing at least 8 in a single throw with two dice ?
Solution :
Here random experiment is : throwing of two dice.
Let S be the sample space and E the event of occurrence of a total of at least 8, then
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ï {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
 n(S) = 6 ï 6 = 36
Throwing at least 8 with two dice means throwing 8 or 9 or 10 or 11 or 12.
 E = {(6, 2), (5, 3), (4, 4), (3, 5), (2, 6), (6, 3), (5, 4), (4, 5), (3, 6), (6, 4), (5, 5), (4, 6),
= (6, 5), (5, 6), (6, 6)}

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 n(E) = 15
 n(E´) = 36 ă 15 = 21

n(E) 15 5
odds in favour of E = = = = 5 : 7
n(E) 21 7

Illustration 7
Two dice are thrown simultaneously. What is the probability obtaining a total score less
than 11 ?
Solution :
Let S be the sample space and E be the event of obtaining a total less than 11.
Then S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ï {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
 n(S) = 6 ï 6
= 36
then E´ be the event of obtaining a total score greater than or equal to 11.
Also E´ = {(5, 6), (6, 5), (6, 6)}
 n(E´) = 3
The Probability of obtaining a total score greater than or equal to 11,

n( E ) 3 1
P(E´) = = =
n(S) 36 12

 P(E) = 1 ă P(E´)

1
= 1 ă
12

11
=
12

11
Hence required probability is .
12

Illustration 8
Balls are drawn one-by-one without replacement from a box containing 2 black, 4 white
and 3 red balls till all the balls are drawn. Find the probability that the balls drawn are in
the order 2 black, 4 white and 3 red. [IIT 1978]
Solution :
To draw 2 black,4 white and 3 red balls in order is same as arranging two black balls at first 2
places, 4 white at next 4 places, (3rd or 6th place) and 3 red at still next 3 places (7th to 9th

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place), i.e., B1B2 W1W2W3W4 R2R2R3, which can be done in 2 ! ï 4 ! ï 3 ! ways. And total ways
of arranging all 2 + 4 + 3 = 9 balls is 9 !

2!  4!  3! 1
 Required probability = =
9! 1260

Illustration 9
Six boys and six girls sit in a row randomly. Find the probability that
(i) the six girls sit together
(ii) the boys and girls sit alternately. [IIT 1979]
Solution :
i(i) 6 boys and 6 girls sit in a row randomly.
Total ways of their seating = 12 !
No. of ways in which all the 6 girls sit together = 6 ! ï 7 ! (considering all 6 girls as one person)

6 !7 !
Probability of all girls sitting together =
12 !

720 1
= =
12  11  10  9  8 132

(ii) Starting with boy, boys can sit in 6 ! ways leaving one place between every two boys and one
at last.
B _ B _ B _ B _ B _
These left over places can be occupied by girls in 6 ! ways.
 If we start with boys, no. of ways of seating boys and girls alternately = 6 ! ï 6 !
In the similar manner, if we start with girl, no. of ways of seating boys and girls alternately
= 6! ï 6!
G _ G _ G _ G _ G _ G _
Thus total ways of alternate seating arrangements
= 6! ï 6! + 6! ï 6!
= 2ï 6 ! ï 6!
 Probability of making alternate seating arrangement for 6 boys and 6 girls

26 !6 !
=
12 !

2  720 1
= =
12  11  10  9  8  7 462

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Illustration 1 0
Out of 3n consecutive integers, three are selected at random. Find the probability that
their sum is divisible by 3.
Solution :
Let the sequence of 3n consecutive integers begins with the integer m. Then the 3n consecutive
integers are
m, m + 1, m + 2, ...., m + (3n ă 1).
3n
Out of these integers, 3 integers can be chosen in C3 ways.
Let us divide these 3n consecutive integers into three groups G1, G2 and G3 as follows :
G1 : m, m + 3, m + 6, ...., m + (3n ă 3)
G2 : m + 1, m + 4, m + 7, ...., m + (3n ă 2)
G3 : m + 2, m + 5, m + 8, ...., m + (3n ă 1)
The sum of 3 integers chosen from the given 3n integers will be divisible by 3 if either all
the three integers are chosen from the same group or one integer is chosen from each group. The
number of ways that the three integers are from the same group is (nC3 + nC3 + nC3) and the
number of ways that the integers are from different groups is (nC1 ï nC1 ï nC1).
So, the number of ways in which the sumof three integer is divisible by 3 is (nC3 + nC3 +
n
C3) + (nC1 ï nC1 ï nC1).

3 . nC 3 + ( n C 1 ) 3 3 n2  3 n+ 2
Hence, required probability = 3n
=
C3 (3 n  1)(3 n  2)

Illustration 1 1
Two numbers a and b are chosen at random from the set (1, 2, 3, ....,3n). Find the probability
that (i) a 2 ă b 2 is divisible by 3.(ii) a 3 + b 3 is divisible by 3.
Solution :
3n
The number of ways of choosing two numbers from the given set is C2.
Let us divide given 3n numbers into three groups G1, G2 and G3 as follows :
G1 : 3, 6, 9, ...., 3n
G2 : 1, 4, 7, 10, ...., 3n ă 1
G3 : 2, 5, 8, 11, ...., 3n ă 2
(i) Now, a2 ă b2 = (a ă b) (a + b)
Therefore, a2 ă b2 will be divisible by 3 if either a and b are chosen from the same group
or one of them is chosen from G2 and the other from G3. Therefore, the favourable number of
ways is (nC2 + nC2 + nC2) + nC1 ï nC1 = 3 nC2 + n2

3 . nC 2 + n 2 5 n 3
Hence, the required probability = 3n
=
C2 3 (3 n 1)

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(ii) We have, a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 ă 3ab (a + b)

Therefore, a3 + b3 will be divisible by 3, if a + b is divisible by 3. Now, a + b will be divisible
by 3 in the following cases :
II. Both the numbers belong to the first group.
II. One of the two numbers belongs to second groupand one of them belongs to the third group.
Therefore, favourable number of ways = nC2 + nC1 ï n
C1

n
C 2 + n C1  n C 1 1
Hence, the required probability = 3n
=
C2 3

Illustration 1 3
Six dice are thrown simultaneously. Find the probability that
i i ( i) all of them show the same face.
i(ii) all of them show different faces.
(iii) exactly three of them show the same face and remaining three show different faces.
(iv) atleast four of them show the same face.
Solution :
The total number of elementary events associated to the random experiment of throwing six dice
is 6 ï 6 ï 6 ï 6 ï 6 ï 6 = 66.
(i) All dice show the same face means we are getting same number on all six dice. The number
of ways for which is 6C1.

6
C1 1
Hence, required probability = 6
= 5.
6 6

(ii) The total number of ways in which all dice show different faces is same as the numberof
arrangements of 6 numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 by taking all at a time.
So, favourable number of elementary events = 6 !

6!
Hence, required probability = .
66
(iii) Select a number which occurs on three dice out of six numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. This can be
done in 6C1 ways. Now select three numbers out of the remaining 5 numbers. This can be
done in 5C3 ways. Now we have 6 numbers like 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4; 2, 3, 6, 1, 1, 1 etc. These

6!
digits can be arranged in ways. So, the number of ways in which three dice show the
3!
same face and the remaining three show distinct faces is

6 5
6!
C1 ï C3 ï
3!

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6 6!
C1  5 C 3 
Hence, required probability = 3!
66

(iv) Atleast four of them show the same face means either four dice show the same face and
remaining two show distinct faces or five dice show the same face and remaining one shows
a different face or all the six show same face. So, required probability

6 6! 6 6! 6
C1  5 C 2  + C1  5 C1  + C1
= 4! 5!
66

Illustration 1 4
If the integers m and n are choosen at random between 1 and 100, then find the probability
that a number of the form 7m + 7n is divisible by 5.
Solution :
We know that
71 = 7, 72 = 49, 73 = 343, 74 = 2401, 75 = 16807
 7k (where k  Z), results in a number whose unitÊs digit is 7 or 9 or 3 or 1.
Now, 7m + 7n will be divisible by 5 if unitÊs place digit of resulting number is 5 or 10 clearly it
can never be 5.
But it can be 0 if we consider values of m and n such that the sum of unitÊs place digits become
0. And this can be done by choosing
m = 1, 5, 9, .... 97
and corresondingly
n = 3, 7, 11, .... 99
(25 options each) [7 + 3 = 10]
or m = 2, 6, 10, .... 98
n = 4, 8, 12, .... 100
(25 options each) [9 + 1 = 10]
I case. Thus m can be chosen in 25 ways and n can be chosen in 25 ways.
II. case. or m can be chosen in 25 ways and n can be chosen in 25 ways.
 Total no.of selections of m, n so that
7m + 7n is divisible by 5 = (25 ï 25 + 25 ï 25) 2
because we can interchange the values of m and n.
And using the same lgoic, total possible solutions of m and n out of 100 = 100 ï 100

2 (2  25  25) 1
 Required probability = =
100  100 4

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USE OF VEIN DIAGRAMS

1. (A  B)
Interpretation : A occurs as well as B occurs or Both A and B occur simultaneously.

Example :
If sample space is, S  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A  {1, 3, 5}
B  {3, 6}

n(A  B)
P (A  B) =
n(S)

So from example, n (A  B) = {3} = 1 because only 3 is common in both sets

n(S) = 6

1
 P(A  B) =
6

2. (A  B)
Interpretation : Atleast one of A and B occur or either A or B or both occur.
Note : Here case of both can also be there in term of set, it is UNION of A & B.
Shaded Area represents the region required.

Formula : P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) ă P(A  B)

why ă P(A  B) ?

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This is because we have counted the region R (which represent A B) twice in P(A) and
P(B). P(A) includes the area ÂRÊ (i.e. A  B) and P(B) also includes the same. So we have to
subtract it once. How to calculate it then ?
Let us take the sample example as taken earlier
S  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A  {1, 3, 5}
B  {3, 6}

3 1 2 1
P(A) = = P(B) = =
6 2 6 3

n(A  B) 1
P(A  B) = =
n(S) 6

1 1 1
 P(A  B) = + 
2 3 6

1 1
= +
2 6

4 2
= =
6 3

(a ) Complementary Events :
i.e. non-occurence of A (the shaded area in the diagram)
So if P(A) is the probability of occurence of A then

P( A ) = 1 ă P(A)
as the entire space (in diagram entire rectangle has
probability of occurence as 1.

(b) Exhaustive Events

A set of events is said to be exhaustive of atleast one of
them happens when experiment takes place.
OR, the sample space is completely filled up by events (as
shown in diagram)
Condition :
P(A  B  C) = 1
(c ) Mutually Exclusive Events :
A and B are two mutually exclusive events, if happening of A rules out the happening of B or
vice versa i.e. they cannot occur simultaneously in terms of set
disjoint of A &B is null set i.e., A  B = 
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 QUIZRR 17

Condition :
P(A  B ) = P(A) + P(B)
in general
P(A1  A2 .... An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + .... P(An)
where A1, A2, A3 .... An are n mutually exclusively events
from diagram the area where A & B do not occur
simultaneously is the answer.

3. Only A
Interpretation : This means that only one of the events occur at a time.

Let us take the case of only A to understand it

represents : P(A  B )
Logic : We want the region of only A and it we see the vein diagram there is a region
A  B, i.e. some part of B is also there hence P(A  B ), area of A not

containing (i.e. B ) B.

formula : P(A  B ) = P(A) ă P(A  B)

= {region (1 + 2)} ă {region 2}

4. Exactly one of A and B

Interpretation : It means that either only A occur or only B occurs, but no occurence of event
containing both A & B.
Shaded region represents it
Note : No (A  B) region included.
formula = P(only A) + P(only B)

= P(A  B ) + P( A  B)
= {P(A) ă P(A  B)} + {P(B) ă P(A  B)}
= P(A) + P(B) ă 2 P(A  B)

PROBABILITY
18 QUIZRR
= as (P(A) + P(B) = (P(A  B) + P(A  B)
= P(A  B) ă P(A  B)
Also you can just simply derive the formula from vein diagram.
shaded region = P(A  B) ă P(A  B)
example, extending the earlier one

2
we know P(A  B) =
3

1
and P(A  B) =
6

2 1
 Required Answer = 
3 6

3 1
= =
6 2

5. None of A and B
Interpretation : It means that neither A nor B occurs.

formula = P( A   B )

= P( A   B ) (you can just see from the above diagram)

= 1 ă P(A  B)
Note : Now since we have covered so many types let us discuss another formula for P(A  B).
P(A  B) = P(only A) + P(only B) + P(Both A and B)

= P(A  B ) + P( A   B) + P(A  B)

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 19

1. P(A  B  C)
Interpretation : Occurrence of all the events A, B and C simultaneously.

n(A  B  C)
P(A  B  C) =
n(S)

2. P(A  B  C)
Interpretation : either A or B or C occurs or all of them can occur

P(A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C)

ă P(A  B) ă P(A  C) ă P(B  C) + P(A  B  C)

Why add region 1 ?

We have subtracted the region 1 3 times in P(A  B), P(B  C) and P(C  A), hence we
need to add it to that P(A  B  C), i.e. event where all can occur can be counted.

3. Only A

As done in case of 2 event P(only A) = P(A  B   C )

can say
P(only A) = P(A) ă P(A  B) ă P(A  C)
+ P(A  B  C)
Note : Again we have added the part P(A  B  C)
logic is same as explained in previous part. Think it for
yourself.

PROBABILITY
20 QUIZRR
4. Exactly 1 event occurs :
this is equal to
P(only A) + P(only B) + P(only C)

= P(A  B   C ) + P( A   B  C ) + P( A   B   C)
put the values using the above result to get
= P(A) + P(B) + P(C) ă 2P(A  B) ă 2 P(B  C)
= ă 2 P(C  A) + 3 P(A  B  C)

5. Exactly 2 events occur :

Interpretation :
either A and B occur or B and C occur or C and A occur.
Note : Region 1 is not included here.
So from vein diagram, deriving the formula
P(exactly 2) = P(A  B) + P(B  C) + P(C  A)
ă 3P (A  B  C)
again notice the subtraction of P(A  B  C), as all
terms contain it, so have to subtract it.

6. Atleast 2 events occur :

Interpretation : This means that minimum of 2

events should occur. So 3 events occuring simultaneously
is perfectly fine in this case
P (atleast 2) = P(A  B) + P(B  C) + P(C  A)
ă 2P(A  B  C).

Illustration 1 5
Two cards are drawn at random from a pack of cards. Find the probability that both the
cards are of red colour or they are queen.
Solution :
Here random experiment is :
Drawing of two cards from a pack of 52 cards.
Let S = the sample space.
Let A = the eventhat the two cards drawn are red.
Let B = the event that the two cards drawn are Queen.

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 21

Total number of cards = 52, number of red cards = 26, number of queen = 4
52 26
Now, n(S) = C2, n(A) = C2, n(B) = 4C2
A  B = the event that the two cards drawn are both red or both queen.
A  B = the event that the two cards drawn are queen of red colour.
Required probability,
P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) ă P(A  B)

26 4 2
C2 C2 C2
= 52
+ 52
 52
C2 C2 C2

26  25 4 3 12 285
= +  =
52  51 52  51 52  51 2652

Illustration 1 6
20 tickets are numbered from 1 to 20. One ticket is drawn at random out of these tickets.
What is the probability that the ticket number is a multiple of 2 or 5 ?
Solution :
Here random experiment is : Drawing of one ticket numbered from 1 to 20.
Let S = the sample space.
A = the event that the ticket drawn contains a number which is a multiple of 2.
B = the event that the ticket drawn contains a number which is a multiple of 5.
Then A B = the event that the ticket drawn contains a number which is a multiple of 2
or 5.
and A  B = the event that the ticket drawn contains the number which is a multiple of
2 and 5 i.e. a multiple of 10.
Now, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 20}  n(S) = 20
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}  n(A) = 10
B = (5, 10, 15, 20}  n(B) = 4
A  B = {10, 20}  n(A  B) = 2

n(A) 10 n(B) 4
Now, P(A) = = , P(B) = =
n(S) 20 n(S) 20

n(A  B) 2
and P(A  B) = =
n(S) 20

 P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) ă P(A  B)

10 4 2 12 3
= +  = =
20 20 20 20 5

PROBABILITY
22 QUIZRR
Second method : A  B = {2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20}

n(A  B) 12 3
 n(A  B) = 12  P(A  B) = = =
n(S) 20 5

Illustration 1 7
Two dice are tossed once. Find the probability of getting an even number on first die, or
a total of 8.
Solution :
Here random experiment is : Tossing of two dice
Let S be the sample space. Then, n(S) = 36.
Let A = the event of getting an even number on first die
and, B = the event of getting a total of 8.
Then, A  B = the event of getting an even number on first die and a total of 8.
Now, A = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
= (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6),
= (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)};
and B = {(2, 6), (6, 2), (3, 5), (5, 3), (4, 4)}
 A  B = {(2, 6), (6, 2), (4, 4)}.
 n(A) = 18, n(B) = 5 and n(A  B) = 3.

n(A) 18 1 n(B) 5
Now, P(A) = = = ; P(B) = =
n(S) 36 2 n(S) 36

n(A  B) 3 1
and P(A  B) = = =
n(S) 36 12

FG 1 + 5  1 IJ = 20 = 5 .
Now required probability P(A  B) = P(A + P(B) ă P(A  B) =
H 2 36 12 K 36 9
Illustration 1 8

1
The probability of a horse A winning a race is and that of a horse B winning the same
3

1
race is , find the probability that (i) either of them will win, (ii) none of them will win.
5

Solution :
Let E1 = the event that horse A wins the race
and E2 = the event that horse B wins the race

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 23

Then E1  E2 = the event that either of horses A and B will win the race
(E1  E2)´ = the event that none of the horses A and B will win the race.

1 1
According to question P(E1) = , P(E2) =
3 5

Since both the horses A and B take part in the same race, therefore, both of them cannot
win at a time.
Hence E1 a nd E2 a re mutua lly exclusive events

1 1 8
 P(E1  E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) = + =
3 5 15

8 7
and P(E1  E2)´ = 1 ă P(E1  E2) = 1 ă =
15 15

Illustration 1 9
A and B are two candidates seeking admission in I.I.T. The probability that A is selected
is 0.5 and the probability that both A and B are selected is at most 0.3. Is it possible that
the probability of B getting selected is 0.9. [I.I.T. 1982]
Solution :
Let E1 = the event that A is selected
E2 = the event that B is selected
According to question,
P(E1) = 0.5, P(E1  E2)  0.3
By additiontheorem of probability,
P(E1  E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) ă P(E1  E2)
 0.5 + P(E2) ă 0.3 [ĉ.ĉ Max. Value of P(E1  E2), = 0.3]
= 0.2 + P(E2)
 P(E2)  P(E1  E2) ă 0.2  1 ă 0.2 = 0.8 [ĉ.ĉ P(E1  E2)  1]
Hence P(E2)  0.9

Illustration 20
An urn contains 5 white, 4 block and 3 yellow balls. Four balls are drawn at random. Find
the probability that all of them are of the same colour.
Solution :
Here random experiment is : Drawing of 4 balls from an urn containing 5 white, 5 black and
3 yellow balls.
Let S = the sample space

PROBABILITY
24 QUIZRR
A = the event of drawing 4 white balls
B = the event of drawing 4 black balls
Then A  B = the event of drawing 4 balls of the same colour
Total number of balls = 12

12 12  11  10  9
 n(S) = C4 = = 495
4

5
n(A) = 5C4 = = 5, n(B) = 4C4 = 1
4 1

n(A) 5 n(B) 1
Now P(A) = = and P(B) = =
n(S) 495 n(S) 495

Since events A and B are mutually exclusive

5 1 6 2
 P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) = + = =
495 495 495 165

Illustration 21
For a post three persons A, B and C appear in the interview. The probability of A being
selected is twice that of B and the probability of B being selected is thrice that of C, what
are the individual probabilities of A, B, C being selected ?
Solution :
Let E1, E2, E3 be the events of selection of A, B and C respectively.
Let P(E3) = x
Then according toquestion, P(E2) = 3P(E3) = 3x
and P(E1) = 2P(E2) = 6x
Since there are only three candidates A, B and C, therefore, one must be selected and
exactly one will be selected.
 P(E1  E2  E3) = 1
and E1, E2, E3 are mutually exclusive.
Now 1 = P(E1  E2  E3) = P(E1) + P(E2) + P(E3)
or 1 = 6x + 3x + x = 10x

1 1 6 3 3
 x=  P(E3) = x = . P(E1) = 6x = = , P(E2) = 3x =
10 10 10 5 10

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 25

Illustration 23
The odds in favour of standing first of three students appearing at an examination are 1
: 2, 2 : 5 and 1 : 7 respectively. What is the probability that either of them will stand first.
Solution :
Let the three students be P, Q and R.
Let A, B, C denote the events of standing first of the three students P, Q, R respectively.
Given, odds in favour of A = 1 : 2
odds in favour of B = 2 : 5
and odds in favour of C = 1 : 7

1 1 2 2 1 1
 P(A) = = , P(B) = = , P(C) = =
1+2 3 2+5 7 1+7 8

Since events A, B, C are mutually exclusive

 P(A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C)

1 2 1 56 + 48 + 21 125
= + + = =
3 7 8 168 168

Illustration 24
Two cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards. What is the probability that either both are
red or both are kings ?
Solution :
52
Out of 52 cards, two cards can be drawn in C2 ways.
52
So, exhaustive number of cases = C2.
Consider the following events :
A = Two cards drawn are red cards; B = Two cards drawn are kings.
Required probability = P(A  B)
= P(A) + P(B) ă P(A  B) ...(i)
Now we shall find P(A), P(B) and P(A  B).
26
There are 26 red cards,out of which 2 red cards can be drawn in C2 ways.

26
C2
 P(A) = 52
C2

Since there are 4 kings, out of which 2 kings can be drawn in 4C2 ways.

4
C2
 P(B) = 52
C2

PROBABILITY
26 QUIZRR
There are 2 cards which are both red and kings, therefore
P(A  B) = Probability of getting 2 cards which are both red and kings.

4
C2
= Probability of getting 2 red kings = 52
C2

From (i)
Required probability = P(A) + P(B) ă P(A  B)

26 4 2
C2 C2 C2
= 52
+ 52
 52
C2 C2 C2

325 1 1 55
= +  =
1326 221 1326 221

Illustration 25
A candidate has to appear in an examination in three subjects : English, Mathematics and
Physics. His entrances of passing in these subjects are 0.5, 0.7 and 0.9 respectively. Find the
probability that :
(a ) he passes in at least one of the subjects.
(b) he passes exactly in two subjects.
Solution :
A : he passes in English
B : he passes in Mathematics
C : he passes in Physics
(a) P(he passes in at least one subject) = P (A  B  C)
To calculate P(A  B  C), use :
P (A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) ă P(A  B) ă P(B  C) ă P(C  A) + P(A  B  C)
P (A  B  C) = 0.5 + 0.7 + 0.9 ă (0.35 + 0.63 + 0.45) + 0.315 = 0.985
Alternatively,
it is easy to calculate P(A  B  C) by :

P(A  B  C) = 1 ă P ( A   A   C ) = 1 ă P( A ) ï P( B ) ï P( C )
= 1 ă (1 ă 0.5) (1 ă 0.7) (1 ă 0.9) = 0.985

(b) P(He passes exactly in two subjects) = P(A  B  C ) + P(A  B   C) + P( A  B  C)

= 0.5 ï 0.7 (1 ă 0.9) + 0.5 ï (1 ă 0.7) ï 0.9 + (1 ă 0.5) ï 0.7 ï 0.9
= 0.485

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 27

INDEPENDENT EVENTS
Two or more events are said to be independent if the probability of occurence of any of them does
not change by the occurence of other.
For example :
If two coins are tossed, then the occurence of either heads or tail on the coins is independent. i.e.
there can be anything on the either of coins.
But, now consider the scenario.
A bag contains 5 white and 5 black balls.
Now we define 2 events A and B such that
A : first ball drawn is black without replacement.
B : second ball drawn is again black.
here A & B are not independent as the event B depends on the out come of event A. (for example
now in case of event B, only 4 black balls are available to choose from)

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE AND INDEPENDENT EVENTS

Let us do the definition of mutual exclusive event once more to understand the difference.
Two events are mutually exclusive events if they cannot occur simultaneously.
Students generally confuse the word simultaneously with occurance term in inependent events.
They are irrelevant.
Mutual exclusion is the property of events occuring at same stage i.e. at same point of time. Like
occurenceof head and tail on a single toss of a coin is an example of mutual exclusion as both
cannot occur simultaneously.
Whereas,if we say we toss the coin twice. Head occurs on the first time whereas tail on the second.
We call these events independent and not mutual exclusive events.
These is no point of saying that they cannot occur simultaneously when already they have been
defined separately in different stages.

RESULTS ON INDEPENDENT EVENTS

1. Two events A and B are independent if and only if
P(A  B) = P(A) P(B)
this result can be extended to any number of independent events
i.e., P(A  B  C) = P(A) P(B) P(C)
P(A1  A2  ... An) = P(A1) P(A2) ... P(An)
where A1 A2 ... An are mutually exclusive events.

2. P(A1  A2   An) = 1 ă P( A 1) P( A 2) ... P( A n)

How is easy to prove using the above result

i.e., P( A 1  A 2) = P( A 1) P( A 2)

PROBABILITY
28 QUIZRR
3. Mutually independent events are always pair waise independent but converse is not
necessarily true

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
If A & B are 2 events related to an experiment then the probability of occurence of A
under the condition that B has already occured etc. i.e. relative to B, is known as
conditional probability.
It is denoted by P(A/B) or P(A given B).
Note here P(B)  0 is must.
What do we mean by this ?
Let us take an experiment to consider it. Two dices are thrown and 2 events A & B are recorded.
A : The sum of dices is 8.
B : There is an odd number on first die.
So now if we need to find the probability of occurence of event A such that B has already occured
will be called conditional probability. „A given B‰.
i.e. P(A/B)
Now we can imagine from the above written lines that the sample space for P(A/B) will become
the possible outcomes of event B.
And the favourable events become the intersection of A and B, as B has to be taken in consideration
as result of A is based on B.
Hence the formula becomes

P(A  B)
P(A/B) =
P(B)

Let us complete the example we have taken

B = Occurence of odd on first die
= {(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) .... (1, 6)
= {(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) ... (3, 6)
= ((5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) ... (5, 6)}
= 18 cases
A = occurence of sum 8
= {(2, 6) (3, 5) (4, 4) (5, 3) (6, 2)}
= 5 cases
Note : Here (2, 6) and (6, 2) are 2 different cases and first represents 2 on dice 1 and 6 on dice
2. Next represents 6 on dice 1 and 2 on dice 2.

5 18 1
P(A) = and P(B) = =
36 36 2
{as sample space = 36, when 2 dices are rolled}
n(A  B) = 2 {possible cases are (3, 5) & (5, 3)
PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 29

2 1
P(A  B) = =
36 8

n(A  B) 2 1
Hence P(A/B) = = =
n(B) 18 9

P(A  B) 1 1
Or = = =
P(B) 1 9
18 
2

For independent events : If A and B are two independent events then

P(A  B) P(A) P(B)

P(A/B) = = = P(A)
P(B) P(B)

as P(A  B) = P(A) . P(B)

Similarly for P(B/A) = P(B)

MULTIPLICATION THEOREM
If A and B are two events associated with a random experiment, then
P(A  B) = P(A) . P(B/A)
or P(B  A) = P(B) . P(A/B)
This can be just derived from conditional probability.
Note : This theorem is used in cases where the events occur in different stages and not
simultaneously.

EXTENSION OF THE THEOREM

P(A1 A2 A3) = P(A1) . P(A2/A1) . P(A3/(A1 A2) and this can be generalized for n such events

Illustration 26
If A and B are two events such that P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.6 and P(A  B) = 0.8, find P(A/B)
and P(B/A).
Solution :
We have, P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) ă P(A  B)
 P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) ă P(A  B) = 0.5 + 0.6 ă 0.8 = 0.3

P(A  B) 0.3 1
Now, P(A/B) =  P(A / B) = =
P(B) 0.6 2

P(A  B) 0.3 3
and P(B/A) =  P(B / A) = =
P(A) 0.5 5

PROBABILITY
30 QUIZRR

Illustration 27
A die is rolled twice and the sum of the numbers appearing on them is observed to be 7.
What is the conditional probability that the number 2 has appeared at least once ?
Solution :
Consider the following events :
A = getting number 2 at least once; B = getting 7 as the sum of the numbers on two dice. We
have
A = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (1, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2), (6, 2)}
and B = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (6, 1), (1, 6), (3, 4), (4, 3)}

11 6 2
 P(A) = , P(B) = and P(A  B) =
36 36 36

Now, required probability

P(A  B) 2 / 36 1
= P(A/B) = = =
P(B) 6 / 36 3

Illustration 28
Two dice are thrown. Find the probasbility that the sum of the numbers coming up on them
is 9, if it is known that the number 5 always occurs on the first die.
Solution :
When two dice are thrown, let S be the sample space and
A = the event that the sumof the numbers coming up is 9.
and B = the event of occurrence of 5 on the first die.
Then S = {1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ï {1,2,3, 4, 5, 6}
 n(S) = 6 ï 6 = 36
A = {(6, 3), (5, 4), (4, 5), (3, 6)}  n(A) = 4
and B = {(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)}
 A  B = {(5, 4)}  n(A  B) = 1

n(A  B) 1 n(A) 4
Now P(A  B) = = and P(A) = =
n(S) 36 n(S) 36

1
P(A  B) 36 1
 Required probability, P(A/B) = = =
P(A) 4 4
36

n(A  B) 1
Second Method : P(A/B) = =
n(B) 4

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 31

Illustration 29
Two coins are tossed. What is the probability of coming up of two heads, if it is known that
at least one head comes up ?
Solution :
When two coins are thrown, let S be the sample space and
A = the event of coming up of two heads
B = the event of coming upof at least one head
Then S = {(H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T)}
A = {(H, H)} and B = {(H, H), (H, T), (T, H)}
 n(S) = 4, n(B) = 3, n(A) = 1
Also A  B = {(H, H)}  n(A  B) = 1

n(B) 3 n(A  B) 1
Now P(B = = and P(A  B) = =
n(S) 4 n(S) 4

1
P(A  B) 4 1
 Required probability, P(A/B) = = =
P(B) 3 3
4

n(A  B) 1
Second Method : P(A/B) = =
n(B) 3

Illustration 30
In a class 30% students fail in English; 20% students fail in Hindi and 10% students fail in
English and Hindi both. A student is chosen at random, then what is the probability that
he will fail in English if he has failed in Hindi ?
Solution :
Here random experiment is selection of a student.
Let S = the sample space
Let A = the event that the student chosen fails in English
and B = the event that the student chosen fails in Hindi.
Then A  B = the event that the student chosen fails in both English and Hindi.
According to question, n(S) = 100, n(B) = 20 and n(A  B) = 10

n(B) 20 1
 P(B) = = =
n(S) 100 5

n(A  B) 10 1
and P(A  B) = = =
n(S) 100 10

PROBABILITY
32 QUIZRR

1
P(A  B) 10 1
 Required probability, P(A/B) = = =
P(B) 1 2
5

n(A  B) 10 1
Second Method : P(A/B) = = =
n(B) 20 2

Illustration 31
A bag contains 5 white and 8 red balls. Two draws of 3 balls each are made without
replacement. What is the probability that the first draw gives 3 white balls and second draw
gives 3 red balls ?
Solution :
Let A = the event of drawing 3 white balls in the first draw and
B = the event of drawing 3 red balls in the second draw.
Then A B = the event of drawing 3 white balls in the first draw and 3 red balls in the second
draw.

5
C 5
Now P(A) = 13 3 =
C 3 143

when 3 white balls are drawn in the first draw, number of balls left = 10 and number of red balls
left = 8

8
C 7
 P(B/A) = 10 3 =
C3 15

Now required probability,

FG B IJ = 5  7 = 7
P(A  B) = P(A) . P
H A K 143 15 429
Illustration 32
A bag X contains 3 white and 2 black balls; another bag Y contains 2 white and 4 black
balls. A bag and a ball out of it is picket at random. What is the probability that the ball
is white ? [I.T.T. 1971]
Solution :
Let E1 = the event of selecting bag X
E2 = the event of solecting bag Y
E = the event of drawing a white ball

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 33

Let A = E1  E and B = E2  E
Now required probability,
P(E) = P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B)
[Since events A and B are mutually exclusive]
= P(E1  E) + P(E2  E)
= P(E1) . P(E/E1) + P(E2) . P(E/.E2)

1 3 1 2 3 1 9+5 7
= . + . = + = =
2 5 2 6 10 6 30 15

Illustration 33
A lot contains 50 defective and 50 non-defective bulbs. Two bulbs are drawn at random, one
at a time, with replacement. The events A, B, C are defined as
A : „the first bulb is defective‰,
B : „the second bulb is non-defective‰,
C : „the two bulbs are bothdefective or both non-defective.‰
Determine whether
i(i) A, B, C are pairwise independent,
(ii) A, B, C are mutually independent.
Solution :

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
We have P(A) = , P(B) = , P(C) =  +  = .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
P(A  B) = Probability that the first is defective and the second is non-defective
1 1 1
=  = = P(A) . P(B)
2 2 4
P(B  C) = Probability that both the bulbs are non-defective
1 1 1
=  = = P(B) P(C)
2 2 4
and P(A  C) = Probability that both the bulbs are defective
1 1 1
=  = = P(A) P(C)
2 2 4
Hence, A, B, C are pairwise independent.
Now, P(A  B  C) = Probability that the first bulb is defective and the second is non-
defective and the first and second are both defective or both non-defective = 0

1
and P(A) . P(B) . P(C) =
8
 P(A  B  C)  P(A) P(B) P(C)
Thus, A, B, C are not mutually independent.

PROBABILITY
34 QUIZRR

Illustration 34
There are three urns A, B and C. Urn A contains 4 white balls and 5 blue balls. Urn B
contains 4 white balls and 3 blue balls.Urn C contains 2 white balls and 4 blue balls. One
ball is drawn from each of these urns. What is the probability that out of these three balls
drawn, two are white balls and one is a blue ball ?
Solution :
Consider the following events :
E1 = ball drawn from urn A is white,
E2 = ball drawn from urn B is white,
E3 = ball drawn from urn C is white

4 4 2 1
Then P(E1) = , P(E2) = and P(E3) = =
9 7 6 3

 P( E 1) = ball drawn from urn A is black

4 5
= 1 ă P (E1) = 1 ă = ,
9 9

P( E 2) = ball drawn from urn B is black

4 3
= 1 ă P(E2) = 1 ă =
7 7

and P( E 3) = ball drawn from urn C is black

1 2
= 1 ă P(E3) = 1 ă =
3 3
Now, two white balls and one black ball can be drawn in the followingmutually exclusive ways :
(I) White from urn A, white from urn B and black from urn C i.e. E1  E2  E 3

(II) White from urn A, black from urn B and white from urn C i.e. E1  E 2
 E3

(III) Black from urn A, white from urn B and white from urn C i.e. E 1
 E2  E3
 Required probability = P(I) + P(II) + P(III)
 Required probability = P(E1  E2  E 3) + P(E1  E 2
 E3) + P( E 1
 E2  E3)

 Required probability = P(E1) P(E2) P( E 3) + P(E1 P( E 2) P(E3) + P( E 1) P(E2) P(E3)

[ĉ.ĉ E1, E2, E3 are independent events]

4 4 2 4 3 1 5 4 1 64
Required probability =   +   +   =
9 7 3 9 7 3 9 7 3 189

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 35

Illustration 35
A and B throw alternately a pair of dice. A wins if he throws 6 before B throws 7 and B wins
if he throws 7 before A throws 6. Find their respective chance of winning, if A begins.
Solution :
6 can be thrown with a pair of dice in the following ways : (1, 5), (5, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4), (3, 4).

5
So, probability of throwing a Â6Ê =
36

5 31
and, probability of not throwing a Â6Ê = 1 ă =
36 36
Now, 7 can be thrown with a pair of dice in 6 ways, viz. (1, 6), (6, 1), (2, 5), (5, 2), (4, 3),
(3, 4).

6 1
So, probability of throwing a Â7Ê = =
36 6

1 5
and, probability of not throwing a Â7Ê = 1 ă = .
6 6
Let E and F be two events defined as :
E = throwing a Â6Ê in a single throw of a pair of dice, and
F = throwing a Â7Ê in a single throw of a pair of dice.

5 31 1 5
Then P(E) = , P( E ) = , P(F) = and P( E ) =
36 36 6 6
A wins if he throws Â6Ê in 1st or 3rd or 5th ..... throws.

5
Probability of A throwing a Â6Ê in first throw = P(E) = .
36
A will get third if he fails in first and B fails in second throw.
 Probability of A throwing a Â6Ê in third throw

31 5 5
P( E  F  E) = P( E ) P( F ) P(E) =  
36 6 36
Similarly, probability of A throwing a Â6Ê in fifth throw
= P( E  F  E  F  E) = P( E ) P( F ) P( E ) P( F ) P(E)

F 31I F 5I
2
=G J G J
2
5
H 36K H 6K 
36
and so on

Hence, probability of winning of A

= P(E  ( E  F  E)  ( E  F  E  F  E)  ...]

PROBABILITY
36 QUIZRR
= P(E) + P( E  F  E) + P( E  F  E  F  E) + ...

5 FG
31 5 5 IJ 31 5 FG IJ 2
5
=
36
+
H
36 6

36 K
+ 
36 6 H K 
36
+...

5 / 36 30
= =
1  (31 / 36)  (5 / 6) 61

30 31
Thus, probability of winning of B = 1 ă =
61 61

THE THEOREM OF TOTAL PROBABILITY

To establish this result we start with the definition of a partition of a sample space.
A partition of a sample space
The collection of events A1, A2, ... An is said to partition a sample space S if
(a) A1  A2  ...  An = S
(b) Ai  Aj =  for all i, j
(c) Ai   for all i
In essence, a partition is a collection of non-empty, non-overlapping subsets of a sample space
whose union is the sample space itself.

If B is any event within S then we can express B as the unionof subsets :

B = (B  A1)  (B  A2)  ...  (B  An)
The definition is illustrated in Figure in which an event B in S is represented by the shaded
region.

The bracketed events (B  A1), (B  A2)... (B  An) are mutually exclusive (if one occurs then
none of the others can occur) and so, using the addition law of probability for mutually exclusive
events :
P(B) = P(B  A1) + P(B  A2) + .... + P(B  An)

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 37

Each of the probabilities on the right-hand side may be expressed in terms of conditional
probabilities :
P(B  Ai) = P(B/Ai) P(Ai)
P(B) = P(B|A1) P(A1) + P(B|A2) P(A2) + ... + P(B|An) P(An)

n
=  P(B|Ai)P(Ai)
i=1

This is the theorem of Total Probability. A related theorem with many applications in statistics can
be deduced from this, known as BayesÊ theorem.
We solve the questions on total probability by tree diagram.

So total probability of event A is written as

P(A) = P(E1) P(A|E1) + P(E2) P(A|E2) ... + P(En) P(A|En)

Illustration 36
A box contains N coins, m of which are fair and the rest are biased. The probability of getting
a head when a fair coin is tossed is 1/2, while it is 2/3 when a biased coin is tossed. A coin is
drawn from the box at random and is tossed twice. The first time it shows head and the second
time it shows tail. What is the probability that the coin drawn is fair ? [I.I.T. 2002]
Solution :
Let E1 be the event that the coin drawn is fair and E2 be the event that the coin drawn is biased.

m Nm
 P(E1) = and P(E2) =
N N
A is the event that on tossing the coin the head appears first and then appears tail.
 P(A) = P(E1  A) + P(E2  A)
= P(E1) P (A/E1) + P(E2) P(A/E2)

FG IJ + FG N  m IJ FG 2 IJ FG 1 IJ
m 1
2
=
H K H N K H 3K H 3K
N 2
...(1)

PROBABILITY
38 QUIZRR
We have to find the probability that A has happened because of E1

P(E1  A)
 P(E1/A) =
P(A)

FG IJ
m 1
2

=
N 2HK (by (1))
FG IJ
m 1
2
Nm 2 FG IJ FG 1 IJ
N 2HK +
N 3 H K H 3K
m/ 4 9m
= =
2(N  m) m+ 8N
m/ 4 +
9

Illustration 37
For a student to qualify, he must pass at least two out of three exams. The probability that
he will pass the 1st exam is p. If he fails in one of the exams then the probability of his
p
passing in the next exam is otherwise it remains the same. Find the probability that he
2
will qualify. [I.I.T. 2003]
Solution :
Let us consider
E1  event of passing I exam.
E2  event of passing II exam.
E3  event of passing III exam.
Then a student can qualify in anyone of following ways
1. He passes first and second exam.
2. He passes first, fails in second but passes third exam.
3. He fails in first, passes second and third exam.
Required probability
= P(E1) + P(E2/E1) + P(E1) P(E2/E1) P(E3/E2) + P(E1) P(E2/E1) P(E3/E2)
[as an event is dependent on previous one]

p p
= p.p + p. (1 ă p) . + (1 ă p) . . p
2 2

p2 p3 p2 p3
= p2 +  +  = 2p2 ă p3
2 2 2 2

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 39

Illustration 38
An urn contains 2 white and 2 black balls. A ball is drawn at random. If it is white it is not
replaced into the urn. Otherwise it is replaced along with other balls of same colour. The
process is repeated. Find the probability that 3rd ball drawn is black. [IIT 1987]
Solution :
(a) There are following four possible ways of drawing first two balls
(i) Both the first and the second balls drawn are white.
(ii) The first ball drawn is white and the second ball drawn is black.
(iii) The first ball drawn is black and the second ball drawn is white.
(iv) Both the first and the second balls drawn are black. Let us define events (i), (ii), (iii) and
(iv) by E1, E2, E3, E4 respectively. Also let E denote the event that the third ball drawn is black.

2 1 1 2 2 1
Then, P(E1) =  = , P(E2 ) =  =
4 3 6 4 3 3

2 2 1
P(E3) =  =
4 5 5

2 3 3
P(E4) =  =
4 5 10
Also P (E/E1) = 1, since when the event E, has alreaqdy happened i.e., the first two balls drawn
are both white, they are not replaced and so there are left 2 block balls in the urn so that the

2
probability that the third ball drawn in this case is black = = 1.
2

3
Again P(E/E2) = , since when the event E2 has already happened there are 3 black and one
4

3
white balls in the urn. So in this case the probability that the third ball drawn is black = .
4

3 2
Similarly, P(E/E3) = and P(E/E4) =
4 3
Now by theorem of total prob. for compound events, we have
P(E) = P(E1) P(E/E1) + P(E2) P(E/E2) + P(E3) P(E/E3)
= + P(E4) P(E/E4)

1 1 3 1 3 3 2
= 1+  +  + 
6 3 4 5 4 10 3

1 1 3 1 23
= + + + =
6 4 20 5 30

PROBABILITY
40 QUIZRR

Illustration 39
A lot contains 20 articles. The probability that the lot contains exactly 2 defective articles
is 0.4 and the probability that a lot contains exactly 3 defective articles is 0.6. Articles are
drawn from the lot at random one by one without replacement and are tested till defective
articles are found. What is the probability that testing procedure ends at the twelfth
testing. [IIT 1986]
Solution :
Let A1 be the event that the lot contains 2 defective articles and A2 the event that the lot contains
3 defective articles. Also let A be the event that the testing procedure ends at the twelfth testing.
Then according to the question :
P(A1) = 0.4 and P(A2) = 0.6
Since 0 < P(A1) < 1, 0 < P(A2) < 1, and P(A1) + P(A2) = 1
The events A1, A2 form a partition of the sample space. Hence by the theorem of total probability
for compound events, we have
P(A) = P(A1) P(A/A1) + P(A2) P(A/A2) ...(1)
Hence P(A/A1) is the probability of the event the testing procedure ends at the twelfth testing
when the lot contains 2 defective articles. This is possible when out of 20 articles, first 11 draws
must contain 10 non defective and 1 defective article and 12th draw must give a defective article.
18
c10  2 c1 1 11
 P(A/A1) = 20
 =
c11 9 190

17
c9  3 c1 1 11
Similarly, P(A/A2) = 20
 =
c11 9 228

Now substituting the values of P(A/A1) and P(A/A2) in eq. (1) we get
11 11 11 11 99
p(A) = 0.4 ï + 0.6  = + =
190 228 475 380 1900

Illustration 40
In a certain city only 2 newspapers A & B are published, it is known that 25% of the city
population reads A and 20% reads B while 8% reads both A & B. It is also known that 30%
of those who read A but not B look into advertisements and 40% of those who read B but
not A look into advertisements, while 50% of those who read both A and B look into
advertisements. What is the percentage of the population that reads advertisement ?
[IIT 1984]
Solution :
Let P(A) denotes the prob. of people reading newspaper A and P(B) that of people reading
newspaper B.

25
Then, P(A) = = 0.25
100
PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 41

20 8
P(B) = = .20, P(AB) = = 0.08
100 100
Prob. of people reading the newspaper A but not
B = P(ABc) = P(A) ă P(AB)
= 0.25 ă 0.08 = 0.17
Similarly,
P(AcB) = P(B) ă P(AB) = 0.20 ă 0.08 = 0.12
Let E be the event that a person reads an advertisement. Therefore

30 40
according to question P(E/ABc) = P(E/AcB) =
100 100

50
P(E/AB) =
100
By total prob. theorem
P(E) = P(E/ABc) P(ABc) + P(E/AcB) P(AcB) + P(E/AB) . P(AB)

30 40 50
=  0.17 +  0.12 +  0.08
100 100 100
= 0.051 + 0.048 + 0.04
= 0.139.
Thus the population that reads advertisement is 13.9%. Ans.

BAYES’ THEOREM
We again consider the conditional probability statement :

P(A  B) P(A  B)
P(A|B) = =
P(B) P(B|A 1 ) P(A 1 ) + P(B|A 2 ) P(A 2 )+...+P(B|A n ) P(A n )

in which we have used the theorem of Total Probability to replace P(B). Now
P(A  B) = P(B  A) = P(B|A) ï P(A)
Substituting this in the expression for P(A|B) we immediately obtain the result

P(B|A)  P(A)
P(A|B) =
P(B|A 1 )P(A 1 ) + P(B|A 2 )P(A 2 )+...+P(B|A n )P(A n )
This is true for any event A and so, replacing A by Ai gives the result, known as BayesÊ theorem
as
P(B|A i )  P(A i )
P(Ai|B) =
P(B|A 1 ) P(A 1 ) + P(B|A 2 ) P(A 2 )+...+P(B|A n ) P(A n )

This theorem is used in the cases where the required even thas already taken place and you are
required to find the probability under some previous stage conditions.

PROBABILITY
42 QUIZRR
For example.
The required event A has occured then find the probability that it occured through event
B (which is defined in prior stages)

Illustration 41
In a test an examine either guesses or copies of knows the answer to a multiple choice
question with four choices. The probability that he make a guess is 1/3 and the probability
that he copies the answer is 1/6. The probability that his answer is correct given that he
copied it, is 1/8. Find the probability that he knew the answer to the question given that
he correctly answered it. [I.I.T. 1991]
Solution :
First of all to find out whether this question is of BayeÊs theorem or not.
See the language of the question, „he correctly answered it‰ i.e. the event has already occured.
And we asked to find the probability of occured event on some prior event i.e. „he knows the
answer‰.
Let us define different events so as to ease out the question.
A1  the examinee guesses the answer
A2  the examine copies the answer
A3  the examinee knows the answer
A  the examinee answers correctly
Now according to question

1
P(A1) =
3

1
P(A2) =
6
Now notice that A1 A2 A3 are mutually exclusive and exhaustive event.
i.e. P(A1) + P(A2) + P(A3) = 1
we needed this to find the value of P(A3)

1 1
 + + P(A3) = 1
3 6

1
 P(A3) =
2
We need to find the probability of P(A3/A) which is equal to

P(A / A 3 ) P(A 3 )
P(A3/A) = ...(i)
P(A / A 1 ) P(A 1 ) + P(A / A 2 ) P(A 2 ) + P(A / A 3 ) P(A 3 )

for this we need the values of P(A/A1) P(A/A2) P(A/A3)

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 43

seeing this from tree diagram we are given with

P(A/A2) i.e. he answers correctly after copying

1
P(A/A2) =
8
Now coming to P(A/A1)

1
it is equal to
4
as there are only 4 options to guess from and one
option will be correct.
for P(A/A3), it is equal to 1, obviously because he knows the correct answer which can be known
in 1 possible way only.
Now substituting all these values in (i)

P(A / A 3 ) P(A 3 )
P(A3/A) =
P(A / A 1 ) P(A 1 ) + P(A / A 2 ) P(A 2 ) + P(A / A 3 ) P(A 3 )

1
1.
= 2
1 1 1 1 1
. + . +1.
4 3 8 6 2

1 48 24
=  =
2 29 29

Illustration 42
Three urns contain 6 red, 4 black, 4 red, 6 black and 5 red and 5 black balls respectively.
One of the urns is selected at random and a ball is drawn from it. If the ball drawn is red,
find the probability that is drawn from the first urn.
Solution :
Let E1, E2, E3 and A be the events defined as follows:
E1 = urn first is chosen, E2 = urn second is chosen,
E3 = urn third is chosen, and A = ball drawn is red.
Since there are three urns and one of the three urns is chosen at random, therefore

1
P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) = .
3
If E1 has already occurred, then urn first has been chosen which contains 6 red and 4 black balls.
The probability of drawing a red ball from it is 6/10.

6
So, P(A/E1) = . Similarly
10
PROBABILITY
44 QUIZRR

4 5
P(A/E2) = and P(A/E3) =
10 10
We are required to find P(E1/A), i.e. given that the ball drawn is red, what is the probability that
it is drawn from the first urn.
By Baye]s rule

P(E1 ) P(A / E1 )
P(E1/A) =
P(E1 ) P(A / E1 ) + P(E2 ) P(A / E2 ) + P(E3 ) P(A / E3 )

1 6

3 10 6 2
P(E1/A) = = =
1 6 1 4 1 5 15 5
 +  + 
3 10 3 10 3 10

Illustration 43
A man is known to speak truth 3 out of 4 times. He throws a die and reports that it is a six.
Find the probability that its actually a six.
Solution :
Let E1, E2 and A be the events defined as follows :
E1 = six occurs, E2 = six does not occur, and A = the man reports that it is a six.

1 5
We have P(E1) = , P(E2) =
6 6
Now, P(A/E1) = Probability that the man reports that the is a six on the die given that six has
Now, P(A/E1) = occurred on the die
Now, P(A/E1) = Probability the man speaks truth = 3/4 and P(A/E2)
Now, P(A/E1) = Probability that the man reports that there is on the die given that six has not
Now, P(A/E1) = occurred on the die.
Now, P(A/E1) = Probability that the man does not speak truth

3 1
Now, P(A/E1) = 1 ă =
4 4
We have to find P(E1/A) i.e., the probability that there is six on the die given that the man has
reported that there is six. By BayeÊs rule, we have

1 3

P(E1 ) P(A / E1 ) 6 4 3
P(E1/A) = = =
P(E1 ) P(A / E1 ) + P(E2 ) P(A / E2 ) 1 3 5 1 8
 + 
6 4 6 4

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 45

Illustration 44
A person goes to office either by car, scooter, bus or train, the probability of which being
1 3 2 1
, , and respectively. Probability that he reaches office late, if he takes car, scooter,
7 7 7 7

2 1 4 1
bus or train is , , and respectively. Given that he reached office in time, then what
9 9 9 9
is the probability that he travelled by a car.
Solution :
Let us define the following events
C  person goes by car,
S  person goes by scooter
B  person goes by bus,
T  person goes by train,
L  person reaches late
Then we aqre given in the question

1 3 2 1
P(C) = ; P(S) = ; P(B) = ; P(T) =
7 7 7 7

2 1 4 1
P(L/C) = ; P(L/S) = ; P(L/B) = ; P(L/T) =
9 9 9 9

To find the prob. P(C/ L ) [ĉ.ĉ reaches in time  not late]

Using BayeÊs theorem

P(L / C) P(C)
P(C/ L ) = ...(i)
P(L / C) P(C) + P(L / S) P(S) + P(L / B) P(B) + A(L / T) P(T)

2 7 1 8
Now, P( L /C) = 1 ă = ; P(L / S) = 1  =
9 9 9 9

4 5 1 8
P( L /B) = 1 ă = P( L /T) = 1 ă =
9 9 9 9
Substituting these values, we get

7 1

P(C/ L ) = 9 7
7 1 8 3 5 2 8 1
 +  +  + 
9 7 9 7 9 7 9 7

7 1
= =
49 7
PROBABILITY
46 QUIZRR

Illustration 45
A letter is known to have come either from TATANAGAR or CALCUTTA. On the envelope
just two consecutive letters TA are visible. What is the probability that the letter has come
from (i) Calcutta (ii) Tatanagar ?
Solution :
Let E1 be the event that the letter came from Calcutta an E2 be the event that the letter came
from Tatanagar. Let A denote the event that two consecutive letters visible on the envelope are
TA.
Since the letters have comeeither from Calcutta or Taganagar, therefore,

1
P(E1) = = P(E2).
2
If E1 has occurred, then it means that the letter came from Calcutta. In the word CALCUTTA
there are 8 letters in which TA occurs in the end. Considering TA as one letter there are seven
letters out of which one can be in 7 ways. Therefore

1
P(A/E1) =
7
If E2 has occurred, then the letter came from Tatanagar. In the word TATANAGAR there are 9
letters in which TA occurs twice. Considering one of the two TAÊs as one letter there are 8 letters.
Therefore

2
P(A/E2) =
8
By BayeÊs rule

P(E1 ) P(A / E1 )
(i) P(E1/A) =
P(E1 ) P(A / E1 ) + P(E2 ) P(A / E2 )

1 1

2 7 4
= =
1 1 1 2 11
 + 
2 7 2 8

P(E2 ) P(A / E2 )
(ii) P(E2/A) =
P(E1 ) P(A / E1 ) + P(E2 ) P(A / E2 )

1 2

2 8 7
= =
1 1 1 2 11
 + 
2 7 2 8

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 47

BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
In n independent trials of a random experiment, let X be the number of times an event A occurs.
In each trial, event A has same probability as P(A) = p referred to as success. Then in a trial non-
occurrence of A is referred as failure and given by q = 1 ă p.
Here X can assumed values from 0 to n. Now X = r means A occurs in r trials and (n ă r)
it does not occur this may look as

A
AA.....A
  A A.....A

r times n  r times

here A means complement of A. Using the assumption that trials are independent, that is, they
do not influence each other, hence has the probability
r nr
p
 p........
  pq
q........
q = p q
r times n  r times

n !
and it can be arranged in = nCr ways.
r ! (n r) !

Now, if X denotes the number of successes in 4 trials, there X can take values 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4
such that
P(X = 0) = 4C0 p0 q4 ă 0
, P(X = 1) = 4C1 p1 q4 ă 1,
P(X = 2) = 4C2 p2 q4 ă 2
, P(X = 3) = 4C3 p3q4 ă 3

and P(X = 4) = 4C4 p4 q4 ă 4

.
4 r 4 ă r
In other words, P(X = r) = Cr p q ; r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
This result can be generalised to the case where the experiment is repeated n times under
identical conditions. The probability of r successes in n independent trials in a specific order say
SSSFSFFSS ... SF is given by r-successes, (n – r) failures
P(SSSFSFFSS ... SF) = P(S) P(S) P(S) P(F) ... P(S) P(F)
(by multiplication theorem)
r n – r
= pppq ... p . q = p q
Hence the probability of getting r successes or occurrence of A in r trials out of n independent
trials is
P(X = r) = nCr pr qn – r

which is denoted as binomial distribution of random variable X.

Ć The probability of getting atleast k successes in
n
P(X  k) =  n
Cr pr qn – r
r=k

PROBABILITY
48 QUIZRR
Ć The probability of getting almost K successes is
k
P(X  k) =  n
Cr pr qn – r
r=0

n
Ć  n
Cr pr qn – r
= (p + q)n = 1
r=0

Illustration 46
Ten coins are tossed simultaneously. Find the probability of getting at least 7 heads.
Solution :
In this case n = 10 ; p = 1/2; q = 1/2
P(X  7) = P(X = 7) + P(X = 8) + P(X = 9) + P(X = 10)

1 176
= (10C3 + 10
C2 + 10
C1 + 1) 10
= 10
2 2

Illustration 47
Numbers are chosen at random, one at a time, from the two digit numbers 00, 01, 02, ... 99
with replacement. An event E occurs if and only if the product of the two digits of a
selected number is 18. If four numbers are selected, find the probability that E occurs at
least 3 times.
Solution :
The numbers, whose two digits product is 18, are 29, 36, 63, 92

4
P(E) = = 0.04
100
Since there is replacement, P(E) remains the same for every selection. Four such selections are
made.
Probability that E occurs, at least thrice
= Probability that E occurs thrice and fails to occur once + Probability that E occurs all the four times
= 4C3 (0.04)3 (0.96) + (0.04)4 = 0.00024832

Illustration 48
A man takes a step forward with probability 0.4 and backwards with probability 0.6. Find
the probability that at the end of eleven steps he is just one step away from the starting
point. (I.I.T. 1987)
Solution :
Let p denote the probability that the man takes a step forward. Then p = 0.4

PROBABILITY
 QUIZRR 49

 q = 1 ă p = 1 ă 0.4 = 0.6
Let X denote the number of steps taken in the forward direction. Since the steps are independent
of each other, therefore X is a binomial variate with parameters n = 11 and p = 0.4 such that
P(X = r) = Cr (0.4)r (0.6)11
11 ă r
; r = 0, 1, 2, ..., 11 ...(i)
Since the man is one step away from the initial point, he is either one step forward or one
step backward from the initial point at the end of eleven steps. If he is one step forward, then
he must have taken six steps forward and five steps backward and if he is one step backward,
then he must have taken five steps forward and six steps backward. Thus, either X = 6 or X =
5.
 Required probability = P[(X = 5) or (X = 6)]
= P(X = 5) + P(X = 6)
11
= C5 (0.4)5 (0.6)11 ă 5
+ 11
C6 (0.4)6 (0.6)11 ă 6
[Using (i)]
11 5 5 11 11
= C5 (0.4) (0.6) [0.6 + 0.4] [ĉ.ĉ C5 = C6]
5 5 5
= 462 (0.4) (0.6) = 462 (0.24)

Illustration 49
Suppose the probability for A to win a game against B is 0.4. If A has an option of playing
a „best of 3 games‰ or a „best of 5 games‰ match against B, which option should A choose
so that the probability of his winning the match is higher ? (No game ends in a draw).
[I.I.T. 1989]
Solution :
Let E = the event that A wins a game against B.
Let occurrence of the event E be called a success and X denote the number successes.
Lt E1 = the event that A wins „a best of 3 games‰ match
A will win a best of 3 games match if he wins in 2 or 3 games.
E2 = the event that A wins „a best of 5 games‰ match.
A will win a best of 5 games match if he wins in 3 or 4 or 5 games
Now, P(E1) = P(X = 2 or X = 3)
= P(X = 2) + P(X = 3)
= 3C2 p2q + 3C3p3
= 3(0.4)2 (0.6) + (0.4)3
= (0.4)2 [0.18 + 0.4] = (0.4)2 (2.2) = 0.352.
P(E2) = P(X = 3 or X = 4 or X = 5)
= P(X = 3) + P(X = 4) + P(X = 5)
= 5C3p3q2 + 5C4p4q + 5C5p5
= (10p3q2 + 5p4q + p5 = p3 (10q2 + 5pq + p2)
= (0.4)3 ï [10 ï (0.6)2 + 5 ï (0.4) ï (0.6) + (0.4)2]
= (0.064) ï (3.6 + 1.2 + 0.16) = 0.064 ï 4.96 = 0.317
Since P(E1) > P(E2), hence A should choose the first option.

PROBABILITY
50 QUIZRR

Illustration 49
An urn contains 25 balls of which 10 balls bear a mark ÂAÊ and the remaining 15 balls bear
a mark ÂBÊ. A ball is drawn at random from the urn, its mark is noted down and it is
replaced. If 6 balls are drawn in this way, find the probability that
ii(i) all will bear ÂAÊ mark
i(ii) not more than 2 will bear ÂBÊ mark
(iii) the number of balls with ÂAÊ mark and ÂBÊ mark will be equal
(iv) at least one ball will bear ÂBÊ mark
Solution :
Let p denote the probability of drawing a ball which bears mark ÂAÊ. Then

10 2
p = =
25 5
Let X denote the number of balls which bear mark ÂAÊ in 6 draws. Then X is a binomial variate
2 2 3
with parameters n = 6 and p = . Also q = 1 ă p = 1 ă =
5 5 5
Now, P(X = r) = Probability of getting r balls bearing mark ÂAÊ.

FG 2 IJ FG 3 IJ
r 6 r
= 6Cr
H 5K H 6K , r = 0, 1, 2, ..., 6 ...(i)

(i) Probability that all balls bear ÂAÊ = P(X = 6)

FG 2 IJ FG 3 IJ
6 66
= 6C6
H 5K H 6K [Using (i)]

= (2/5)6.
(ii) Not more than 2 balls will bear ÂBÊ mark means that there can be either no ball or one ball
or two balls of ÂBÊ mark. This implies that there can be either 6 or 5 or 4 balls of ÂAÊ mark.
 Required probability = P(X  4)
= P(X = 4) + P(X = 5) + P(X = 6)

FG 2 IJ FG 3 IJ
4 2
F 2I F 3I F 2I F 3I
5
C G J G J+ C G J G J
6 0
F 2I
= 7G J
4

H 4 K H 5K H 5K H 5K H 5K H 5K H 5K
6 6 6
= C4 + 5 6

ALITER Let p denote the probability that a ball drawn bears mark ‘B’. Then

15 3
p = =
25 5
Let Y denote the number of balls which bear mark ÂBÊ in 65 draws. Then Y is a binomial variate
with parameters n = 6 and p = 3/5 such that

PROBABILITY
 THREE
DIMENTIONAL
GEOMETRY
 QUIZRR 3

THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

We have covered two-dimensional system uptil now where we considered only 2 axes i.e. x & y
axis. But the physical world in which we live is a 3 dimensional space. That means every physical
quantity can be denoted by 3 values rather than just two.
z
These 3 types are, in general
(1) Length
(2) Breadth z coordinate
(3) Height Z
Since every point is denoted by 3 values, it is y
represented as P ( x, y, z) .
x coordinate
To imagine 3D, consider your book. It has dimensions.
y coordinate
Two are the Length & breadth of the page and the last
one being thickness of it. x
To represent the thickness part on 2D, we imagine it to be directing out / down the plane of
paper.
Here, we have 3-axes , x-axis, y-axis & z-axis and 3 planes i.e. xy, xz, yz. For this you can
consider a cube. Here O is the origin and has coordinates (0,0,0). Now let us find the coordinates
of each vertex, given that the length of each side of cube is ÂaÊ.
A  lies on x-axis only  (a,0,0) z
so other coordinates E D
are 0. F
P
C  lies on y-axis only  (0,a,0)
E  lies only on z-axis  (0,0,a) y
O C
B  it lies in xy plane  (a,a,0)
A B
where z = 0 x
D  it lies in zy plane  (0,a,a)
where x = 0
F  it lies in xz plane  (a,0,a)
where y = 0
P  it does not lie in any  (a,a,a)
of the above mentioned
planes & hence has
all the three coordinates
Also you should notice that

Px i.e. x coordinate of P is the perpendicular distance of point P from YOZ plane

Py i.e. y coordinate of P is the perpendicular distance of point P from XOZ plane

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 4 QUIZRR

Pz i.e. z coordinate of P is the perpendicular distance of point P from XOY plane

TIP : Notice that for the coordinate whose distance is to be found never consists of the plane.
Thus, the coordinates of a point are the distances from the origin to the feet of perpendiculars
from the point on the respective axis.

Position Vector of a Point

If i→, →j, k→ are unit vectors along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively, then the position vector of
point P (of the above diagram) is given by

p  ai→  aj→  ak→
in general for any point r , it could be given by

r  xi→  yj→  zk→
Position vector of a point which divides the segment joing A and B in ratio m : n internally is
 
mb  na 
, where a and b are position vectors of points A and B respectively.
mn

If coordinates of points A, B and P are ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and ( x, y, z) respectively, then

 mx2  nx1 my2  ny1 mz2  nz1 

( x, y, z)   , ,
 mn mn m  n 

If P divides AB externally in the ratio m : n, that means it divides AB internally in the ratio
m : (–n).
 Position vector of P is

 mb  na
OP 
mn
and coordinates of P are

 mx2  nx1 my2  ny1 nz2  nz1 

(x, y, z) =  , ,
 mn mn m  n 

If P is the mid-point of AB then P divides AB internally in ratio 1 : 1

 Position vector of P i.e., position vector of mid-point of AB is

 b  a
OP 
2
and coordinates of mid-point of AB are

 x1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z2 
 2 , 2 , 2 
 

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 5

Result. : The coordinates of centroid of a triangle the coordinates of whose vertices are
( x1 , y1 , z1 ),( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) are

 x1  x2  x2 y1  y2  y3 z1  z2  z3 
 , , .
 3 3 3 

Illustration 1
Find the locus of the point which is equidistant from the points (1,3,5) and (-2,1,4).
Solution :
Let P(x,y,z) be any point equidistant from the point A(1,3,5) and B(-2,1,4), then

PA  PB  PA2  PB2

 ( x  1)2  ( y  3) 2  ( z  5)2  ( x  2)2  ( y  1)2  ( z  4)2

 x2  2 x  1  y2  6 y  9  z2  10 z  25  x2  4 x  4  y2  2 y  1  z2  8 z  16

 6 x  4 y  2 z  14  0

 3x  2 y  z  7  0
which is the required locus.

Illustration 2

Find the ration in which the join of (2, 1, 4) and (4,3,2) is divided by the point ( 2, 9, 8).
Solution :
Let the ratio be  : 1
The point which divides the join of (2,-1,4) and (4,3,2) in ratio  : 1 is

 4  2 3  1 2  4 
  1 ,  1 ,  1 
 
But the given point is (-2,-9,8)

4  2
  2
 1

 4  2  2  2  2
6   4  
3

2
 Required ratio is  : 1 i.e., -2 : 3.
3
Thus, ( 2, 9, 8) divide the join of (2, 1, 4) and (4, 3, 2) externally in ratio 2:3.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 6 QUIZRR

Illustration 3
Find the ratio in which the line joining the points (1,2,3) and (-3,4,-5) is divided by the xy-
plane. Also find the coordinates of the point of division.
Solution :
Let the ratio be  : 1 .
Thepoint which divides the join of (1,2,3) and (-3,4,-5) in ratio  : 1 is

 3  1 4  2 5  3 
  1 ,  1 ,  1  ....(i)
 
But this point lies on xy-plane, therefore z-coordinate is zero,

5  3 3
i.e., 0  .
 1 5

3
Therefore, required ratio is : 1 , i.e. 3 : 5.
5
The required point is

 3(3)  5(1) 3(4)  5(2) 3(5)  5(3) 

 , , 
 35 35 35 

 4 22   1 11 
i.e.   8 , 8 ,0  i.e.   2 , 4 ,0 
   

Illustration 4
Two vertices of a triangle ABC are A(2,-4,3) and B(3,-1,2) and its centroid is (1,0,3). Find its
third vertex C.
Solution :
Let the third vertex be ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) , then centroid is

 2  3  x3 4  1  y3 3  2  z3 
 , , 
 3 3 3 

 5  x3 5  y3 1  z3 
i.e.,  3 , 3 , 3 
 
But centroid is given to be (1,0,3).

5  x3 5  y3 1  z3
  1, 0 and 3
3 3 3

 x3  2, y3  5 and z3  8
Thus, the third vertex is (-2,5,8).

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 5
If origin is the centroid of triangle ABC with vertices A(a,1,3), B(-2,b,-5) and C(4,7,c), find the
values of a,b and c.
Solution :
Centroid of triangle ABC with vertices A(a,1,3), B(-2,b,-5) and C(4,7,c) is

 a 2 4 1 b7 35 c

 , , 
 3 3 3 

 a  2 8  b 2  c 
i.e.  3 , 3 , 3 
 
But, centroid is given to be (0,0,0)
a2 8b 2  c
  0,  0 and 0
3 3 3
 a  2, b  8 and c  2 .

Illustration 6
The mid-points of the sides of a triangle are (1,5,-1), (0,4,-2) and (2,3,4). Find its vertices.
Solution :
Let A( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and C (c3 , y3 , z3 ) be the vertices of the triangle and letD(1,5,-1),
E(0,4,-2) and F(2,3,4) be the mid-points of the sides BC, CA and AB respectively. Then

x2  x3 y  y3 z z
 1, 2  5, 2 3  1 ;
2 2 2

x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1
0 4  2
2 2 2

x1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z2
2 3 4
2 2 2
Thus x2 + x3 = 2 x3 + x1 = 0 x1 + x2 = 4
Adding them
(x1 + x2 + x3) = 3
so from the above relations we get
x1 = 1, x2 = 3 x3 = 1
Similarly we get the values
y1 = 2 y2 = 4 y3 = 6
z1 = 3 z2 = 5 z3 = 7
Hence vertices of triangle are
A (1,2,3) B(3,4,5) & C( 1, 6, 7)
THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY
 8 QUIZRR
Dir ect ion-C osines and Dir ect ion-R at ios

If  ,  and  are the angles which is directed line makes

with the positive directions of x-axis, y-axis and z-axis
Q
respectively, then cos  ,cos  and cos  are called the A
direction-cosines of the line. Direction-cosines are denoted
P (x,y,z)
by l, m, n i.e. l  cos  , m  cos  and n  cos  . 
r
O  N
Let AOA be a line through O with direction-cosines Y
A´ 
cos  ,cos  ,cos  and let P be a point on AOA with
coordinates (x,y,z) and position vector r L M
  X
Then, OP  r  xi→  yj→  zk→ , and direction-cosines of r are

also cos  ,cos  ,cos  .

As the x-axis makes angles 00 ,  ,  with ox, oy and oz respectively. Therefore direction cosines
2 2

 
of x-axis are cos0, cos , cos i.e. 1,0,0,. Similarly the direction cosines of y and z-axes are 0,1,0
2 2
and 0,0,1 respectively.

Some R esult s on Dir ect ion C osines :


Let P(x,y,z) be a point in space such that r  OP has direction cosines l, m, n . Then
  
(i) l r , m r , n r are projections of r on ox,oy,oz respectively, or
  
xl r , ymr , zn r
 
(ii) r  r (li→  mj→  nk→ ) and r→  li→  mj→  nk→

(iii) l 2  m2  n2  1

Direction Ratios :
Let l, m, n be direction cosines of a vector r and a, b, c be three numbers such that

l y n
 
a b c

Then a, b, c are known as direction ratios or direction numbers of vector r .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 9

Illustration 7

2 2 1
If ,  , are direction cosines of a vector r , then its direction ratios are 2, -2, 1 or -2, 2, -1 or
3 3 3
4, -4, 2, because

2 / 3 2 / 3 1 / 3 2 / 3 2 / 3
  , 
2 2 1 2 2

1 / 3 2 / 3 2 / 3 1 / 3
 ,   .
1 4 4 2

It is evident from the above defintion that to obtain direction ratios of a vector from its direction
cosines we just multiply them by a common number. This also shows that there can be infinitely
many sets of direction ratios for a given vector. But the direction cosines a re unique.
Obtaining Direction Cosines (DC) from Direction Ratios (DR)
Let a,b,c be direction ratios of a vector r having direction cosines l, m, n . Then,

l m n
 
a b c

l m n
Let     . Then l  a , m  b , n  c
a b c

l 2  m2  n 2  1

 a 2  2  b2  2  c2  2  1

1


a  b2  c2
2

a b c
So, l ,m ,n
a 2  b2  c2 a2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2
where the signs should be taken all positive or all negative.
Thus, if a,b,c are direction ratios of a vector, then its direction cosines are given by

a b c
 , ,
a2  b2  c2 a2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2
where the signs should be taken all positive or all negative.
For example, if 3, 4, 12 are direction ratios of a vector then its direction cosines are

3 4 12 3 4 12
, , , ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 or
(3)  (4)  (12) (3)  (4)  (12) (3)  (4)  (12) 13 13 13

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

10 QUIZRR
Some O t her R esult
(1) The DCÊs & DRÊs for a given point r

if r  ai→  bj→  ck→

then the Direction Ratios are given by a,b & c only where the Direction Cosines (l, m, n) are
given by

a b c
l , m  ,n 
r r r

If a vector r has direction ratios a,b,c then


 r
r ( ai→  bj→  ck→)
2 2 2
a b c

(2) Direction Ratio of a Line

If P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) & Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are points given which have to form the line, then the

DRs of PQ are ( x2  x1 ),( y2  y1 ),( z2  z1 )

( x2  x1 ) y2  y1 ( z2  z1 )
DCÊs of PQ are , ,
PQ PQ PQ

NOTE :
The DCÊs of a line are defined as the direction cosines of any vector whose support is
the given line.
If l, m, n are DC of a given line, then l, m, n are also the DCÊs of the same line.

Case of Parallel lines / vectors

If a & b are 2 parallel vectors then they have same DR & DC.

Projection of a segment on a line

The projection of line segment joining points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) & Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ) on a line with DCÊs l, m, n
is
( x2  x1 ) l  ( y2  y1 )m  ( z2  z1 ) n

DCÊs of angle bisector

If (l1 , m1 , n1 ) & (l2 , m2 , n2 ) are DCs of two concurrent lines, then the DCÊs of the lines bisecting the
angle between them is given by

 l1  l2 , m1  m2 , n1  n2  .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

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Illustration 8
 
A vector OP is inclined to OX at 45 and OY at 60. Find the angle at which OP is inclined
to OZ.
Solution :
 
Suppose OP is inclined at an angle  to OZ. Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of OP . Then

l  cos 450 , m  cos 600 , n  cos 

1 1
 l ,m , n  cos  .
2 2

1 1
Now, l 2  m2  n2  1    n2  1
2 4

1 1
 n2  n
4 2

1
 cos       600 or 1200
2

Hence, OP is inclined to OZ either at 60 or at 120.

Illustration 9

If a vector makes angles , ,  with OX, OY and OZ respectively, prove that

sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   2

Solution :
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the given vector. Then l  cos  , m  cos  , n  cos  .

Now, l 2  m2  n2  1

 cos2   cos2   cos2   1

 (1  sin 2  )  (1  sin 2  )  (1  sin2  )  1

 sin 2   sin 2   sin2   2

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

12 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 0

Find the direction cosines of a vector r which is equally inclined with OX, OY and OZ. If

r is given, find the total number of such vectors.
Solution :
 
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of r . Since r is equally inclined with OX, OY and OZ.
Therefore,
lmn [       cos   cos   cos  ]

1
Now, l 2  m2  n2  1  3l 2  1  l  
3

1 1 1
Hence, direction cosines of r are  , , .
3 3 3
 

Now, r  r li→  mj→  nk→ 
    1 → 1 → 1 → .
r  r  i j k
 3 3 3 

Since + and - signs can be arranged at three places in 2  2  2  8 ways. Therefore, there are eight
vectors of given magnitude which are equally inclined with the coordinate axes.

Illustration 1 1

A vector r has length 21 and direction ratios 2, 3, 6. Find the direction cosines and
 
components of r , given that r makes an acute angle with x-axis.
Solution :
Recall that if a,b,c are direction ratios of a vector, then its direction cosines are
a b c
 , ,
a2  b2  c2 a2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2
Therefore direction cosines of r are
2 3 6
 , ,
22  (3) 2  62 22  (3)2  62 22  (3)2  62
Since r makes an acute angle with x-axis, therefore cos   0 i.e. l  0 .
2 3 6
So, direction cosines of r are ,  ,
7 7 7


 2
7
3
r  21  i→  →j  k→ 
7
6 
7 
 

[Using r  r li→  mj→  nk→ ] 

or r  6i→  9 →j  18 k→
So, components of r along ox, oy and oz are 6i→, 9 j→ and 18 k→ respectively.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 13

Illustration 1 2

Find the angles at which the vector 2i→  →j  2 k→ is inclined to each of the coordinates axes.

Solution :
Let r be the given vector, and let it make angles  ,  ,  wit ox,oy and oz respectively. Then its
direction cosine are cos  ,cos  ,cos  .

We have r  2i→  j→  2k→ so, direction ratios of r are 2, -1, 2.

 Direction cosines of r are

2 1 2
, , ,
22  (1)2  22 22  (1)2  22 22  (1)2  22

2 1 2
i.e. , ,
3 3 3

2 1 2
 cos   , cos    , cos  
3 3 3

2  1 2
   cos1   ,   cos1    ,   cos1  
3   3   3  

 2 1  2
   cos1   ,     cos1   ,   cos1  
3   3   3  

Angle b et ween t wo lines

Let a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 be the direction-ratios of two lines and  be the angle between them,
 
then angle between vectors r1  a1i→  b1 j→  c1 k→ and r2  a2 i→  b2 →j  c2 k→ is also  .
 
r .r
 cos  1 2
r1 r2

a1 a2  b1b2  c1 c2
 cos 
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22

If the two lines are perpendicular , then

a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2  0 [ cos  0 ]

Now, let l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 be the direction-cosines of two lines and  be the angle between

them, then angle between unit vectors r→1  l1i→  m1 →j  n1 k→ and r→2  l2 i→  m2 →j  n2 k→ is also  .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

14 QUIZRR

r→1 .r→2
 cos 
→r1 r→2

 cos  l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2 [ r→1  1  r→2 ]

If the two lines are perpendicular, then
l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2  0
If the lines are parallel then their direction-cosines are same and their direction-ratios are
propertionate
Now, cos  l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2

 cos2   (l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2 )2

 1  cos2   1  (l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2 )2

   
sin 2   l12  m12  n12 l22  m22  n22   l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2 
2

 sin 2   (m1 m2  m2 n1 )2  (n1 l2  n2 l1 )2  (l1 m2  l2 m1 )2

2 2 2

2 2 2
 
[Using the identity l1  m1  n1 l2  m2  n2   l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2 
2

 (m1 n2  m2 n1 )2  (n1 l2  n2 l1 )2  (l1 m2  l2 m1 )2

This identity is called LagrangeÊs identity].

 sin 2   (m1 n2  m2 n1 ) 2

 sin    (m1 n2  m2 n1 )2

Illustration 1 3

3 6 2 2 2 1
Find the angle between the lines whose direction-cosines are , , and , ,
7 7 7 3 3 3

Solution :
Let  be the angle between the two lines whose direction-coosines given, then

 3  2   6  2   2  1 
cos                   
 7  3   7  3   7  3 

6 12 2 16
   
21 21 21 21

 16 
   cos1  .
 21 

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 QUIZRR 15

Illustration 1 4

Find the the coordinate of point P such that OP is inclined to x-axis at 45 and to y-axis

at 60 and OP  2 .

Solution :

1
l  cos 450 
2

1
m  cos 600  and
2
n  cos 

Now, l 2  m2  n2  1

1 1
   n2  1
2 4

1 1
n2   n
4 2

1
 cos       600 or 1200
2

  1 i→  1 →j  1 k→
Now, OP
2 2 2

 
OP  OP OP  2  1 i→  1 →j  1 k→  
2 → → →
i  j  k  2i→  →j  k→
 
 2 2 2  2

 coordinates of point P are  

2,1, 1 .

Illustration 1 5
The projections of a line segment on the coordinate axes are 6,2,3. Find the length of the
line and its direction-cosines.
Solution :
Let l, m, n be the direction-cosines of the line segment and r be its length
Then,
Projection on x-axis = rl  6
Projection on y-axis  rm  2
and Projection on z-axis  rn  3

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

16 QUIZRR

 (rl)2  (rm)2  (rn)2  (6)2  (2)2  (3)2

 r 2 l 2  r 2 m2  r 2 n2  36  4  9

 r2 (l2  m2  n2 )  49 [ l2  m2  n2  1 ]

 r 2  49  r 7

6
 rl  6  l
7

2
rm  2  m
7

3
and rn  3  n
7

Illustration 1 6
Find the direction-ratios of a line pependicular to the two lines having direction-ratios
1, 3, 2 and 2, 2, 4 respectively.
Solution :
Let a,b,c be the required direction-ratios.
Since, this line is perpendicular to the two lines having direction-ratios 1,3,-2 and -2,2,4.
 a  3b  2 c  0

2 a  2b  4 c  0

a b c
 
3 2 1 2 1 3

2 4 2 4 2 2

a b c a b c
i.e.,   i.e.,  
16 0 8 2 0 1

Thus, direction-ratios are 2, 0, 1.

Note : Do not get confuse with O in denominator here.

Illustration 1 7
Find the foot of the perpendicular from the point (1,1,1) to the joint of the points (4,7,1) and
(3,6,3).
Solution :
Let A(1,1,1), B(4,7,1) and C(3,5,3) be three points and D be the foot of perpendicular from A on
BC

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 17

Let D divide BC in ratio  : 1 , then coordinate of D are

 3  4 5  7 3  1 
 , , 
  1  1  1 

Direction-ratios of AD are A (1,1,1)

3  4 5  7 3  1
 1,  1, 1
 1  1  1

2  3 4   6 2
i.e. , ,
 1  1  1
B (4,7,1) D C (3,5,3)
Direction-ratios of BC are
3  4,5  7,3  1 i.e. 1, 2, 2
Since AD  BC

 2  3   4  6   2 
 1    2   2 0
  1    1    1

2  3  8  12  4
 0
 1

6  15 5
 0  6  15  
 1 2
 D divides BC in ratio 5:2 externally.
 Coordinates of point D are

 15  8 25  14 15  2   7 11 13 
 3 , 3 , 3  i.e.  3, 3 , 3 
   

Illustration 1 8
If the edges of a rectangular parallelopiped are a,b,c prove that the angle between the four
diagonals are given by

  a 2  b2  c 2 
cos 1  2
 a  b 2  c 2  .
 
Solution :
Let OA, OB, OC be the coterminous edges of the paralleopiped taken along the coordinateaxes
and let
OA  a, OB  b and OC  c
The coordinates of the vertices are
O(0,0,0), A(a,0,0), B(0,b,0), C(0,0,c)
D(a,b,0), E(a,0,c), F(0,b,c), G(a,b,c)

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

18 QUIZRR
The direction-ratios of the diagonal Z
C
OG are a  0, b  0, c  0 i.e. a,b,c F

AF are 0  a, b  a, c  0 , i.e. -a,b,c E G

BE are a  0,0  b, c  0 i.e. a,-b,c c
and CD are a  0, b  0,0  c , i.e. a,b,-c b
Y
Thus, direction-cosines of OG, AF, BE and CD are aO B

A D
a b c
, , X
a 2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2

a b c
, ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
a b c a b c a  b2  c2
2

a b c
, ,
a 2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2

a b c
, , respectively.
2 2 2 2 2 2
a b c a b c a  b2  c2
2

If 1 is the angle between OG and AF, then

 a2  b2  c2
cos 1 
a 2  b2  c2

  a2  b2  c2 
 1  cos 1 
 a 2  b2  c 2 
 

Again, if 2 is the angle between OG and BE, then

a 2  b2  c2
cos2 
a2  b2  c2

 a2  b2  c2 
 2  cos1 
 a 2  b2  c2 
 

Similarly, the angle between the other pairs of diagonals can be obtained.
Thus, the angles between the four diagonals may be given by

  a 2  b2  c2 
cos1  2
 a  b2  c2  .
 

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

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Illustration 1 9

1  1 
Show that the angle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos   .
3

Solution :
Let OA, OB, OC be the conterminous edges of a cube, taken along the coordinates axes and let
OA  OB  OC  a
The coordinates of the vertices are
O(0,0,0), A(a,0,0), B(0, a,0), C(0,0, c)

D(a, a,0), E(a,0, a), F (0, a, a), G(a, a, a)

The direction-ratios of the diaginal OGare a,a,a; AF are -a,a,a; BE are a,-a,a and CD are a,a-a
Thus, direction-cosines of OG, AF, BE and CD are

1 1 1 1 1 1
, , ; , , ;
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z

1 1 1 1 1 1 C
, , and , , F
3 3 3 3 3 3 a
E G
respectively. a
a Y
B
If 1 be the angle between OG and AF, then
A D
 1  1   1  1   1  1 
cos1          X
 3  3   3  3   3  3 

1 1 1
  
3 3 3

1 1
 cos 1   1  cos 1  
3  
3

1  1 
Similarly, the angle between any two diagonals of the cube is cos   .
3

Illustration 20

A line makes angles , ,  ,  with the four diagonals of a cube, then prove that

4
cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   .
3

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

20 QUIZRR
Solution :
Let OA, OB, OC be the coterminous edges of a cube, taken along the coordinates axes and let
OA=OB=OC=a (Figure)
The coordinates of the vertices are
O(0,0,0), A(a,0,0), B(0,a,0), C(0,0,a)
D(a,a,0), E(a,0,a), F(0,a,a), G(a,a,a)
The direction-ratios of the diagonal
OG are a,a,a; AF are -a,a,a; BE are a,-a,a and CD are a,a,-a. BE and CD are

1 1 1 1 1 1
, , ; , ,
3 3 3 3 3 3

1 1 1 1 1 1
,
, and , ,
3 3 3 3 3 3
respectively. Z
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of a line which makes angles C
F
 ,  ,  ,  with the four diagonals of the cube. Then a
E G
l m n lmn a
cos      a Y
B
3 3 3 3
A D
l m n l  m  n
cos       X
3 3 3 3

l m n lm n
cos     
3 3 3 3

l m n lmn
cos     
3 3 3 3
On squaring and adding, we get

cos2   cos2   cos2   cos2 

2 2 2 2
 l  m  n   l  m  n   l  m  n   l  m  n 
       
 3   3   3   3 

1 2
 [ l  m2  n2  2lm  2mn  2nl  l2  m2  n2  2lm  2mm  2nl
3
 l2  m2  n2  2lm  2mn  2nl  l2  m2  n2  2lm  2mn  2nl]

1 2 4
 4(l  m2  n2 )  
3   3

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 21

Illustration 21

If l1 , m1 , n1 and l 2 , m 2 , n 2 be the direction-cosines of two mutually perpendiuclar lines, show

that the direction-cosines of the line perpendicular to both of them are

m1 n1  m 2 n1 , n1l 2  n 2 l1 , l1 m 2  l 2 m1 .
Solution :
Let l, m, n be the direction-cosines of the line perpendicular to each one of the given lines. Then

ll1  mm1  nn1  0

ll2  mm2  nn2  0

l m n
 
m1 n1 l1 n1 l1 m1

m2 n2 l2 n2 l2 m2

l m n
  
m1 n2  m2 n1 n1 l2  n2 l1 l1 m2  m1 l2

l m n l 2  m2  n2
  
 m1 n2  m2 n1 n1 l2  n2 l1 l1 m2  m1 l2 {Using langranges identity}
(m1 n2  m2 n1 ) 2

l m n 1
   
m1 n2  m2 n1 n1 l2  n2 l1 l1 m2  m1 l2 sin 

where  is the angle between the given lines.


Since,   ,  sin   1
2

Thus, l  m1 n2  m2 n1 , m  n1 l2  n2 l1 and n  l1 m2  l2 m1
Hence, the direction-cosines of the required line are

m1 n2  m2 n1 , n1 l2  n2 l1 , l1 m2  l2 m1 .

Illustration 22

l1  l2  l 3 m1  m 2  m 3 n1  n 2  n 3
Verify that , , can be taken as the direction-cosines of a
3 3 3
line equally inclined to three mutually perpendicular lines with direction-cosines
l1 , m1 , n1 : l 2 , m 2 , n 2 and l 3 , m3 , n 3 .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

22 QUIZRR
Solution

l1 , m1 , n1 ; l2 , m2 , n2 and l3 , m3 , n3 be the direction-cosines of three mutually perpendicular lines.

 l12  m12  n12  1, l22  m22  n22  1 and l32  m32  n32  1

and l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2  0

l2 l3  m2 m3  n2 n3  0

and l3 l1  m3 m1  n3 n1  0

Let 1 be the angle between the lines whose direction-cosines are

l1  l2  l3 m1  m2  m3 n1  n2  n3
, ,
3 3 3

and l1 , m1 , n1 then

l l l   m  m2  m3   n1  n2  n3 
cos1  l1  1 2 3   m1  1   n1  
 3   3   3 

1
 [(l12  m12  n12 )  (l1 l2  m1 m2  n1 n2 )  (l1 l3  m1 m3  n1 n3 )]
3

1 1
 [1  0  0] 
3 3

 1 
 1  cos1  
 3

Similarly, we can show that the angle between the other pairs i.e., between the line with direction-
cosines.

l1  l2  l3 m1  m2  m3 n1  n2  n3
, , and l2 , m2 , n2
3 3 3

l1  l2  l3 m1  m2  m3 n1  n2  n3
and , , and l3 , m3 , n3 is also cos1  1  .
3 3 3  
 3

St r aight L ine in Sp ace

A sraight line is uniquely determined, if
(i) it passes through a given point and has a given direction.
(ii) it passes through two given points.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 23

Equation of a straight line passing through a given point and parallel to a given
d i r ec t i o n .

Vector Form

Let a be the position vector of the point through whichline passes and m
 be the vector to which

line is parallel.
Let P be an arbitrary point on the line with position vector r
 
AP  m P
A
 
 AP   m
  m
 
OP  OA   m
   a r
 r  a  m
  
 r  a  m
O
which are the required eqautions.
Thus, equations of a line which pass through the point whose position vector is a and which is
parallel to m  are
  
r  a  m

Cartesian Form

Let the coordinates of the point through which line passes be ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and a,b,c be the direction-
ratios of vector to which line is parallel.
Let P be an arbitrary point on the line with coordinates (x,y,z).

Then a  x1i→  y1 →j  z1 k→

m  ai→  bj→  ck→

and r  xi→  yj→  zk→
Vector equation of line are
  
r  a  m

 xi→  yj→  zk→  ( x1i→  y1 →j  z1 k→ )   (ai→  bj→  ck→ )

 xi→  yj→  zk→  ( x1   a)i→  ( y1   b) →j  ( z1   c) →j

 x  x1   a, y  y1   b, z  z1   c

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
   
a b c
which are the required equation.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

24 QUIZRR

Thus, equations of a straight line passing through ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and parallel to vector whose direction-
ratios are a,b,c are

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c

Remark :
(i) The direction-ratios of this line are a,b,c

(ii) The point ( x1   a, y1   b, z1   c) is a general point on this line.

E q uat ion of a st r aight line p assing t hr ough t wo fixed p oint s

Vector Form
 
Equation of line passing through points whose position vectors are a and b are
   
r  a   (b  a)

Cartesian Form
Let the coordinates of the points through which line passes be ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) .

Then equations of straight line passing through points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
Note : We have the direction-ratios of line joining the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) in the
denominator.

R ed uct ion of C ar t esian t o vect or for m & Vice-Ver sa

1. Cartesian to Vector :
If you are given equation of line as

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  ...(i)
a b c
then the vector form is

r  ( x1 i→  y1 →j  z1 k→ )   (ai→  bj→  ck→ )

which is obvisous as in (i) ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is the point lying on the line and (a, b, c) are DRs of
a line parallel to the given line.

2. Vector to Cartesian
If you are given the equation
  
r  a  b
THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY
 QUIZRR 25

where a  a1 i→  a2 j→  a3 k→

and b  b1i→  b2 j→  b3 k→

then cartesian form is given by

x  a1 y  a2 z  a3
 
b1 b2 b3

 
m1 .m2
Thus, cos    
m1 m2

Angle b et ween t wo line

Vector From
     
Let r  a  m1 and r  b  m2

 
m1 .m 2
Then, cos    
| m1 || m 2 |

If the two lines areparallel, then

 
m1  m2 or m1  m2
 
If the two lines are perpendicular, then m1 .m2  0 .

Cartesian Form

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
Let   and  
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2

be equations of two lines and  be angle between them. The direction-ratios of the two lines are
a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2

a 1 a 2  b1b2  c1 c 2
cos  
 a 12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c 22

a1 b1 c1
If the two lines are parallel then a  b  c or their direction-ratios are same.
2 2 2

If the two lines are perpendicular, then a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2  0 .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

26 QUIZRR

Illustration 23
Find the equation of straight line passing through point (1,3,2) and parallel to vector

2i→  j→  k→ , both in vector and cartesian form.

Solution :

Vector Form : Position vector of the point through which line passes is a  i→  3 j→  2k→ and the

vector to which line is parallel is m  2i→  →j  k→ .

Vector equation of line are

  
r  a  m

 r  (i→  3 →j  2 k→ )   (2i→  →j  k→ )

Cartesian Form : Coordinates of the point through which line passes are (1,3,2) and direction-
ratios of vector to which line is parallel are 2,1,-1.
Cartesian equation of line are

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x1 y3 z 2
    
a b c 2 1 1

Illustration 24
Find the equation of straight line passing through the point (4,-3,-2) and (2,0,5), both in
vector and cartesian form.
Solution :
Vector Form : Position vectors of the points through which line passes are
 
a  4i→  3 →j  2 k→ and b  2i→  5k→
Vector equation of line are
   
r  a   (b  a)

 r  (4i→  3 →j  2k→ )   (2i→  5k→  4i→  3 →j  2k→ )

 r  4 i→  3 →j  2k→   (2i→  3 →j  7 k→ )
Cartesian Form : Coordinates of the points through which line passes are (4,-3,-2) and (2,0,5).
Cartesian equation of line are

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1

x  4 y  (3) z  (2) x4 y3 z 2

     
2  4 0  (3) 5  (2) 2 3 7

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 27

Illustration 25

The cartesian equation of a line are 6 x  2  3 y  1  2 z  2 . Find its direction ratios and also
find vector equation of the line.
Solution :
Recall that in the symmetrical form of a line the coefficients of x,y and z are unity. Therefore to
put the given line in symmetric form, we must make the coefficients of x,y and z as unity.
The given line is
6 x  2  3 y  1  2z  2

 1  1
 6  x    3  y    2( z  1)
 3   3 

1 1
x y
 3  3  z 1
1 2 3

This shows that the given line passes through (1/3, -1/3, 1) and has direction ratios 1,2,3. In
 1 1
vector form this means that the line passes through the point having position vector a  i→  j→  k→
3 3

and is parallel to the vector b  i→  2 →j  3k→ .

Therefore, its vector equation is

 1 1 
r   i→  →j  k→    (i→  2 →j  3k→ )
 3 3 

Illustration 26

x  2 2y  5
Find the direction cosines of the line  , z  1 . Also find the vector equation of
2 3
the line.
Solution : The given line is

x  2 2y  5
 , z  1
2 3

x  2 2y  5 z 1 x 2 y 5 / 2 z1
     
2 3 0 2 3 / 2 0
Note, when nothing is given take z = 1, take 0 in deno minator.
This shows that the given line passes through the point (2, 5/2, -1) and has direction ratios 2,
3/2, 0.So, its direction cosines are

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

28 QUIZRR

2 3 / 2 0
, ,
2 2 2
 3  3  3
22      02 22      02 22      02
 2  2  2

2 3 / 2
or , ,0
5/2 5/2

4 3
or ,  ,0
5 5

 5
Thus given line passes through the point having position vector a  2i→  j→  k→ and is parallel to
2
 3
the vector b  2i→  →j  0 k→ , its vector equation is
2

  5   3 
r   2i→  →j  k→     2i→  →j  0 k→ 
 2   2 

Illustration 27

Prove that the line x  a y  b , z  cy  d and x  a y  b , z  c y  d  are perpendicular if

a a   cc   1  0 .
Solution :
The equations of the given lines are not in symmetrical form. We first put them in symmetrical
form.
Equation of first line are x  ay  b, z  cy  d . These equation can be written as

xb zd xb y0 z d

 y,  y or   ...(i)
a c a 1 c

Similarly x  ay  b, z  cy  d  can be written as

x  b y  0 z  d
  ...(ii)
a 1 c
 
Lines (i) and (ii) are parallel to the vectors m1  ai→  →j  ck→ and m2  ai→  j→  ck→ respectively.
 
Now, (i) and (ii) are parallel to the vectors m1  ai→  →j  ck→ and m2  ai→  j→  ck→ respectively.
Now, (i) and (ii) are perpendicular
 
 m1 and m2 are perpendicular.
 
 m1 .m2  0  ( ai→  j→  ck→ ).(ai→  →j  ck→ )  0  aa  1  cc  0 .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 29

Illustration 28

A line passes through (2, 1, 3) and is perpendicular to the line r  (i→  j→  k→ )  (2i→  2 →j  k→ )

and r  (2i→  →j  3 k→ )  (i→  2 →j  2 k→ ) . Obtain its equation.

Solution :

The required line is perpendicular to the line which are parallel to vectors b1  2i→  2 →j  k→ and
   
b2  i→  2 →j  2k→ respectively. So, it is parallel to the vector b  b1  b2 .

i→ →j k→
  
Now, b  b1  b2  2 2 1  6i→  3 →j  6 k→
1 2 2

Thus, the required line passes through the point (2,-1,3) and is parallel to the vector

b  6i→  3 →j  6 k→ . Som, its equation is


r  (2i→  →j  3k→)   (6i→  3 →j  6 k→ )

 (2i→  →j  3 k→ )   (2i→  →j  2 k→ )   2

INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES
1. Cartesian form :
Let the two given lines be

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
  &  
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2

then the intersection is given by

Step-1 Find general points on both lines i.e.

P1 : ( x1  a1 , y1  b11 , z1  c1  )

P2 : ( x2  a2  , y2  b2  , z2  c2  )

Step-2 For intersection, we equate, hence equate coefficeints of same axis i.e.

x1  a1  x2  a2  ...(i)

y1  b1   y2   b2 ...(ii)

z1   c1  z2   c2 ...(iii)

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 30 QUIZRR

Step-3 There are 2 variables now  &  .Find their value from first two equation of Step-2.

IMP.: Now after finding values of  &  you people think you have found the
intersection point. No, you have to check, i.e. put the values of  &  obtained
in the third equation of Step-2.
If it satisfies the equation then for these values of  &  the lines intersect.
& if the values does not satisfy the equation, then that means lines did not intersect.

2. Vector Form :
Let the two lines be

r1  ( a1 i→  a2 →j  a3 k→ )   (m1i→  m2 →j  m3 k→ )

and r2  (b1i→  b2 →j  b3 k→ )   (n1 i→  n2 →j  n3 k→ )

Apply the same steps as done earlier in Cartesian form with the only difference being that you
need not find any general point as the equation in vector form is equation of a point on the line.

Per p end icular d ist ance of a p oint fr om a line :

1. Cartesian form : P (px, py, pz)
Here we have to find PQ and the equation of line is

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c

Logic : For PQ we need to find point Q, for this we need some condition.
And the condition comes from perpendicularity of the lines PQ & AB. A Q B

Algor it hm :

Step-1 : Find general point Q

i.e. Q  ( x1   a, y1   b, z1   c)

Step-2 : Find DR of PQ & the line for the line we know it is a,b,c for
PQ = position vector of Q - position vector of P

 ( x1   a  px )i→  ( y1   a  py ) →j  (z1   a  pz ) k→

 DRs of PQ  ( x1   a  px ), ( y1   a  py ),( z1   a  pz )

Step-3 : Apply condition of perpendicularity

i.e. ( x1  a  px ) a  ( y1  a  py )b  ( z1  a  pz ) c

find the value of  from here.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 31

Step-4 : From  find point Q & hence by using distance formula find PQ.
This case also covers the case of finding the foot of perpendicular i.e. the position of
point Q.

2. Vector form :
The same process applied in this case also. We will demonstrate it with thehelpof an example.

Illustration 29

x y1 z 2
Find the foot of perpendicular from the point (1,6,3) to the line   .
1 2 3

Also, find the length of perpendicular and the equation of the perpendicular.
Solution :

x y1 z 2
Any point on the line   can be taken as (,1  2,2  3 ) .
1 2 3
A (1,6,3)
Let this point be D, the foot of perpendicular from A(1,6,3) to the line

x y1 z 2
  .
1 2 3
Direction-ratios of given line are 1,2,3.
Direction-ratios of AD
D x = y 1= z 2
  1, 1  2  6, 2  3  3 [using x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z2  z1 ] 1 2 3

i.e.   1, 2  5, 3  1
Since, AD is perpendicular to the given line

 1(  1)  2(2  5)  3(3  1)  0 [Using a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2  0 ]

   1  4  10  9  3  0
 14  14  0    1

Thus, coordinates of D are (1,1  2,2  3) i.e. (1,3,5)

 Foot of perpendicular is (1,3,5).
Length of perpendicular is

AD  (1  1)2  (3  6)2  (5  3)2

 0  9  4  13
Equation of perpendicular i.e., equations of AD are

x 1 y 6 z  3 x 1 y  6 z  3
  i.e.  
11 36 53 0 3 2

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

32 QUIZRR

Illustration 30
Find the image of the point (2,-1,5) in the line

x  11 y  2 z  8
 
10 4 11

Solution :

x  11 y  2 z  8
Any point on the line  
10 4 11

Direction-ratios of given line are 2, 1,5 . A (2, 1,5)

Direction-ratios of AD
11  10  2,  2  4  (1),  8  11  5

[using x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z2  z1 ]
D x 11 = y+2 = z+8
i.e. 9  10 ,  1  4  ,  13  11 . 10 4 11
Since, AD is perpendicular to the given line.

 10(9  10 )  4(1  4 )  11(13  11 )  0

A´ (x1,y1,z1)
[using a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2  0 ]

 90  100  4  16   143  121  0

 237  237  0    1
Thus, coordinates of D are
(11  10,  2  4,  8  11)

i.e. (1,2,3) .

Now, let A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the image of A(2, 1,5) in the line

x  11 y  2 z  8
  .
10 4 11

Then D(1,2,3) is the mid-point of A(2,-1,5) and A( x1 , y1 , z1 )

2  x1 1  y1 5  z1
  1, 2 and 3
2 2 2

 x1  0, y1  5 and z1  1

Thus, the image of A(2, 1,5) is A(0,5,1) .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 33

Illustration 31
Find the point of intersection of the lines

x1 y 3 z 5 x2 y 4 z6

  and   .
3 5 7 1 3 5

Solution : Any point on line

x1 y 3 z 5
  can be taken as
3 5 7

(1  3 ,  3  5 ,  5  7 ) ...(i)
Any point on line

x2 y4 z6

  can be taken as
1 3 5

(2   ,4  3 ,6  5  ) ...(ii)

The given lines intersect, therefore for some values of  and  the point (i) and (ii) coincide

i.e. 1  3  2  

 3    3 ...(iii)

and 3  5  4  3 

 5  3  7 ...(iv)

1 3
Solving (iii) and (iv), we get  and   -
2 2

1 1 1 3
Putting   in (i), we get  2 , 2 , 2 
2  

3 1 1 3
Putting    in (ii), we get  2 , 2 , 2 
2  

which is the required point of intersection.

Illustration 32
Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (2,1,7) and (1,5,0) crosses the yz-
plane.
Solution : The equations of line through (2,1,7) and (1,5,0) are

x 2 y1 z7 x 2 y 1 z 7
    
1 2 51 07 1 4 7
THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY
34 QUIZRR
Any point on this line can be taken as
(2  ,1  4 ,7  7 )
If this point lies on yz-pplane then x-coordinate is zero i.e.,
20  2
 The required point is (0,9,-7)

SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES

SKEW LINES
Two straight lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting are called skew lines.

Now, let PQ be the shortest distance vector between two parallel lines l1 and l2 whose vector
     
equations are r  a   m and r  b   m respectively. Clearly these lines are coplanar.
  . Then
Let BC  l1 and  be the angle between AB and m

 
AB  m
sin    
AB m

  P C A(a)

Now, PQ  AB sin  l1


 
 AB  m
 AB  
AB m
l2
  Q B(b)
AB  m
 
m

  
(b  a)  m
 
m

  
(b  a )  m
 Shortest distance between the parallel lines  
m

Cartesian Form : Let the equations of two skew lines be

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a1 b1 c1

x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
and  
a2 b2 c2

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 QUIZRR 35


Then a  x1i→  y1 →j  z1 k→

b  x2 i→  y2 j→  z2 k→

m1  a1 i→  b1 →j  c1 k→

and m2  a2 i→  b2 →j  c2 k→
 
b  a  ( x2  x1 )i→  ( y2  y1 ) j→  ( z2  z1 ) k→

i→ →j k→
 
m1  m2  a1 b1 c1
a1 b2 c2

 (b1 c2  c1 b2 )i→  (a2 c1  a1 c2 ) →j  (a1b2  a2 b1 ) k→

 
m1  m2   (a1b2  a2 b1 )2

x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
   
and (b  a).(m1  m2 )  a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2

Thus, shortest distance

x 2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
a1 b1 c1
   
(b  a ).(m1  m2 ) a2 b2 c2
   
m1  m2 (a 1 b2  a 2 b1 )2

Remarks :
(i) It is more convenient to use vector form for finding shortest distance rather than cartesian
form. lf the equations of lines are given in cartesian form, then find the corresponding vector
equation and use vector form for finding the shortest distance.
(ii) For finding the equations of line of shortest distance PQ, we find the coordinates of points
P and Q asÊ follows:
Take a general point on line l1 and take it as P then take a general point on l2 and take

it as Q. Find direction-ratios of PQ and use the condition that PQ is perpendicular to l1 and

l2 to obtain two equations in  and  .

Solve the equations for  and  and substitute their values in general points to get the
coordinates of P and Q.
Once the coordinates of P and Q are obtained, we can find equations of line PQ both in
vector as well as cartesian form and we can also find distance PQ using distance formula.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 36 QUIZRR

Illustration 33
Find the shortest distance between the lines
 
r  (6i→  2 →j  2k→ )   (i→  2 →j  2k→ ) and r  (4i→  k→ )   (3i→  2 →j  2k→ )
Solution :
Given lines are

r  (6i→  2 →j  2k→ )   (i→  2 →j  2k→ )

and r  (4i→  k→ )   (3i→  2 →j  2k→ )
 
 a  6i→  2 →j  2 k→; m1  i→  2 →j  2 k→
 
and b  4i→  k→; m2  3i→  2 →j  2k→
 
Now, b  a  10i→  2 j→  3k→

i→ →j k→
 
and m1  m2  1 2 2  8i→  8 →j  4 k→
3 2 2

 
 m1  m2  82  82  42

 64  64  16  144  12
   
Also, (b  a).(m1  m2 )

 (10i→  2 j→  3k→ ).(8i→  8 j→  4 k→ )

 80  16  12  108
 Shortes distance
   
(b  a).(m1  m2 ) 108
    9
m1  m2 12

Shor t est d ist ance b et ween 2 skew lines :

Skew lines : Two non-parallel , non intersecting lines in space.
Q
Thus, the skew lines are those which do not lie in the same
plane. i.e. non-coplanar. l2
LINE OF SHORTEST DISTANCE : If l1 and l2 are two skew- Line of shortest
lines, then there is one and only one line perpendicular to each distance
of lines l1 and l2 which is known as the line of shortest distance.
SHORTEST DISTANCE : The shortest distance between two
l1
lines l1 and l2 is the distance PQ between the points P and Q P

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 37

where the lines of shortest distance intersects the two given lines.
If two lines intersect then the shortestdistance between them is zero. If two lines are parallel then
the shortest distance between them is the distance between the two lines.

CONDITION FOR TWO GIVEN LINES TO INTERSECT

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
If the    
l1 m1 n1 and l2 m2 n2 intersect, then the shortest distance

between them is zero. Therefore,

x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
l1 m1 n1
l2 m2 n2
d 0
(m1 m2  m2 n1 )2  (n1 l2  l1 n2 )2  (l1 m2  l2 m1 )2

x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
l1 m1 n1  0

l2 m2 n2

Illustration 34

Find the shrtest distance betw een the lines

x3 y8 x3 x3 y7 z6

  and  
3 1 1 3 2 4

Solution :
Vector equations of the given lines are

r  3i→  8 →j  3k→   (3i→  →j  k→ )

and r  3i→  7 →j  6k→   (3i→  2 →j  4 k→ )
 
 a  3i→  8 →j  3k→; m1  3i→  →j  k→
 
and b  3i→  7 →j  6 k→; m2  3i→  2 →j  4 k→
 
Now, b  a  6i→  15 →j  3k→

i→ →j k→
 
and m1  m2  3 1 1  6i→  15 j→  3k→
3 2 4

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 38 QUIZRR

 
 m1  m2  (6)2  (15)2  (3)2  36  225  9  270
   
Also, (b  a).(m1  m2 )

 (6i→  15 →j  3k→ ).(6i→  15 →j  3k→ )  36  225  9  270

 Shortest distance
   
(b  a).(m1  m2 ) 270
     3 30
m1  m2 270

Illustration 35
Show that the following pair of lines intersect
 
r  i→  →j  k→   (3i→  →j ) ; r  4 i→  k→   (2i→  3 k→ )
Solution : Given lines are

r  i→  →j  k→   (3i→  →j )

and r  4 i→  k→   (2i→  3 k→ )
 
 a  i→  →j  k→; m1  3i→  →j

and b  4 i→  k→; m2  2i→  3k→
   
The given lines will intersect if (b  a).(m1  m2 )  0
   
i.e., if [b  a m1 m2 ]  0
 
Now, b  a  3i→  →j

3 1 0

and  b  a m
  
1 m2 
 3 1 0  0 [ R1 and R2 are identical]

2 0 3

Thus lgiven lines intersect.

Illustration 36
Find the length and the equation of the line of shortest distance between the lines

x  8 y  9 z  10 x  15 y  29 z  5
  and  
3 16 7 3 8 5
Solution :
Given lines are

x  8 y  9 z  10
  ...(i)
3 16 7
THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY
 QUIZRR 39

x  15 y  29 z  5
and   ...(ii)
3 8 5
Any point on line (i) can be taken as

 x  8 y  9 z  10 
P (3  8,  16  9,7  10)  Puting 3  16  7   
 
Any point on line (ii) can be taken as

 x  15 y  29 z  5 
Q(3  15,8 29, 5  5)  Puting    
 3 8  5 
Direction ratios of PQ are
(3  3  7, 8   16  38,  5  7  5)
Let PQ be the line of shortest distance then PQ is perpendicular to lines (i) and (ii).
 3(3  3  7)  16(8   16  38)  7(5  7  5)  0

and 3(3  3  7)  8(8   16  38)  5(5  7  5)  0

 154   314   622  0

and 98   154   350  0

 77   157  311  0

and 49  77  175  0

Solving them, we get   2,   1

Putting the values of  and  in P and Q, we get
P(5, 7, 3) and Q (9, 13, 15)
Equations of PQ i.e., equations of the line of shortest distance are

x5 y7 z3 x5 y7 z3

  i.e.  
4 6 12 2 3 6
and length of the line of shortest distance is

PQ  (9  5)2  (13  7)2  (15  3)2  16  36  144  196  14

Illustration 37
Find the shortest distance and the equation of the line of shortest
 
r  3i→  5 j→  7 k→  (i→  2 →j  k→ ) and r   i→  j→  k→  (7i→  6 →j  k→ )
Solution :
Given lines are

r  3i→  5 →j  7 k→   (i→  2 →j  k→ ) ...(i)

and r  i→  →j  k→   (7i→  6 →j  k→ ) ...(ii)

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

40 QUIZRR
Let P be a point on line (i) with position vector

OP  3i→  5 →j  7 k→   (i→  2 →j  k→ )

 (3   )i→  (5  2 ) →j  (7   ) k→
and Q bea point on line (ii) _with position vector

OQ  i→  →j  k→   (7i→  6 →j  k→ )

 (1  7  )i→  (1  6 ) →j  (1   ) k→


PQ  (7     4)i→  (6   2  6) →j  (    8) k→

Let PQ be the line of shortest distance, then PQ is perpendicular to lines (i) and (ii)

 PQ.(i→  2 →j  k→ )  0

and PQ.(7i→  6 j→  k→ )  0

 1(7     4)  2(6   2  6)  1(    8)  0

and 7(7     4)  6(6   2  6)  1(    8)  0
 20   6  0 and 86   20  0
Solving them, we get   0 and   0
 
Putting the values of  and  in OP and OQ , we get
 
OP  3i→  5 →j  7 k→ and OQ  i→  →j  k→
Equations of PQ i.e., equations of line of shortest distance are

r  (3i→  5 →j  7 k→ )  t[(i→  →j  k→ )  (3i→  5 →j  7 k→ )]

i.e. r  (3i→  5 →j  7 k→ )  t(4i→  6 →j  8 k→ )
and shortest disatnce

PQ  (3  1)2  (5  1)2  (7  1) 2  16  36  64  116  2 29

PLANE
A plane is a surface such that a line that joins any two points of the surface lies in the surface.
The general equation of plane is ax  by  cz  d  0 . Here there are 4 variables a, b, c & d . We can
reduce them to three i.e.

a b c

 d x  d  y  d z1  0
     

 Ax  By  Cz  1  0
So now there are 3 variables & hence 3 conditions are required to find the equation of a plane.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 41

Differ ent for ms of eq uat ion of p lane :

(1) Intercept form :
Analogous to the form as we did in straight line, if the plane cuts the intercepts a,b,c on x-axis,
y-axis & z-axis respectively, then the equation of plane is given by

x y z
  1
a b c

NOTE : For finding x-intercept we put both y & z equal to zero in the equation. Similarly for
y-intercept, put x = 0 & z = 0 Z-intercept, put x = 0 & y = 0.

Illustration 38
A plane meets the coordinates axes in A,B,C such that the centroid of triangle ABC is the
x y z
point (p,q,r). Show that the equation of the plane is p  q  r  3 .

Solution :
Let the equation of the required plane be

x y z
  1 ...(i)
a b c
Then the coordinates of A,B and C are A(a,0,0), B(0,b,0) and C(0,0,c) respectively. So, the centroid
a b c
of triangle ABC is  , ,  . But the coordinates of the centroid are (p, q, r).
3 3 3

a b c
 p , q  and r   a  3 p, b  3q and c  3r
3 3 3
Substituting the values of a,b and c in (i), we get the required plane as

x y z x y z
  1    3.
3 p 3q 3r p q r

Illustration 39
A variable plane moves in such a way that the sum of the reciprocals of its intercepts on
the three coordinate axes is constant. Show that the plane passes through a fixed point.
Solution :
Let the equation of the plane be
x y z
  1 ...(i)
a b c
Then, a,b,c are intercepts made by the plane with coordinate axes.
1 1 1
    k , k is a constant.
a b c

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 42 QUIZRR

1 1 1
   1
ak bk ck

1  1  1 1  1 1 
   1
a  k  b  k  c  k 

1 1 1
This shows that plane (i) passes through the fixed point  , ,  .
 k k k

(2) EQUATION OF PLANE IN NORMAL PLANE

If n is the given normal to the plane then the equation of plane is as follows :

1. VECTOR FORM :

r .n→  d ...(i)

where n→ = unit vector in n direction
d = distance of plane from origin.
Logic : From diagram NP  ON & we have to find the equation of plane containing N & P
So NP  ON
or n  NP
or n→  NP N P

 ( NP).n→  0

 (OP  ON ).n→  0 n r
 
 (r  n).n→  0
O
 
 r.n→  n.n→

n.n→ is nothing but the magnitude of ON i.e. distance ON & hence the result.
NOTE : In equation (i) n should be a unit vector only. If you not given the unit vector

  n d
instead it is given like r .n  d , then at this moment convert it to r. 
n n .

2. Cartesian Form :

Put r  xi→  yj→  zk→ and

n→  li→  mj→  nk→

so equation becomes
lx  my  nz  p ...(ii)
IMP : The coefficients of x,y & z in the equation of plane are direction ratios of the normal
to the plane.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 43

Conversion from cartesian to vector form :

1. Represent the equation in terms of equation (ii)
2. If R.H.S. is negative, make it positive
3. Divide both sides by

(coeff. of x)2  (coeff. of y)2  (coeff. of z)2

l m n p
i.e. x y z
l2  m2  n2 l2  m2  n2 l2  m2  n2 l2  m2  n2

 l m p 
so here  , ,  are direction cosines (and not DRs) of
 2 2 2 2 2 2 
 l m n l m n l  m2  n2
2


p
the normal & is the distance of plane from origin.
l2  m2  n2

E q uat ion of p lane p assing t hr ough a given p oint and nor mal t o a given vect or .
If ÂaÊ is the given point and ÂnÊ is the normal vector then the equation is given by
  
(r  a).n  0

Cartesian form :

For cartesian form put r  xi→  yj→  zk→

a  a1 i→  a2 j→  a3 k→

and n  n1i→  n2 →j  n3 k→
in the above vector equation, then the equation becomes

( x  a1 ) n1  ( y  a2 ) n2  ( z  a3 )n3  0
NOTE : The coefficients of x,y,z here are Directional Ratios (not DCÊs) of the normal.Please do
not get confuse between the two, that is the reason we keep mentioning it everytime.

Illustration 40

Find the length of perpendicular from the origin to the plane 2 x  3 y  6 z  14 .

Solution :
Given equation of the plane is 2 x  3 y  6 z  14 .

Here a  2, b  3, c  6 and d  14

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

44 QUIZRR
Perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin is

d
p
a  b2  c2
2

14 14 14 14
    2
2
(2)  (3)  (6) 2 2 4  9  36 49 7

Illustration 41

Write the normal form of the equation of the plane r .(2i→  →j  2 k→ )  72 .

Solution :

Given equation of the plane is r.(2i→  →j  2 k→ )  72


Here n  2i→  →j  2 k→ and d  72


n 2i→  →j  2k→ 2i→  →j  2k→
Now, n→    
n (2) 2  (1)2  (2) 2 3

2→ 1 → 2 →
 i  j k
3 3 3

d 72 72
p     24
n 2 2
(2)  (1)  (2) 2 3


Equation of plane in normal form is r .n→  p

 2 1 2 
 r .  i→  →j  k→   24 .
 3 3 3 

Illustration 42

Find the cartesian form of equation of a plane whose vector equation is r .(2i→  3 →j  k→ )  10 .

Solution :

Given equation of the plane is r.(2i→  3 →j  k→ )  10


Here n  2i→  3 →j  k→ and d  10 .

Direction-ratios of normal are 2,3,-1 i.e. a  2, b  3, c  1 and d  10 .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 45

Equation of the plane in cartesian form is

ax  by  cz  d

 2 x  3 y  z  10
Other Method :

r  xi→  yj→  zk→


Given equation of plane is r.(2i→  3 →j  k→ )  10

 ( xi→  yj→  zk→ ).(2i→  3 →j  k→ )  10

 2 x  3 y  z  10
which is the required cartesian form.

Illustration 43
Find the equation in cartesian form of the plane passing through the point (3,-3) and
normal to the line joining the points (3,4,-1) and (2,-1,5).
Solution :
We know that the vector equation of a plane passing through a point having position vector a
and normal to n is
  
(r  a).n  0
   
or r .n  a.n ...(i)
Since the given plane passes through the point (3, 3, 1) and is normal to the line joining
A (3, 4, 1) and B (2, 1, 5). Therefore

a  3i→  3 →j  k→
 
and n  AB  P.B. of B- P.V. of A

 (2i→  →j  5 k→ )  (3i→  4 →j  k→ )  i→  5 →j  6 k→

 
Substituting a  3i→  3 →j  k→ and n  i→  5 →j  6 k→ in(i) We obtain

r .(i→  5 j→  6 k→ )  (3i→  3 →j  k→ )).(i→  5 →j  6 k→ )

or r .(i→  5 →j  6 k→ )  3  15  6

or r.(i→  5 →j  6 k→ )  18
This is the vector equation of the required plane. The Cartesian equation is

( xi→  yj→  zk→ ).(i→  5 j→  6 k→ )  18

  x  5 y  6 z  18 or x  5 y  6 z  18  0

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

46 QUIZRR

Illustration 44
 o
A vector n of magnitude 8 units is inclined to x-axis at 45 , y-axis at 60o and an acute
angle with z-axis. If a plane passes through a point   
2, 1,1 and is normal to n , find its
equation in vector form.
Solution :
Let  be the angle made by n with z-axis. Then direction cosines of n are

1 1
l  cos 450  , m  cos600  and n  cos 
2 2

2 2
 1  1
 l2  m2  n2  1   2
  2  n 1
 2  

1 1
 n2  n [  is acute  n  cos   0 ]
4 2

We have n 8.


 
 
n  n li→  mj→  nk→  n  8 
 1 → 1 → 1 →
 2
i  j  k   4 2i→  4 →j  4 k→
2 2 

The required plane passes through the point  

2, 1,1 having position vector a  2i→  →j  k→ .

So, its vector equation is

      
(r  a).n  0 or r .n  a.n



r .(4 2i→  4 →j  4 k→)   
2i→  →j  k→ .(4. 2i→  4 →j  4 k→)



r.  
2i→  →j  k→  4

Illustration 45

Reduce the equation r .(3i→  4 j→  12 k→ )  5 to normal form and hence find the length of
perpendicular from the origin to the plane.
Solution :

The given equation is r.(3i→  4 →j  12 k→ )  5

  
or r .n  5 wheer n  3i→  4 →j  12 k→

Since n  32  (4) 2  122  13  1 , therefore the given equation is not in normal form. To reduce

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 47

it to normal form, we divide both sides by n , i.e.


 n 5  3 4 → 12 →  5
r.    r .  i→  j k 
13  13
n n or .
 13 13

This is the normal form of the equation of given plane. The length of the perpendicular from the
5
origin is .
13

Angle betweem two plane

Angle between two planes is same as angle between their normals.

Vector Form
 
Let r .n1  d1 and r .n2  d2 be two planes and  be the angle between them, then  is the angle
 
between normals n1 and n2 .
 
n1 . n 2
 cos    
n1 n 2
   
If the two planes are perpendicular than n1  n2 and n1 .n2  0
   
If the two planes are paralell then n1  n2 and n1   n2 .

Carteisan Form :
Let a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2 be two planes and  be angle between them ,
then  is the angle between their normals whose direction-ratios are a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 .

a1 a2  b1b2  c1 c2
 cos 
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22

If the two planes are perpendicular then their normals are perpendicular and hence
a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2  0 .

a1 b1 c1
If the two planes are parallel then their normals are parallel and hence a  b  c .
2 2 2

Illustration 46
 
Find the angle between the planes r .(2i→  →j  k→ )  6 and r .(i→  →j  2 k→ )  7 .
Solution :
Let  be the angle bnetween the given planes then  is the angle between their normals
2i→  →j  k→ and i→  →j  2k→

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 48 QUIZRR

(2i→  →j  k→ ).(i→  →j  2k→ )

 cos  
(2)2  (1)2  (1)2 (1)2  (1)2  (2)2

2 1  2 3 1
  
6 6 6 2

   600 .

Illustration 47

Find the angle between the planes 2 x  y  z  5 and x  2 y  z  6 .

Solution :
Let  be the angle between the given planes then  is the angle between their normals wose
direction-ratios are 2,-1,1 and 1,2,1.

2  1  (1)  2  1  (1)
 cos  
(2)  (1)2  (1)2 (1)2  (2)2  (1)2
2

2  21 1
 
6 6 6

1
  cos1   .
6  

E q uat ion of p lane p assing t hr ough 3 p oint s

M et h o d - 1

(a) The general equation of a plane passing through a point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is given by

a ( x  x1 )  b( y  y1 )  c( z  z1 )  0

where a, b, c are constants.

To find these values, put the values of 3 points in the equation to obtain 3 equations. And solve
for 3 variables.

M et h o d - 2
(a) Vector Form :
  
If 3 points r1 r2 r3 are given on the plane.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 49

According to equation type 3 weneed one point and normal direction. We have points, we need
normal. For normal we can do
   
(r1  r2 )  (r2  r3 )

which will give me a normal to the plane.

r2
Thus completes our equation of plane r1
   
(r  r1 )[(r1  r2 )  (r2  r3 )]  0 r3
   
or [r  r1 r1  r2 r2  r3 ]  0

in scalar triple product.

(b) Constant form :

From the last equation, just applying the formula of scalar triple product

x  a1 y  a2 z  a3
a1  b1 a2  b2 a3  b3  0
b1  c1 b2  c2 b3  c3


where r  xi→  yj→  zk→

r1  a1 i→  a2 →j  a3 k→

r2  b1 i→  b2 →j  b3 k→

r3  c1 i→  c2 →j  c3 k→

Vect or E q uat ion of Plane in Scalar T r ip le Pr od uct For m

(i) Vector equation of a plane passing through three non-collinear points.

Let A,B,C be the three given points with position vectors a , b, c respectively and P beanarbitrary
point on the plane with position vector r .

B
C

a  P
b

c 
r

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 50 QUIZRR
  
Points A, B, C and P lie on same plane, therefore AP, AB and AC are coplanar.

  

Hence,  AP AB AC   0
 
     
  OP  OA OB  OA OC  OA   0

 
  r  a ba
 
c  a   0

which is the required equation.

(ii) Vector equation of a plane passing through two given points and parallel to a given
straight line
  be a vector
Let A and B be the two given points with position vectors a and b respectively, m
parallel to the given straight line and P be an arbitrary point on the plane with position vector r.

A

m

B P

a 
b

r

 lie on same plane, therefore,   

Points A, B, P and vector m AP, AB and m are coplanar.
  
 
Hence,  AP AB m   0
    
 OP  OA OB  OA m 
  0

 r  a b  a m

  0
which is the required equation.

(iii) Vector equation of a plane passing through a given point and parallel to two given
straight lines
  
LetA be the given point with position vector a, m1 and m2 be vectors parallel to the given straight
lines and P be an arbitrary point on the plane with position vector r .

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 51


m1
A


m2
P

a

r

    
Points A, P and vectors m1 , m2 lie on same plane, therefore AP, m1 and m2 are coplanar.

   
Hence,  AP m 1 m2   0

   
 
  OP  OA m1 m2   0
   
 r  a m1 m2   0

which is the required equation.

Equation of a Plane in Parametric Form

  
Let A be a point on the plane with position vector a and m1 and m2 be two vectors parallel to the
plane. Let P be an arbitrary point with position vector r .

 
m2 C m1
M

A
P

L B

r
O
   
Take AB  m1 and AC  m2
Complete the parallelogram ALPM.
   
AL   m1 and AM  m2
   
 AL   m1 and AL   m1

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 52 QUIZRR
  
Now, AP  AL  AM [Parallelogram law of addition]
   
 OP  OA  AL  AM
   
 r  a   m1   m2
   
 r  a   m1   m2
which is the required equation with parameters  and  .
Thus, equation of a plane in parametric form passing through point with position vector a and
 
parallel to vectors in m1 and m2 is
   
r  a   m1   m 2

Illustration 48
Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the points

2i→  2 →j  k→ , 3i→  4 →j  2 k→ and 7i→  6 k→

Solution :
  
Let a  2i→  2 j→  k→, b  3i→  4 →j  2 k→ and c  7i→  6 k→
Equation of the required plane is

 r  a b  a c  a   0
 
     
 (r  a).[(b  a)  (c  a)]  0 ...(i)
 
Now b  a  (3i→  4 →j  2 k→ )  (2i→  2 →j  k→ )  i→  2 →j  3k→
 
c  a  (7i→  6 k→ )  (2i→  2 →j  k→ )  5i→  2 →j  7 k→

i→ j→ k→
   
(b  a)  ( c  a)  1 2 3
5 2 7

 20i→  8 →j  12 k→
From (i)

[r  (2i→  2 →j  k→ )}.[20i→  8 →j  12k→ ]  0

 r (20i→  8 →j  12k→ )  (2i→  2 →j  k→ ).(20i→  8 →j  12k→ )  0

 r .(20i→  8 →j  12k→ )  (40  16  12)  0

 r .(20i→  8 j→  12k→ )  68

 r.(5i→  2 →j  3k→ )  17
which is the required equation.

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 QUIZRR 53

Illustration 49

Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the points i→  →j  k→ and 2i→  6 j→  k→
and parallel to the line

r  (3i→  5 →j  k→ )  (i→  2 j→  k→ ) .
Solution :
  
Let a  i→  →j  k→, b  2i→  6 →j  k→ and m  i→  2 →j  k→
Equation of the required plane is
    
[r  a. b  a. m]  0
    
 (r  a).{(b  a)  m}  0 ...(i)
 
Now, b  a  (2i→  6 →j  k→ )  (i→  →j  k→ )  i→  5 →j  2 k→

i→ →j k→
  
(b  a)  m  1 5 2  9i→  →j  7 k→
1 2 1

From (i)

{r  (i→  →j  k→ ).(9 k→  →j  7 k→ }  0


 r (9i→  →j  7 k→ )  (i→  →j  k→ ).(9i→  →j  7 k→ )  0


 r .(9i→  →j  7 k→ )  (9  1  7)  0


 r.(9i→  →j  7 k→ )  17

which is the required equation.

Illustration 50

Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the point 3i→  →j  k→ and parallel to
the lines
 
r  (i→  j→  k→ )  (2i→  j→  k→ ) and r (2i→  →j  3 k→ )  (5i→  3 j→  k→ )

Solution :
  
Let a  3i→  →j  k→, m1  2i→  →j  k→ and m2  5i→  3 j→  k→

Equation of the required plane is

   
[r  a m1 m2 ]  0

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 54 QUIZRR
   
(r  a). (m1  m2 )  0

i→ →j k→
 
m1  m2  2 1 1
5 3 1

 4 i→  3 →j  11 k→

r  (3i→  →j  k→) 4i→  3 →j  11k→  0


 r .(4i→  3 →j  11k→ )  (3i→  →j  k→ ).(4 i→  3 →j  11k→ )  0

 r.(4i→  3 →j  11k→ )  (12  3  11)  0

 r.(4i→  3 →j  11k→ )  2  0

Illustration 51
Find the vector equation in scalar product form of the plane

r  i→  →j  (i→  j→  k→ )  (i→  2 j→  3 k→ )
Solution :

The given equation is r  i→  →j   (i→  →j  k→ )   (i→  2 →j  3 k→ ) .

It represents a plane passing through the point i→  →j and parallel to i→  →j  k→ and i→  2 →j  3k→ .
  
Let a  i→  →j, m1  i→  →j  k→ and m2  i→  2 →j  3k→
Equation of given plane in scalar product form is
   
[r  a m1 m2 ]  0
   
 (r  a).(m1  m2 )  0 ...(i)

i→ j→ k→
 
m1  m2  1 1 1
Now,
1 2 3

 5i→  2 →j  3 k→

From (i) {r  (i→  →j )}.{5i→  2 →j  3k→ }  0

 r .(5i→  2 →j  3k→ )  (i→  →j ).(5i→  2 →j  3k→ )  0

 r .(5i→  2 →j  3k→ )  (5  2  0)  0

 r.(5i→  2 →j  3k→ )  7
which is the required equation.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 55

Illustration 52

Find the vector equation of the plane r  ( s  2t )i→  (3  t ) j→  (2s  t )k→ in scalar product form.

Solution :
Given equation is

r  ( s  2t)i→  (3  t) →j  (2s  t) k→


i.e. r  3 →j  s(i→  2k→ )  t(2i→  →j  k→ )

It represents a plane passing through point 3 →j and parallel to i→  2k→ and 2i→  →j  k→ .

  
Let a  3 →j, m1  i→  2k→ and m2  2i→  →j  k→

Equation of given plane in scalar product form is

   
[r  a m1 m2 ]  0
   
 (r  a).(m1  m2 )  0 ...(i)

i→ →j k→
 
Now, m1  m2  1 0 2
2 1 1

 2i→  5 →j  k→

From (i)

(r  3 →j ).(2i→  5 j→  k→ )  0


 r .(2i→  5 →j  k→ )  3 →j.(2i→  5 →j  k→ )  0


 r.(2i→  5 →j  k→ )  15  0


 r.(2i→  5 →j  k→ )  15

which is the required equation.

T wo Sid es of a Plane
 
Let a and b be positionvectors of two points A and B and r.n  d be equation of a plane.

Let P be a point on given plane which divides the line segment joining A and B in the ratio m : n .
 
ma  nb
The position vector of P is .
mn

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56 QUIZRR
Since P lies on the plane r.n  d

 ma  nb  
   .n  d
 mn 

  
 ma.n  nb.n  md  nd
 
 m(a.n  d)  n(b.n  d )  0

m (b.n  d)
   
n ( a.n  d )

m 
If is positive then a .n  d and b.n  d are of the opposite sign and P divide AB internally.
n
Therefore, A and B are on theopposite side of the plane (Figure).

m 
If is negative then a .n  d and b.n  d are of the same sign and P divides AB externally.
n
Therefore A and B are on the same side of the plane
  
Thus, if a .n  d and b.n  d
are of opposite sign then points with position vectors a and b are

on opposite sides of the plane r.n  d and a .n  d and b.n  d are of same sign then points with

position vector a and b are on same side of the plane r.n  d .

P P
A B A B

Similarly, for cartesian form the points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are on opposite sides of the

plane ax  by  cz  d if ax1  by1  cz1  d1 and ax2  by2  cz2  d2 are of opposite sign and the

points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are on same side of the plane ax  by  cz  d if ax1  by1  cz1  d1

ax2  by2  cz2  d2 are of same sign.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

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Illustration 53

Show that the points i→  j→  2 k→ and i→  →j  k→ lie on opposite sides of the plane


r .(5i→  2 →j  7 k→ )  9  0 .

Solution :
 
Let a  i→  →j  3k→ and b  i→  →j  k→ .

Equationof plane is

r .(5i→  2 →j  7 k→ )  9  0


 r.(5i→  2 →j  7 k→ )  9


Here n  5i→  2 →j  7 k→ and d  9

 
Now, a.n  d  (i→  →j  3k→ ).(5i→  2 →j  7 k→ )  9  5  2  21  9  9

and b.n  d  (i→  →j  k→ ).(5i→  2 →j  7 k→ )  9  (5  2  7)  9  9
    
Since a.n  d and b.n  d are of opposite signs,therefore, a and b lie on opposite sides of the
given plane.

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL PLANES

 
Let r.n  d1 and r.n  d2 be two parallel planes.

 d1  d2
Then, distance of r.n  d1 from the origin is p1  n and that of r.n  d2 is p2  n .

Thus, the distance between these two planes is

d d d d
p1  p2  1  2  1  2
n n n

Similarly, in cartersian form the distance between parallel planes ax  by  cz  d1 and

ax  by  cz  d2 is

d1  d2
.
a  b2  c2
2

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58 QUIZRR
Distance of a point from a Plane
Let A be a point with position vector a and r.n  d be a plane
Equation of plane through a and parallel to given plane is
  
(r  a).n  0 [ parallel planes have small nomral]
   
 r .n  a.n
 
a.n
Perpendicular distance of this plane from the origin is n .

d
Perpendicular distance of r.n  d from the origin is n .

   
a.n d a.n  d
Distance between the two planes is n  n  
n
which is same as distance between the

 
a.n  d
point A with position vector a and plane r.n  d is 
n

Similarly, for cartesian form the distance of point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane ax  by  cz  d is

ax1  by1  cz1  d

a2  b2  c2

Illustration 54

Find the distance between the parallel planes 2 x  2 y  z  3  0 and 4 x  4 y  2 z  5  0 .

Solution :
Given equation of theplane are
2x  2 y  z  3  0
and 4 x  4 y  2z  5  0
i.e. 2 x  2 y  z  3
and 4 x  4 y  2 z  5
Perpendicular distance of the plane 2 x  2 y  z  3 from the origin is

3 3  d 
p1   1  p  
2 2
(2)  (2)  (1) 2 3
 a2  b2  c2 
Perpendicular distance of the plane 4 x  4 y  2 z  5 from the origin is
5 5
p2  
2 2
(4)  (4)  (2) 2 6

 distance between the two given planes is

5 1
p1  p2  1   units
6 6

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 59

Illustration 55

Find the distance of the point 2i→  j→  4 k→ from the plane r .(4i→  12 →j  3 k→ )  7 .

Solution :
Given plane is

r.(4i→  12 →j  3k→ )  7


Here n  4i→  12 →j  3k→

and d 7

Let a  2i→  j→  4 k→ , then
distance of a from the plane is

  (2i→  →j  4 k→ ).(4i→  12 →j  3 k→ )  7
a.n  d
 
n (4)2  (_12)2  (3)2

8  12  12  7 25 25
   units
16  144  9 169 13

Illustration 56

Find the distance of the point (2, 3, 5) from the plane x  2 y  2 z  9 .

Solution :

Distance of point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane ax  by  cz  d is

ax1  by1  cz1  d

a2  b2  c2

Therefore, distance of (2,3,-5) from x  2 y  2 z  9  0 is

2  2(3)  2(5)  9 2  6  10  9

(1) 2  (2)2  (3)2 9

9
  3 units.
3

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 60 QUIZRR
Family of Planes
(i) Family of planes parallel to a given plane
Vector Form
Family of planes parallel to the plane r.n  d is r.n   , because the parallel planes have same
normal. Different values of  give different planes parallel to the plane r.n  d .

Cartesian Form
Family of planes parallel to the plane ax  by  cz  d is ax  by  cz   because the parallel
planes have same normal and hence direction-ratios of normals are same. Different values of 
given different planes parallel to the plane ax  by  cz  d .

(ii) Family of Planes passing through the intersection of two planes.

If two planes are not parallel then they intersect at a line called the line of intersection.
Vector Form
 
Let r .n1  d1 and r.n2  d2 be two non-parallel planes. Consider the equation
  
(r .n1  d1 )   (r .n2  d2 )  0

where  is a constant
  
 r .(n1   n2 )  d1   d2 ...(i)

Cartesian Form

Thus, equation of family of planes through the intersection of planes a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1

and a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2 is

( a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 )   ( a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2 )  0

Illustration 57

Find the equation of plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
2 x  7 y  4 z  3, 3 x  5 y  4 z  11  0 and the point A ( 2, 1, 3).
Solution :
Equation of family of planes passing through theline of intersection of the planes
2x  7 y  4 z  3 and 3 x  5 y  4 z  11  0 is

(2 x  7 y  4 z  3)   (3 x  5 y  4 z  11)  0
Since, this plane passes through the point (-2,1,3)
 (2(2)  7(1)  4(3)  3)   (3(2)  5(1)  4(3)  11)  0

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 QUIZRR 61

 2   (12)  0
 12  2

2 1
  
12 6
Thus, required equation of the planeis

1
(2 x  7 y  4 z  3)  (3 x  5 y  4 z  11)  0
6

 12 x  42 y  24 z  18  3 x  5 y  4 z  11  0

 15 x  47 y  28 z  7  0

 15 x  47 y  28 z  7

Illustration 58
Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
x  y  z  6 , 2 x  3 y  4 z  15  0 and perpendicular to the plane 4 x  5 y  3 z  8 .
Solution :
Equation of family planes passing through the line of intersection of the planes
x y z  6 and 2 x  3 y  4 z  15  0 is

( x  y  z  6)   (2 x  3 y  4 z  15)  0

 (1  2 ) x  (1  3 ) y  (1  4  ) z  6  15  0

Since, this plane is perpendicular to the plane 4 x  5 y  3 z  8

 4(1  2 )  5(1  3 )  3(1  4 )  0

6
 6 + 11 = 0   =
11

Thus, required equation of the plane is

6
( x  y  z  6)  (2 x  3 y  4 z  15)  0
11

 11 x  11 y  11z  66  12 x  18 y  24 z  90  0

  x  7 y  13 z  156  0

 x  7 y  13 z  156  0

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62 QUIZRR

Illustration 59


Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes r .(i→  3 j→ )  6  0

and r .(3i→  j→  4 k→ )  0 , which is at a unit distance from the origin.

Solution :
Equation of family of plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
 
r .(i→  3 j→)  6  0 and r .(3i→  →j  4 k→ )  0 is
 
[r .(i→  3 j→)  6]   [r .(3i→  →j  4 k→ )]  0

 r [(1  3 )i→  (3   ) →j  4 k→ ]  6  0

 r .[(1  3 )i→  (3   ) →j  4  k→ ]  6
Perpendicular distance of this plane from the origin is

6
((1  3 )  (3   )) 2  (4 )2
2

If perpendicular distance from the origin is 1, then

6
1
(1  3 )2  (3   )2  (4 )2

 6  (1  3 )2  (3   )2  (4 )2

 36  1  6  9 2  9  6   2  16 2

 36  10  26 2  26  26 2

26
 2     1
26
Thus, required equations of the planes are
 
[r .(i→  3 j→)  6]  [r .(3i→  →j  4 k→ )]  0


 r .(4i→  2 →j  4 k→ )  6  0

 
and [r .(i→  3 j→)  6]  [r .(3i→  →j  4 k→ )]  0


 r .(2i→  4 →j  4 k→ )  6  0

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 63

(iii) Planes bisecting the angles between the given planes.

Vector Form :
 
Let r .n1  d1 and r.n2  d2 be equations of two non-parallel planes.

Let P be an arbitrary point on the plane bsiecting the angle between the given planes with
position vector r . Then distance of point P from thegiven plane should be equal
 
r .n1  d1 r .n2  d2
   
n1 n2

 
r.n1  d1 r.n2  d2
    
n1 n2

which are the required equations.

Cartesian Form :

Let a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 and a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2 be equations of two non-parallel planes

Corresponding Cartesian form is

a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2

a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22

*You can see that results of cartesian form are very similar to that to straight lines.

BISECTORS OF ACUTE AND OBTUSE ANGLES

One of the bisector planes obtained bisects the acute angle between the two given planes qnd the
other bisects the obtuse angle between the two given planes. To obtain the angle bisector bisecting
the acute angle between the two given planes, we find the tangent of the angle  (say). between

one of the given planes and one of the angle bisectors. If tan   1 , then the chosen bisector plane
bisects the acute angle between the given planesÊ and the other bisector plane bisects the obtuse
angle~between the planes. If tan   1 , then the chosen bisector bisects the obtuse angle between
the planes and the other bisector bisects the acuteÊangle between the planes.

Bisector of the Angle Containing the Origin

To find the plane bisecting the angle containing the origin, we proceed as under:
STEP-I. Write down the equations of the given planes such that their constant terms are of
the same sign.
STEP-II. Obtain the bisect or corresponding to +v sign.
For example, if the given planes are
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  0

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64 QUIZRR

and a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2  0

such that d1 and d2 are of the same sign, then the bisecting plane

a1 x  b1 y  c2 z  d1 a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d1

a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22

bisects the angle betwen the planes that contains the origin.

Illustration 60

Find the equation of the plane bisecting the angles between the planes x  2 y  2 z  3  0
and 3 x  4 y  12 z  1  0 . Also specify the plane which bisects the acute angle.
Solution :
The equations of the given planes are
x  2 y  2z  3  0 ...(i)
and 3 x  4 y  12 z  1  0 ...(ii)
The equations of the two bisectors planes are
x  2 y  2z  3 3 x  4 y  12 z  1

2 2 2
(1)  (2)  (2) (3) 2  (4)2  (12) 2

x  2 y  2z  3 3 x  4 y  12 z  1
 
3 13
 13 x  26 y  26 z  39   (9 x  12 y  36 z  3)

 4 x  14 y  10 z  42  0

and 22 x  38 y  62 z  36  0

 2 x  7 y  5 z  21  0 ...(iii)

and 11 x  19 y  31 z  18  0 ...(iv)
Thus, the two bisectors are
2 x  7 y  5 z  21  0 and 11 x  19 y  31 z  18  0
Now, let  be the acute angle between the plane(i) and the bisector plane (iii), then

1(2)  2(7)  2(5)

cos  
(1)2  (2)2  (2)2 (2)2  (7)2  (5)2

2  14  10 6 2 2
   
9 78 3 78 78 39

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 65

2 37
Now, sin   1  cos2   1  
39 39

sin  37
 tan    1
cos 2

   450
Therefore, the bisector plane (iii) biscts the obtuse angle between the given planes.
Hence, plane 11 x  19 y  31 z  18  0 bisects the acute angle between the given plane.

Illustration 61
Find the equation ofplane bisecting the angle in which the origin lies of the planes
x  2 y  2 z  9 and 4 x  3 y  12 z  13  0 .
Solution :
The given equation are
x  2 y  2z  9 and 4 x  3 y  12 z  13  0

i.e. x  2 y  2z  9  0 and 4 x  3 y  12 z  13  0 [Constant terms should be of same sign]

 x  2 y  2z  9 4 x  3 y  12 z  13

2 2 2
(1)  (2)  (2) (4) 2  (3)2  (12) 2

 x  2 y  2 z  9 4 x  3 y  12 z  13
 
3 13

 13 x  26 y  26 z  117  12 x  9 y  36 z  39

 25 x  17 y  62 z  78  0

LINE AND PLANE

Unsymmetrical Form of Line
The equation of two non-parallel planes taken together is called the unsymmetrical form of line
beceuase if a point lies in both these planes it has to lie on the line of intersection of the planes.

Illustration 62
Reduce in symmetrical form, the equation of the line of intersection of two planes
x  y  2 z  5, 3 x  y  z  6 .
Solution :
Let a,b,c be the direction ratios of the required line.
Since the required line lies in both the given planes, we must have
a  b  2 c  0 and 3a  b  c  0

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

66 QUIZRR
Solving these two equations by cross-multiplication, we get

a b c a b c
  or  
1  2 6  1 1  3 3 5 4

In order to find a point on the required line, we put z  0 in the two given equation to obtain

x  y  5, 3 x  y  6

11 9
Solving these two equations, we obtain x  , y .
4 4

 11 9 
Therefore, coordinates of a point on the required line are  ,  ,0  . Hence, the equation of the
 4 4 

required line is

11 y    9 
x  4  z 0
4    4 x  11 4 y  9 z  0 4 x  11 4 y  9 z  0
or   or   .
3 5 4 12 20 4 3 5 1

ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE

    
Let the line be r  a   b and the plane be r .n  d . If  is the angle between them then

0 b.n
cos(90   )   
b n

 
b.n
 sin    
b n
 
n b
In Cartesian form, if the plane is ax  by  cz  d  0 and line

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 
is   then
l m n

al  bm  cn
sin  
a  b  c 2 l 2  m2  n2
2 2


So, the condition that line is parallel to the plane is b.n  0 or al  bm  cn  0 and the condition

 l m n
of perpendicular is b   n or   .
a b c

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 67

Illustration 63

x 1 y1 z 3
Find the angle between the line   and plane 6 x  3 y  2 z  5 .
2 2 1

Solution :
Let  be the angle between the given line and given plane, the direction-ratios of line are 2,2,1
and that of normal to the plane are (6,-3,2).

(2)(6)  (2)(3)  (1)(2)

 sin  
(2)  (2)2  (1)2 (6)2  (3)2  (2)3
2

12  6  2 8
 
9 49 21

 8 
   sin 1  .
 21 

Illustration 64
 
Show that the line r  (i→  j→ )  (2i→  →j  4 k→ ) is parallel to the plane r .(2i→  k→ )  5 . Also find
the distance between them.
Solution : Given line is

r  (i→  j→)   (2i→  →j  4 k→ )

where m  2i→  →j  4 k→

and given plane is r.(2i→  k→)  5

where n  2i→  k→
 
Now, m.n  (2i→  j→  4 k→ ).(2i→  k→ )  4  0  4  0
 Given line and given plane are parallel.

Distance between given line and given plane is same as perpendicular distance of point a  i→  →j
from the plane r.(2i→  k→)  5 ,
 
a.n  d
which is 
n

(i→  →j ).(2i→  k→ )  5 2  5 7 7
   
2 2 5 5 5
(2)  (1)

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68 QUIZRR
INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A PLANE

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
To find the point of intersection of the line   and the plane ax  by  cz  d  0
l m n

The coordinates of any point on the line

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  are given by
l m n P
(x1+1r, y1+mr, z1+nr)

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 ax+by+cz+d=0
   r (say)
l m n

or ( x1  lr, y1  mr, z1  nr) ...(i)

If it lies on the plane ax  by  cz  d  0 , then

a ( x1  lr )  b( y1  mr )  c( z1  nr)  d  0

 ( ax1  by1  cz1  d )  r (al  bm  cn)  0

(ax1  by1  cz1  d)

 r
al  bm  cn

Substituting the value of r in(i), we obtain the coordinates of the required point of intersection.

Illustration 65

x 1 y 2 z  5
Find the point of intersection of the line   and the plane 2 x  4 y  z  3
2 3 4

Solution :

x 1 y 2 z  5
Any point on the line   can be taken as
2 3 4

(1  2 ,2  3 ,  5  4  ) ...(i)

If this point lies on the plane 2 x  4 y  z  3 , then

2(1  2 )  4(2  3 )  (5  4)  3

 2  4  8  12  5  4   3
 15  12  3
  1
 From (i), point of intersection is (1+2, 2-3, -5+4) i.e. (3,-1,-1).

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 69

Illustration 66

Find the distance between the point with position vector  i→  5 j→  10 k→ and the point of

x 2 y1 z2
intersection of the line   with the plane x  y  z  5 .
3 4 12

Solution :
The coordinates of any point on the line

x 2 y1 z 2
   r (say) are (3r  2,4 r  1,12r  2) ...(i)
3 4 12

If it lies on the plane x  y  z  5 , then

3r  2  4 r  1  12r  2  5  11r  0
 r 0.
Putting r = 0 in (i), we obtain (2, 1, 2) as the coordinates of the point of intersection of the given
line and plane.
Required distance = distance between (-1,-5,-10) and (2,-1,2)

 (2  1)2  (1  5)2  (2  10)2  13

Condition for line to lie in a plane

 
(a) Vector Form : If the line r  a   b lies in the plane r.n  d , then (i) b.n  0 and (ii) a.n  d .

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
(b) Cartesian Form : If the line   lies in the plane ax  by  cz  d  0 then
l m n
(i) ax1  by1  cz1  d1  0 and (ii) al  bm  cn  0 .

Illustration 67
 
Show that the line r  (i→  j→ )  (2i→  →j  4 k→ ) lies on the plane r .(i→  2 j→  k→ )  3 .
Solution :
If the line

r  (i→  →j )   (2i→  →j  4 k→ ) lies on the plane

r .(i→  2 →j  k→ )  3 then line must satisfy the equation of plane

i.e. [(i→  →j )   (2i→  →j  4 k→ )].(i→  2 →j  k→ )  3

 (1  2)   (2  2  4)  3  33 which is true.
Aliter : Show that angle between line and plane is 00 and distance between them is also zero.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

70 QUIZRR

Illustration 68

Find the equation of the line through the point 2i→  →j  k→ and perpendicular to the plane

r .(3i→  5 j→  k→ )  4 .
Solution :

Since, line is perpendicular to the plane r .(3i→  5 →j  k→ )  4 ,
Therefore, normal to the plane is parallel to the line. Thus, equation of the line through the point
 
a  2i→  →j  k→ and parallel to m  3i→  5 j→  k→ is

r  (2i→  →j  k→ )   (3i→  5 →j  k→ ) .

Illustration 69
Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (0,7,-7) and containing the line
x 1 y3 z 2
  .
3 2 1
Solution :
Let the equation of a plane passing through (0,7,-7) be
a (x  0)  b( y  7)  c( z  7)  0 ...(i)

x1 y3 z 2
The line   passes through the point (-1,3,-2) and has direction ratios -3,2,1. If
3 2 1
(i)contains this line, it must pass through (-1,3,-2) and must be parallel to the line. Therefore
a(1)  b(3  7)  c(2  7)  0

i.e. a(1)  b(4)  c(5)  0 (ii)

and  3 a  2b  1c  0 (iii)
On volving (ii) and (iii) by cross-multiplication, we get

a b c a b c
       ( say)
14 14 14 1 1 1

 a  , b  , c  
Puttingthe values ofa,b,c in (i), we obtain

 ( x  0)   ( y  7)   ( z  7)  0  x y z  0
This is equation of the required plane.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 71

C ond it ion of C op lanar it y of t wo lines and eq uat ion of t he p lane cont aining t hem
Vector Form
     
Let r  a   m1 and r  b   m2 be two coplanar lines.
       
Then, the plane containing them is parallel to b  a, m1 and m2 . Therefore b  a, m1 and m2 are
coplanar.

 [r  b m1 m2 ] = 0 or [r  a m1 m2 ]  0

Cartesian Form

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
Let   and
a1 b1 c1

x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
  be two coplanar lines then
a2 b2 c2


a  x1i→  y1 →j  z1 k→

b  x2 i→  y2 j→  z2 k→

 
m1  a1 i→  b1 j→  c1 k→ and m2  a2 i→  b2 →j  c2 k→

 condition of complanarity
   
[b  a m1 m2 ]  0
Equation of plane
   
 r  a m1 m2   0
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
a1 b1 c1  0

a2 b2 c2

   
or [r  b m1 m2 ]  0

x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
a1 b1 c1  0

a2 b2 c2

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 72 QUIZRR

Illustration 70

Show that the lines r  (i→  →j  k→ )  (3i→  →j ) and (4i→  k→ )  (2i→  3 k→ ) are coplanar. Also, find
the plane containing these two lines.
Solution :
Given equation are

r  (i→  →j  k→ )   (3i→  →j )

and r  (4 i→  k→ )   (2i→  3k→ )
 
where a  i→  →j  k→ , m1  3i→  →j
 
and b  4i→  k→ , m2  2i→  3k→

Condition for coplanairty is  b  a m
  
1 m2   0

 
Now, b  a  3i→  →j
   
  b  a m1 m2   0
 

3 1 0
3 1 0  0

2 0 3

Therefore, Given lines are coplanar.

Equation of plane containing the given lines is
   
 r  a m1 m2   0
   
  r  a  .  m1  m2   0 (i)

i→ →j k→
 
Again, m1  m2  3 1 0  3i→  9 j→  2k→
2 0 3

Therefore, from (i) equation of plane is

 r  (i→  →j  k→)  .(3i→  9 →j  2k→)  0
 

 r .(3i→  9 →j  2k→ )  (3  9  2)  0

 r .(3i→  9 →j  2k→ )  14  0

 r.(3i→  9 →j  2k→ )  14
which is the required equation.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 73

Equation of line of intersection of 2 planes

(a) Vector Form
  
If a is the position vector of a point on line of intersection of two planes and n1 and n2 are two
normal vectors of the given plane then the equation of line of intersection is given by
   
r  a   (n1  n2 )

Logic : The line of intersection is perpendicular to the normals of both the plane. (Think over it).
 
So a vector perpendicular to both normals is  (n1  n2 ) .

(b) Cartesian form :

Let r  xi→  yj→  zk→

a  x1i→  y1 →j  z1 k→


n1  a1i→  b1 →j  c1 k→


and n2  a2 i→  b2 j→  c2 k→

Then equation is given by

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
b1 c1 c1 a1 a1 b1
b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2

Illustration 71

Find the equation of line of intersection of planes x  y  2 z  5 and x  y  z  6 .

Solution :
For finding the line of intersection of the given planes, we find a point on their line of intersection
by putting z  0 , which gives
x  y  5; 3 x  y  6
On solving these, we get
11 9
x and y  
4 4

 11 9 
Therefore, point  ,  ,0  is a point on line of intersection.
 4 4 

11 9
x y
Therefore, equation of line is 4  4 z (i)
a b c

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

74 QUIZRR
Now, since this line lies on given planes, therefore, it is perpendicular to the normals of given
planes.
Thus,
a  b  2c  0
and 3a  b  c  0
Solving them, we get

a b c
 
3 5 4
Putting the proportional values of a,b,c in (i) , we get

x  11 9
y
4  4  z
3 5 4

4 x  11 4 y  9 z
  
12 20 4

4 x  11 4 y  9 z
  
3 5 1
which is the required equation.

Image of a Point in a plane : P(x1, y1, z1)

Let P and Q be two points and let A be a plane such that

(i) line PQ is perpendicular to the plane  , and ax + by + cz + d = 0

(ii) mid-point of PQ lies on the plane  .

R
Then either of the point is the image of the
other in the plane  .
A

I mage of a Point in a give Plane : Q (x1 + ar, y1 + br, z1 + cr)

STEP-I : Write the equation of the line passing through P and normal to the given plane
as

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c

STEP-II. : Write the coordinates of image Q as ( x1  ar, y1  br, z1  cr)

STEP-III. : Find the coordinates of the mid-point R of PQ.
STEP-IV. : Obtain the value of r by putting the coordinates of R in the equation of the plane.
STEP-V : Put the value of r in the coordinate of Q.

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 75

Illustration 72

a b c
Does    0 represent a pair of planes ?
x  y yz z x
Solution :
a b x
Givenequation is   0
x y y z z x

or a ( y  z)( z  x)  b( x  y)( z  x)  c( x  y)( y  z)  0

or  az2  ayz  axy  axz  bx2  bzx  bxy  byz  cy2  cxy  czx  cyz  0

or bx2  cy2  ax2  (b  c  a) xy  ( c  a  b) yz  ( a  b  c) zx  0

The value of determinant

1 1
b  (b  c  a)  ( a  b  c)
2 2
1 1
 (b  c  a) c  ( c  a  b)
2 2
1 1
 ( a  b  c)  ( c  a  b) a
2 2

0 0 0
1 1
  (b  c  a) c  ( c  a  b)
2 2  R1  R1  R2  R3   0
1 1
 ( a  b  c)  ( c  a  b) a
2 2

Hence the given equation represents a pair of planes.

Illustration 73

Findthe image of the point (1, 2, 3) in the plane x  2 y  4 z  38 .

Solution :
Equation of line through (1,2,3)and perpendicular to the plane x  2 y  4 z  38 is

x 1 y 2 z  3
 
1 2 4

Any point on this line is

(1  , 2  2 ,3  4 ) ...(i)

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76 QUIZRR

If this point is D, the foot of perpeneicular, then it must lie on plane x  2 y  4 z  38

 (1   )  2(2  2)  4(3  4)  38

 1    4  4  12  16   38

 21  21    1
Therefore, coordinates of D from (i) are (2,4,7)

Let A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the image of A, A (1, 2, 3)

then D is mid-point of AA .

1  x1
 2  x1  3
2
D
2  y1
4  y1  6 x + 2y + 4x = 38
2

3  z1
7  z1  11
2 A´ (x1, y1, z1)

Therefore, image of A(1,2,3) is A(3,6,11) .

Illustration 74
Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from the point (2,3,7) to the plane
3 x  y  z  7 . Also, find the length of the perpendicular and equation of perpendicular.
Solution :
Let A(2,3,7) and D be the foot of perpendicular from A to the plane 3 x  y  z  7 .

Line through A and D passes through (2,3,7) and is perpendicualr to 3 x  y  z  7 , therefore its
equation is

x2 y3 z7

 
3 1 1

any point of this line is

(2  3 , 3   ,7   ) ..(i)
if this point is D, i.e., foot of perpendicular, then it must lie on plane
3x  y  z  7

 3(2  3 )  (3  )  (7   )  7
 6  9  3    7    7

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

 QUIZRR 77

 11  11    1 A (2, 3, 4)

 From (i), foot of perpendicular is (5,2,6).

Length of perpendicular

(5  2)2  (2  3)2  (6  7)2  9  1  1  11

D
and equation of perpendicular is

x2 y3 z7 3x y z =7

 
3 1 1

THREE DIMENTIONAL GEOMETRY

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 3

INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS
Scalars Vs. Vectors :Physical quantities are divided into 2 ategories
(a) Scalar
(b) Vectors

Scalars : The quantities which have only magnitude and which are not related to any fixed
direction in space.
ex. distance.

Vectors : The quantities which have both

(i) magnitude &
(ii) direction
ex. displacement.
Note : Scalars are just real numbers & hence are added, subtracted, multiplied etc. like numbers.

Representation & Notation of Vectors

Q
  
The vectors are generally denoted as a, b, c etc. Geometrically vectors are
nothing but a directed line segment.

So vector for the given line is PQ , where P is the initial point & Q is the
ending point or tip.
P
M agnit ud e of a vect or :

The modulus / magnitude of a vector is the measure of its length and is denoted by a for a vector

a . It is also written as simply a .

Types of Vector :

(i) Zero Vector : It is nothing but a vector with magnitude zero. Denoted by 0 and geometrically
it just represents a point.
(ii) Unit Vector : It is a vector whose magnitude is unity. i.e.

a 1

It is denoted by a→ (i.e. a cap)

Important : If a is a vector whose magnitude is a, then the unit vector in direction of a is

a→ & is obtained by

a
a→ 
a

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 4 QUIZRR

Note : Any two unit vectors a→ & b→ should not be taken to equal as you never know about
their direction & for vectorÊs to be equal, both direction & magnitude should be equal.
(iii) Negative Vector : If a be a vector, then -a is a negative vector, whose magnitude is equal
to that of a but has opposite direction.

a a
 

a  a

(iv) Equal Vectors : Two vectors are equal if and only if, both their direction
 
and magnitude is equal. Here a & b areparallel & a  b

a

b
(v) Like & Unlike Vectors : Two vectors are said to be like if they have same direction (not
necessarily same magnitude). & unlike, if they have opposite directions.

ALGEBRA OF VECTORS
(I) Addition of Vectors:
Parallologram Law of Addition : If two vectors lie along 2 adjacent sides of a parallelogram
then the diagonal through the common vertex represent their sum
i.e. s  a b

a s b

a
Triangle Law of addition :
C
If 2 vectors are represented as 2 sides of a triangle taken in order,
then their sum is represented by thrid side taken in reverse order.
c
 c  a b
b
These 2 laws can be extended to any polygon for example
A a B
here f  a  b  c  d  e e d

f c

a b
VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 5

Pr op er t ies of ad d it ion of vect or s :

1. Vector addition is commutative i.e. a  b  b  a

2. Vector addition is associative i.e. a  (b  c )  ( a  b )  c

3. a b  a  b

and equality lies when both vectors have same direction,

a b
 
i.e. 
a b

(II) Sub t r act ion of Vect or s :

We will work this out from addition law only, we know a  b i.e.
b
If a  b has to be found, we write + b
a

a  b  a  ( b )
a
–b
which is nothing but negative vector of b , i.e. it has the same
magnitude but just the direction has changed as shown in the diagram. a –b

So by triangle law the third side becomes a  b .

Property :

1. a  b  ab

(III) Multiplication of a vector by a scalar :

If we multiply any vector with any scalar, then following cases can occur.
Taking a as vector quantity & k as scalar
1. If k  0 , then ka represents a vector whose direction is same as that of a but with a
magnitude k times a.
2. If k  0 , then ka represents a vector opposite in direction having magnitude k times that
of a .

Properties of multiplication

1. k(a)  (k)a  (ka) 2. (k)(a)  ka

3. k(ma)  kma 4. ( p  q)a  pa  qa

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 6 QUIZRR

Illustration 1

If the vector a and b represent two adjacent sides of a regular hexagon, express the other

sides as vectors in terms of a and b .

Solution :
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. D
 
Let FA  a and AB  a
     E C
FB  FA  AB  a  b
   
FC  2b ( FC is parallel to AB and lengthwise doubled
which is the property of regular hexagon)
F B
       
 BC  FC  FB  2b  a  b  b  a
 
 a b
     
CD   a; DE  b; EF  a  b A

Illustration 2
Prove that the sum of three vectors determined by the medians of a triangle directed from
the vertices is zero.
Solution :
ABC is the triangle and AD is the median through A. If AD be produced to a length DE  AD ,
then ACEB is a parallelogram.
Hence by the parallelogram law of addition of two vectors,
   
AB  AC  AE  2. AD
Similarly
      A
BA  BC  2 BE and CB  CA  2 CF

Adding, we have F E
       

AB  AC  BC  CB  CA  2 AD  BE  CF  D
B C
But the L.H.S. is such that
   
AB  BA  AB  AB  0 .
Similarly, the other two pairs also become zero. Hence
   
AD  BE  CF  0 E

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 3
    
Five forces represented by AB, AC , AD , AE and AF actat the vertex A of a regular hexagon

ABCDEF. Prove that their resultant is a force represented by 6 AO , where O is the centre
of the hexagon.
Solution. E D
    
AB  AC  AD  AE  AF
    
 ED  AC  AD  AE  CD
     F C
 AC  CD  AE  ED  AD O
   
 AD  AD  AD  3 AD

 6 AO
A B
This is the resultant required.

Illustration 4
   
If G be the centroid of a triangle ABC, show that GA  GB  GC  0 ; and conversely, if
   
GA  GB  GC  0 , then G is the centroid of the triangle ABC.
Solution :
Necessary part.
Take G as the centroid .
Let the parallelogram GCFB be completed. A
  
GB  GC  GF (parallelogram law of addition of vectors)

 2GD
H E
  
 GA ( GA is oppositely directed to GD and lengthwise doubled) G
as G divides AD in the ratio 2 : 1
  
 GA  GB  GC  0 . B C
D
Now for the second part
 F
Let G be joined to the midpoint D of BC and produced to F
   
GC  GB  GF  2GD
 
 2GD  GA  0 ...(i)
 
This means that GD and GA have the same directions. Already GD is the join of G to the
midpoint of BC. Hence, AGD is a continuous line. So AD is the median. From (i), it is also seen
AG 2
that  . G is the point of trisection of the median. Hence G is the centroid.
GD 1
VECTOR ALGEBRA
 8 QUIZRR
POSITION VECTOR OF A POINT

If O be fixed origin & P be any point then vector OP is called

the position vector of point P. P(x, y, z)
i.e. OP  xi→  yj→  zk→
where x, y, z are real (scalar) numbers & are X , Y, Z components O
of vector p .
So other representation is

p  p x i→  p y →j  p z k→

To find AB :
We have to find AB , given that position vectors of A & B are a & b respectively.

i.e. OA  a
B
OB  b
in OAB OA  AB  OB A
putting values
 AB  OB  OA
O
ba

TIP to remember

AB = (position vector of head) (position vector of tail)

also if a  axi→  a y →j  a2 k→ and b  bxi→  by →j  bz k→

then AB  (bx  ax )i→  (by  a y ) →j  (bz  a z )k→

Illustration 5
     
The position vectors of point A,B,C,D are a , b , 2a  3b and a  2b respectively. Show that
     
DB  3b  a and AC  a  3b
Solution :
We have,

DB = Position vector of B - Positionvector of D
    
 b  (a  2b)  3b  a

and AC = Position vector of C - Position vector of A
    
 (2a  3b)  a  a  3b .

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 9

Illustration 6
  
Let ABCD be a parallelogram. If a , b , c be the position vector of A,B,C respected with
reference to the origin O, find the position vector of D with reference to O.
Solution :
    
We have OA  a, OB  b and OC  c . Let a be the position vector of D.
 
Since opposite sides of a parallelogram areparallel and equal. D(d) C(c)
 
 AB  DC  P.V. of B - P.V. of A = P.V. of C - P.V. of D
  
 b  a  c  d
   
 d  c  ab

Hence, the position vector of D is (c  a  b) .  
A(a) B(b)

SECTION FORMULA
B
(i) I nt er nal Division

 b n
Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b respectively, and

let C be a point dividing AB internally in the ratio m : n. Then the c C
o
position vector of C is given by m

 a
 mb  na
OC 
mn A

Remark : If C is the mid point of AB, then it divides AB in the ratio 1:1. Therefore, position vector
of C is
   
1.a  1.b a  b
 .
11 2

1  
Thus, the position vector of the mid point of AB is (a  b ) .
2

(ii) E xt er nal Division


Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b respectively and let C be a point dividing
AB externally in the ratio m:n, Then the position vector of C is given by

 mb  na
OC 
mn

VECTOR ALGEBRA
10 QUIZRR

Illustration 7
   
Find the position vector of the point which divide the joint of points 2a  3b and 3 a  2b
internally and externally in the ratio 2 : 3.
Solution :
 
Let A and B be the given points with position vectors 2a  3b and 3a  2b respectively. Let P and
Q be the points dividing AB in the ratio 2 : 3 internally and externally respectively. Then,

   
3(2a  3b)  2(3a  2b)
Position vector of P 
32

 
12 a 13b
 
5 5

   
3(2a  3b)  2(3 a  2b) 
Position vector of Q   5b
32

Illustration 8
  
Let a , b , c be the position vectors of three distinct points A,B,C. If there exists scalar x,y,z
   
(not all zero) such that xa  yb  zc  0 and x  y  z  0 , then show that A,B and C lie on a
line.
Solution :
It is given that x, y, z are not all all zero. So, let z be non-zero.
Then
   
xa  yb  zc  0

 
    ( xa  yb)
 zc  ( xa  yb)  c
z

 
 xa  yb
 c [ x  y  z  0  z  ( x  y) ]
x y

This shows that the point C divides the line joining the points A and B in the ratio y : x. hence,
A, B and C lie on the same line.

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 11

SOME USEFUL RESULTS

A set of three mutually perpendicular axes OX, OY, OZ along which unit vectors are respectively
i→, →j, k→ constitute a reference frame. If a point P is represented in its position by the ordered triplet

( x, y, z) then the vector OP  xi→  yj→  zk→ represents the position vector of P with respect to the
origin O. Therefore A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) can be represented uniquely by its position vector drawn from O

to A so that OA  x1i→  y1 →j  z1 k→ , where ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) are the coordinates of A.

A number of useful results, analog hous to what are available in coordinate Geometry, (or in
complex number theory) is available in vector also.

Thus, if b and a are the position vector of A and B, then the midpoint of AB has position vector
 
ab
.
2
 
More generally a point P dividing the joint of a and b in the ratio m : n has position vector
 
mb  na
.
mn
We also have the following :
  
If a, b, c are the position vectors of the vertices of a triangle ABC, then
  
abc
(i) The centroid of the triangle has position vector .
3
  
(ii) If a, b, c are position vectors of vertices of an equilateral trinagle, whose orthocentre is at
   
origin, then a  b  c  0 ?
  
( a sec A) a  (b sec B)b  (c sec C) c
(iii) The orthocentre O, the triangle has position vector Ê
a sec A  b sec B  c sec C
(a,b,c are the sides and A,B,C are the angles of the triangle.)
  
sin 2 Aa  sin 2 Bb  sin 2Cc
(iv) The circumcentre S of the triangle has position vector .
sin 2 A  sin 2 B  sin 2C
   
(v) Further, if OA  a; OB  b ,
  
AB  OB  OA

Specially if a  x1i→  y1 j  z1 k→ so that is ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and

b  x2 i→  y2 j→  z2 k→ so that B is ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) then
 
 a  b  AB  ( x2  x1 )i→  ( y2  y1 ) →j  ( z2  z1 ) k→
 
and hence b  a  ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 )2

which gives relatively the distance between A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) .

VECTOR ALGEBRA
12 QUIZRR

Illustration 9
Prove that the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent. Also find the
position vector of incentre.
Solution :
Let the triangle be ABC with sides of length BC  a; CA  b; AB  c

Let A,B,C with respect to an origin O have position vector a , b, c .

BD c
If AD be the internal bisector of A , by the bisector theorem  and hence D divides the
DC b
 
cc  bb
join of B and C in the ratio c : b. Position vector of D is . Consider a point l on AD such
cb

 
(cc  bb) 
Al b  c (b  c)  aa
that  so that l has position vector b c
ID a a b c

  
aa  bb  cc
This simplifies to .
a  b c

The symmetry of this result indicates that this point also lies on the other two internal bisectors
of angles B and C. Hence these bisectors have a common point in I, i.e. they are concurrent at
I whose position vector is
  
aa  bb  cc
a  b c

Illustration 1 0
D, E and F are the middle points of the sides BC, CA, and AB respectively of a triangle ABC.
 2  1 
Three concurrent forces are reprsented by AD , BE and CF . Show that their resultant
3 3
1 
is represented by AC .
2
Solution :
The medians intersect at G

2   1  

BE  BG; CF  GF
3 3

2  1     

BE  CF  BG  GF  BF  FA
3 3

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 13
A
2  1    
 BE  CF  AD  FA  AD
3 3

 FD
F E
1 
 AC
2 G

Since FD is parallel to AC and is of half the length.

B D C
Illustration 1 1

The velocity of a boat relative to water is 3i→  4 j→ and that of water relative to Earth is

i→  3 →j . Find the velocity of the boat relative to the Earth if i→ and →j represent velocities of
1km per hour East and North respectively.
Solution :

Velocity of boat (u) = velocity of water + velocity of boat relative to water

 i→  3 →j  3i→  4 →j  4i→  →j

 1  1 
Magnitude of u is 16  1  17 kmph in a direction tan  4  North of East.
 

L iner C omb inat ion of Vect or s

If a vector r can be represented as r  xa  yb  zc where a, b & c are vectors & x, y & z are

scalars, then r is a linear cobination of vectors a, b & c .

Linearly dipendent & independent system :
1. A System of vectors a1 a2 a3 ... an is said to be linearly dependent if there exists a system
of scalars 1 2 3 ... n such that

1 a1 + 2 a2 ... n an = 0

where all 1  n are not zero at the same time

C ollienar & C omp lanar it y

1. Collinearity
Collinear Vectors : Two vectors a & b are collinear if they are on same or parallel lines

a a

i.e. a b
b b

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 14 QUIZRR

Thus, if a, b are 2 collinear vectors then a   b or b   a for some scalar  .

Also, if 2 vectors a & b are non-collinear and x & y are scalars such that

xa  yb  0, then  x  y  0
To Prove that 3 points are collinear, we form 2 vectors out of them & then prove these
vectors to be collinear.
for example, if A, B &C are 3 points, we form 2 vectors AB & BC & now will prove then
collinear.
If 2 points are non-collinear then if
pa  qb  xa  yb  p  x & q  y
Note : 2 vectors are always co-planar.

C ollinear it y of 3 p oint s

1. To prove 3 points with position vectors a, b & c respectively :

a, b & c are collinear if there exists scalars x, y, z not all zero such that

xa  yb  zc  0 where x  yz  0.

COPLANARITY :
C op lanar Vect or s :
A set of vectors is said to be coplanar, if they lie in same plane. As already stated any two vectors
will constitute a plane.

(I) Method to prove 3 vectors to be coplanar :

Three vectors a , b , c will be coplanar if one of them can be expressed as linear combination of the
remaining two vectors.

i.e. c  b  c (where  &  are scalar)

(II) Method to prove 4 points to be coplanar :

Method-1 : To prove that 4 points A,B,C,D are coplanar, make 3 vectors AB, AC & AD &
prove them to be coplanar by above method.

Method-2 : Given that position vectors of 4 points are a, b , c & d respectively, then these
points are coplanar if

(i) xa  yb  zc  wd  0 , &

(ii) x  y  z  w  0

where x, y, z & w are not all zero at the same time.

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 15

Illustration 1 2
Prive that Any three non-coplanar vectors are linearly independent.
Solution :
      
Let a, b, c be three non-coplanar vector and let xa  yb  zc  0 for some scalar x, y, z . In order
  
to prove that a, b, c are linearly independent we must show that x  y  z  0 .
If possible, let x  0 . Then

      y   z
xa  yb  zc  0  a     b     c [ x  0 ]
 x  x
  
 a lies in the plane of b and c
  
 a, b, c are coplanar vectors.
This is a contradiction. So x  0 . Similarly, we can show that y  z  0 .

Hence, a , b, c are linearly independent vectors.

Note : Since i→, →j, k→ are non-coplanar vectors, therefore i→, →j, k→ are linearly independent unit
vectors.

Illustration 1 3
Any four vectors in 3-dimensional space are linearly dependent.
Solution :
   
Let a, b, c, d be four vectors in 3-dimensional space. Two cases arises.

Case-1 When a , b, c are coplanar vectors.

In this case, a , b, c are coplanar
  
 there exist ascalars x, y such that a  xb  yc
        
 a  ( x)b  ( y) c  0  a  ( x)b  ( y) c  0 d  0
   
 x1 a  x2 b  x3 c  x4 d  0 , where x1  1, x2   x, x3   y and x4  0 .
    [ x1  1  0 ]
 a, b, c, d are linearly dependent vectors

Case-2 When a , b, c are co-planar vectors
In this case
   
a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors and d is any vector in space
 there exists scalar x, y, z such that d  xa  yb  zc

 xa  yb  zc  (1) d  0
 xa  yb  zc   d  0
where (   1) which is nothing but condition of coplanarity.

VECTOR ALGEBRA
16 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 4
        
Prove that the points 2a  b  c , 5a  b  2 c and 8 a  3b  5 c are collinear.

Solution :
Let x, y, z be scalars such that
         
x(2 a  b  c )  y(5 a  b  2c )  z(8 a  3b  5c )  0

 2 x  5 y  8 z  0 , x  y  3 z  0 and  x  2 y  5 z  0

 2 x  5 y  8 z  0 , x  y  3 z  0 and  x  2 y  5 z  0
Solving first two of these equation by cross-multiplication, we get

x y z x y z
  or     ( say)
7 14 7 1 2 1

 x   , y  2 and z  

These values of x, y, z satisfy the third eqaution and x  y  z  0 . Hence, the given points are
collinear.

Illustration 1 5
        
Show that the points with position vectors a  2b  3 c ,  2a  3b  c and 4a  7b  7 c are collinear.

Solution :
        
Let P,Q,R be the points with position vectors a  2b  3c ,  2 a  3b  c and 4 a  7b  7 c respectively.

Then,

PQ = P.V. of Q - P.V. of P
     
 (2a  3b  c)  (a  2b  3c)
  
 3a  5b  4 c
and

QR = P.V. of R - P.V. of Q
     
 (4 a  7b  7c)  (2a  3b  c)
  
 6 a  10b  8 c
   
Clearly, QR  2 PQ . This shows that PQ and QR are parallel vectors. But Q is a point common
 
to them. So, PQ and QR are collinear. Hence, point P, Q and R are collinear.

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 17

Illustration 1 6
       
Show that the points with position vectors a  2b  3 c ,  2a  3b  2 c and 8 a  13b are
collinear whatever be a , b, c
Solution :
Let P, Q, R be the points with position vector

a  2b  3c ,  2a  3b  2c and 8 a  13b respectively, Then


PQ = Position vector of Q - Position vector of P
     
 (2a  3b  2c)  (a  2b  3c)
  
 3a  5b  c (i)

and QR = Position vector of R - Position vector of Q
    
 (8a  13b)  (2a  3b  2c)
  
 6 a  10b  2c
  
 2(3a  5b  c ) (ii)
 
From (i) and (ii), we have QR  2 PQ .
  
This shows that PQ and QR are parallel vectors. But Q is a point common to them. So, PQ and

QR are collinear. Hence, P, Q and R are collinear points.

Illustration 1 7
 
If the vectors a and b represent two adjacent sides of a regular hexagon. How many sets
of collinear vectors can be found, from the sides of hexagon ?
Solution :
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.
   
Let FA  a and AB  b
    
FB  FA  AB  a  b
   
FC  2b ( FC is parallel to AB and lengthwise doubled)
       
 BC  FC  FB  2b  a  b  b  a
      
CD   a; DE  b; EF  a  b .
Thus three sets can be found as :
    
AB and DE; BC and EF ; CD and FA .

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 18 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 8
        
Examine whether 3a  7b  4c ; 3a  2b  c ; a  b  2 c are coplanar.

Solution :
   
Let p  3 a  7b  4 c

   
q  3a  2b  c

   
r  a  b  2c
           
Consider p  2 q  3r  3 a  7b  4 c  2(3a  2b  c )  3(a  b  2c )

  
 a(3  6  3)  b(7  4  3)  c (4  2  6)  0
  
 p, q, r are coplanar.

Illustration 1 9
        
Show that the vectors 2a  b  3c , a  b  2 c and a  b  3 c are non-coplanar vectors.

Solution :
Let, if possible, the given vectors be coplanar.
Then one of the given vectors is expressible in terms of the other two.
        
Let 2a  b  3c  x(a  b  2 c )  y(a  b  3c ) , for some scalar x and y

     
 2a  b  3c  ( x  y) a  ( x  y)b  (2 x  3 y) c

 2  x  y,  1  x  y and 3  2 x  3 y .

Solving, first and third of these equations, we get x  9 and y  7 . Clearly, these value do not
satisfy the third equation.
Hence, the given vectors are not coplanar.

Illustration 20
         
Prove that four points 2a  3b  c , a  2b  3c , 3a  4 b  2c and a  6b  6 c are coplanar.

Solution :
Let the given four points be P,Q,R and S respectively. These points are coplanar if the vectors
  
PQ, PR and PS are coplanar. These vectors are coplanar iff one of them can be expressed as a
linear combination of other two. So, let

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 19
  
PQ  xPR  yPS

        
  a  5b  4 c  x(a  b  c )  y( a  9b  7 c )

     
  a  5b  4 c  ( x  y) a  ( x  9 y)b  ( x  7 y) c

 x  y  1, x  9 y  5,  x  7 y  4

1 1
Solving the first of these three equations, we get x   , y  . These values also satisfy the third
2 2
equation. Hence the given four points are coplanar.

MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS
b
Scalar Pr od uct / Dot Pr od uct
It is represented as follows, a.b (ÂaÊ dot ÂbÊ) & its value is
a.b = |a| |b| cos 

where  is is the angle between the vectors a and b

Geometrical Interpretation : a

Geometrically it represents the „product of a vector with projection of a vector on the other.‰
So according to the above statement
a.b = a (projection of b on a)
or = b (projection of a on b)
a.b = a b cos 
= a (cos ) b
B
now OL = projection of b on a
= b cos 
& hence the result.

A
a.b O L a
 projection OL = a


a
 a.b 

, in vector =  
OL  a2 
 

Properties of Scalar product

(a) Commutative : i.e. a.b = b.a = ab cos 
(b) Distributive : a. (b + c) = a.b + a.c

VECTOR ALGEBRA
20 QUIZRR
 
(c) If a . b  0  |a| |b| cos  = 0 and |a|, |b|  0
i.e. cos  = 0   = /2 or the two vectors are perpendicular to each other.
So for two perpendicular vectors, a.b = 0
  2
(d) a. a  a
 
as this can be written as a . a  a a cos0
  
 ma  .  n b    mn   a . b 

(e)

(f) Orthonormal Trials

i→, →j & k→ are known as orthonormal trials as all the 3 are normal to each other.

so i→ . j→  j→ . k→  k→ . i→  0

i→ . i→  j→ . →j  k→ . k→  1
(g) angle between 2 vectors

if a  a1 i→  a2 →j  a3 k→

b  b1 i→  b2 →j  b3 k→
then a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
i.e. multiply the coefficients of same unit vectors i→ with i→ , like this & angle between the
vectors is given by

a1 b1  a2 b2  a3 b3
cos  = a b

a1 b1  a2 b2  a3 b3
=
a12  a22  a32 b12  b22  b32

(i) Components of a vector along and perpendicular to other vector


component of b along a

 
 a.b  B
= OL =    a
 a 
 b
component of b perpendicular to a = BL

 
  a . b  A
= b a O L a
 a 2 
 

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 21

Illustration 21
 
Find the value of  for which a  i→  2 j→  k→ and b  4i→  9 j→  2 k→ are perpendicular.

Solution :
 
If a  b , then
 
a.b  0

 ( i→  2 →j  2k→ ).(4 i→  9 →j  2k→ )  0

 4  18  2  0
 4  16  0

 4  16    4 .

Illustration 22

If i→  j→  k→ , 2i→  5 j→ , 3i→  2 →j  3 k→ and i→  6 →j  k→ are position vectors of the points A, B, C and D

 
respectively, then find the angle between the vectors AB and CD .
Solution :
If O is the origin, then
 
OA  i→  →j  k→, OB  2i→  5 →j
 
OC  3i→  2 →j  3k→ and OD  i→  6 →j  k→
  
Now, AB  OB  OA  (2i→  5 j→)  (i→  j→  k→ )  i→  4 →j  k→
  
and CD  OD  OC  (i→  6 j  k→ )  (3i→  2 j  3k→ )  2i→  8 →j  2k→
 
If  is the angle between AB and CD , then

 
AB.CD
cos    
AB CD

(i→  4 →j  k→ ).(2i→  8 →j  2 k→ )

(1)2  (4)2  (1)2 (2)2  (8)2  (2)2

2  32  2 36 36 36 36

      1
1  16  1 4  64  4 18 72 18 2 18 18  2 36

 cos  1     .

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 22 QUIZRR

Illustration 23

Dot product of a vector with vectors 3i→  5 k→ , 2i→  7 →j and i→  →j  k→ are respectively 1, 6 and 5.
Find the vectors.
Solution :

Let a  3i→  5 k→
 
b  2i→  7 j→ and c  i→  →j  k→


r  xi→  yj→  zk→ be the required vectors, then

r . a  1

 ( xi→  yj→  zk→ ).(3i→  5k→ )  1

 3 x  5 z  1 ...(i)

r .b  6

 ( xi→  yj→  zk→ ).(2i→  7 j→)  6

 2x  7 y  6 ...(ii)

r.c  5

 ( xi→  yj→  zk→ ).(i→  →j  k→ )  5

 x y z  5 ...(iii)
Solving (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
x  3, y  0 and z  2

 r  3i→  k→

Illustration 24

 
Find the value of  for which projection of a  i→  →j  4 k→ on b  2i→  6 j→  3 k→ is 4 units.

Solution :

a.b
 
Projection of a on b is b .


a.b  ( i→  →j  4 k).(2i→  6 →j  3k→ )

 2  6  12  2  18

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 23


b  (2)2  (6)2  (3)2  4  36  9  49  7


a.b
4
Now, b

2  18
 4
7

 2  18  28
 2  10    5 .

Illustration 25
 
If a  4i→  2 j→  k→ and b  i→  j→  3 k→ , then find

   
(i) projection of a on b (ii) projection of b on a .

Solution :

(i) Projection of a on b


a.b
 
b


a.b  (4i→  2 →j  k→ ).(i→  →j  3k→ )

 423  5

b  (1)2  (1)2  (3)2  1  1  9  11


  a.b 5
Projection of a on b   
b 11


(ii) Projection of b on a

a.b
 
a


a  (4)2  (2)3  (1)2  16  4  1  21

 
 a.b 5
Projecton of b on a    .
a 21

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 24 QUIZRR

Illustration 26

 
If a  i→  →j  k→ and b  2i→  →j  3 k→ , then find
 
(i) component of b along a .
 
(ii) component of b perpendicular to a .
Solution :

  a.b  
(i) 
Component of b along a is   2  a
 a 
 

a.b  (i→  →j  k→ ).(2i→  →j  3k→ )  2  1  3  4

2
a  (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  3


a.b 4
 2  3
a

 a.b   4  4
  a  a  (i→  j→  k→ )  4 i→  4 →j  4 k→
  a 2  3 3
  3 3 3


    a.b  
(ii) Component of b perpendicular to a is b     a
 a2 
 

4 4 4 
 (2i→  →j  3k→ )   i→  →j  k→ 
3 3 3 

 4  4  4
  2   i→   1   →j   3   k→
 3   3   3

2→ 7 → 5 →
 i  j k
3 3 3

Illustration 27
    
If a is any vector then prove that a  (a .i→ )i→  (a . j→ ) j→  (a . k→ )k→

Solution :

Let a  a1 i→  a2 j→  a3 k→ then,

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 25


a.i→  ( a1i→  a2 →j  a3 k→ ).i→

 a1 (i→.i→)  a2 ( →j.i→ )  a3 (k→.i→ )  a1

 
Similarly, a. j→  a2 and a.k→  a3

  
Now, ( a.i→)i→  ( a. j→) j→  ( a.k→ ) k→


 a1 i→  a2 →j  a3 k→  a

   
Thus, a  ( a.i→ )i→  ( a. →j ) →j  ( a.k→ ) k→

This is an important question, so remember it, as this result will be used ahead also.

Illustration 28

   2 2
Prove that (a .b )2  a b .

Solution :

  
 
2
( a.b)2  a b cos

2 2  
 a b cos2  where  is the angle between a and b

Now, 1  cos   1

 0  cos2   1

 2 2
 ( a.b) 2  a b cos2 

2 2  cos2   1
 a b  

 2 2
Thus, ( a.b) 2  a b .

Illustration 29

If a→ and b→ are two unit vectors and  is angle between them, then prove that.

 1
(i) sin  a→  b→
2 2

 1
(ii) cos  a→  b→
2 2

VECTOR ALGEBRA
26 QUIZRR
Solution :

2
(i) a→  b→  ( a→  b→ )2

 a→ 2  b→ 2  2 a→ .b→  a→ 2  b→ 2  2a→ .b→

2 2
 a→  b→  2 a→ b→ cos

where  is angle between a→ and b→

[Square of a vector is equal to square of its magnitude]

 a→  1 and b→  1
 1  1  2cos   

 2  2cos  2(1  cos )

  
 2  2sin 2   4 sin 2
 2 2

2 
 a→  b→  4 sin 2
2


 a→  b  2sin
2

 1
 sin  a→  b→
2 2

2
(ii) a→  b→  (a→  b→ )  a→ 2  b→ 2  2 a→ .b→

2 2
 a→  b→  2 a→ b→ cos

 1  1  2cos   2  2cos   2(1  cos )

  
 2  2 cos2   4 cos2
 2 2

2 
 a→  b→  4 cos2
2


 a→  b→  2 cos
2

 1
 cos  a→  b→
2 2

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 27

Illustration 30

        
If a  b  c  0 and a  3, b  5, c  7 , find the angle between a and b .

Solution :
       
abc  0 a  b  c
Squaring both sides , we get
  
(a  b)2  ( c)2
   
 a2  b2  2a.b  ( c)2

2 2   2 
 a  b  2 a b cos  c where  is angle between a and b

[ square of a vector is equal to square of itsmagnitude]

 (3)2  (5)2  2(3)(5) cos  (7)2
 9  25  30 cos  49
 30 cos   15

15 1
 cos  
30 2


 
3

Illustration 31


Find the value of  for which the angle between the vectors a  2 2 i→  4j→  k→ and

b  7i→  2 →j  k→ is obtuse.

Solution :

If  is angle between a and b , then


a.b
cos    
a b

Now,  is obtuse  cos  0


    a b  0 
a.b  0  

 (2 2 i→  4 →j  k).(7i→  2 →j   k→ )  0

 14 2  8    0

VECTOR ALGEBRA
28 QUIZRR

 14 2  7  0  7 (2  1)  0

 1 1
     0  0
 2  2

1
Thus angle between a & b is obtuse if 0    .
2

QUESTIONS ON GEOMETRY

Illustration 32

Prove by vector method, that an angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

Solution :
Let AB be the diameter and O centre of semicircle be the origin.
Let position vector of A be a and let P be any point on circumference with position vector r .
     
OA  a OB   a OP  r
 
a  r [radius of same circle]
     
Now, AP. BP  (OP  OA).(OP  OB)
P
     
  r  a  .(r  a)  r 2  a 2

2 2
 r a 
r
 
0  r  a 
  A  O  B
a –b
 AP  BP
 APB  900
Therefore, APB is a right angled triangle.

Illustration 33

Prove by vector method that in a right-angled triangle, the mid-point of the hypotenuse is
equidistant from its vertices.
Solution :
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle and D be the mid-point of hypotenuse AC
 AD  DC
To prove :
   
AB  BC  0  AB  BC 
 

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 29
   
 ( AD  DB).( BD  DC)  0
     
 ( AD  DB).( DC  DB)  0  BD   DB
 
     
 ( AD  DB).( AD  DB)  0  AD  DC 
 
 2  2 A
 AD  DB  0
 2  2
 AD  DB  0

 2  2 D
 AD  DB

 
 AD  DB

 B C
AD  DB
Thus, AD  DB  DC .

Illustration 34
Prove by vector method that the altitude of a triangle are concurrent.
Solution :
LetABC be a triangle with AD and BE as two altitudes (Figure). Let AD and BE intersect at
origin O.
Let CO meet AB at F.
  
Let a, b and c be the position vectors of points A,B and C respectively w.r.t. O.
   
Now, AD  BC  OA  BC
 
 OA.BC  0
  
 OA.(OC  OB)  0
  
 a.(c  b)  0
  
a.c  a.b  0
   ...(i)
a.c  a.b A
   
Also, BE  CA  OB  CA
E
  F
 OB.CA  0
   O
 OB.(OA  OC)  0
  
 b.(a  c)  0
 
 b.a  b.c  0
B D C
 
 b.a  b.c ...(ii)

VECTOR ALGEBRA
30 QUIZRR
From (i) and (ii), we get
 
 
a.c  b.c  a.b  b.a 
 

  
a.c  b.c  0
  
 (a  b).c  0
  
 (OA  OB).OC  0
 
 BA.OC  0
   
 BA  OC  EA  CF
 CF is also an altitude.
Thus, altitudes are concurrent.

Illustration 35
Prove by vector method that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
Solution :
Let OABC be a rhombus with O as origin and D point of intersection of diagonals OB and AC.
Let a be the position vector of A and c that of C, then
  
OB  OA  AB
   
 OA  OC  a  c
   
ac ac
Position vector of mid-point of OB is , and position vector of mid-point of AC is also .
2 2
Thus, the mid-points of diagonals OB and AC coincide. Hence the diagonals OB and AC bisect
each other.
C B
Again, OA  OC
 OA2  OC 2
 2  2

 OA  OC c
D
 2  2
 OA  OC
 2  2
 OA  OC  0 
O a A
   
 (OA  OC).(OA  OC)  0
 
 OB.CA  0
 
 OB  CA
Thus, diagonals are at right angle.
Hence, the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 31

Illustration 36
Prove cosine formulae using vectors :

b2  c 2  a 2 c 2  a 2  b2 a 2  b2  c 2
(i) cos A  (ii) cos B  (iii) cos C 
2bc 2ca 2a b

Solution :
Consider a triangle ABC such that side opposite to A represents a , side opposite to C
represents c as shown in Figure.
  
Now, a  b  c  0 [Sum of vectors represented by three sides of a triangle taken in order is zero]
  
 b  c  a
Squaring both sides , we get
  
(b  c)2  ( a)2
   
 b 2  c 2  2b.c  a 2  A A
2 2  
 b  c  2 b c cos(  A) 
 b
c
2 
 a [angle between b and c is   A ]
 C
B

 b2  c2  2bc cos A  a2  a  a   B 
a
C

 2bc cos A  b2  c2  a2

b2  c2  a 2
 cos A 
2bc

Similarly (ii) and (iii) can be proved.

Illustration 37
Prove projection formulas using vectors.

(i) a  b cos C  c cos B (ii) b  c cos A  a cos C (iii) c  a cos B  b cos A

Solution.

(i) Consider a triangle ABC such that side opposite to A represents i , side opposite to B

represents b , and side opposite to C represents c as shown in Figure.

Now, a  b  c  0 [sum of vectors represents by three sides of a triangle taken in order is zero]

VECTOR ALGEBRA
32 QUIZRR
  
 b  c  a
Taking dor product with a on both sides
 A A
   
a.(b  c )  a.a

    
a.b  a.c   a 2  b
c
   
 a b cos(  C)  a c cos(  B)  C
B
2  B 
a
C
a

  ab cos C  ac cos B   a2

 b cos C  c cos B  a
Similarly, (ii) and (iii) can be proved.

Illustration 38
Prove by vector method that

cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

Solution :
Let OP make angle A and OQ an angle B with positive direction of x-axis
and let OP  OQ  1 .

Then, POQ  A  B
Y
 .OQ
OP   OP
 OQ
 cos( A  B)
P (cos A, sin A)

  .OQ
OP   cos( A  B) ....(i)

 OP   1
  OQ
 

OM MP
Now,  cos A and  sin A A
OP OP N
X´ O B M X
MP
 OM  cos A and
OP
 sin A  OP  1
Y´
Therefore, coordinates of point P are (cos A,sin A)
Q (cos B, sin B)
Similarly, coordinates of point Q are (cos B,  sin B)

  cos Ai→  sin Aj→

OP

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 QUIZRR 33

  cos Bi→  sin Bj→

and OQ

 .OQ
OP   (cos Ai→  sin Aj→).(cos Bi→  sin Bj→ )

 cos A cos B  sin A sin B ...(ii)

From (i) and (ii), we get
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
Tehtrahedron. It is a three dimensional figure having four triangular faces. A tetrahedron in
which all edges are equal is called a regular tetrahedron.

Illustration 39
If two pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron are perpendicular, then prove using vectors
that the opposite edges of the third, pairs are also perpendicular to each other.
Solution :
Let OABC be a tetrahedron in which OA  BC and OB  AC . LetO be the origin and let the

position vectors of A, B and C be a, b and c respectively.
   
Now, OA  BC and OB  AC
   
 OA.BC  0 and OB. AC  0
  
 OA.(OC  OB)  0
  
and OB.(OC  OA)  0 O
     
 a.(c  b)  0 and b.(c  a)  0  
a c
   and
  
b
a.c  a.b  0 b.c  b.a  0

   and
  A C
a.c  a.b b.c  b.a

  
a.c  b.c

   B
a.c  b.c  0
  
 (a  b).c  0
  
  OA  OB .OC  0
 
 BA.OC  0
 
 OC  BA  OC  BA

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 34 QUIZRR
VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT
(i) Defintion : The vector product of two non-null and non parallel

>
n
vector a and b is a vector whose ab sin  ,  being the angle
between the directions of a and b and whose direction is that
of a unit vector n→ perpendicular to both a and b such that
B
a, b,n→ are in the right handed oreintation. By the right handed b
oreintation we mean that if we turn the vector a into the vector O
a C
b, then n will point in the direction in which a right-handed
screw would move if turned in the same manner. A

Thus a  b  ab sin  n→ where n→ is a unit vector perpendicular

to the plane of a and b such that a, b, n

→ form a right-handed orientation.

When a or b or both are null vector or a is parallel to b then n→ is not defined.

In this case, we agree to write a  b  0 .

GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF VECTOR PRODUCT

  
Let a, b be two non-zero, non-parallel vector represented by OA and OB respectively and let 
be the angle between them. Complete the parallelogram OBCA. Draw BL  OA .

BL 
In OBL , sin    BL  OB sin   b sin  ...(i)
OB
>

    n
Now, a  b  a b sin  n→ B C

 (OA) ( BL) n→

b
= (Base  height)n→

= (area of parallelogram OACB)n→ 

O L 
a A
= Vector area of the parallelogram OACB.
 
Thus, a  b is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the area of the parallelogram having a and b
 
as its adjacent sides and whose direction n→ is  to the plane of a and b such that a, b, n→ form

a right handed system. Hence a  b represents the vector area of the parallelogram having

adjacent sides along a and b .

Thus, area of parallelogram OACB  a  b

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 35

Also, areaof OAB  1 area of parallelogram OACB

2

1   1  
 a  b  OA  OB .
2 2

NOTE : By the term vector area of a plane figure we mean that a vector of magnitude equal to
the area of the plane figure and direction normal to the plane of the figure in the sense of right
handed rotation.

(ii) Properties :
(a) Vector Product is not commutative :
i.e. a b  b a but a b = -(b a)
(b) (ma)  b  m(a  b)  a  (mb) .
(c) if the vectors are collinear, then
ab  0    0 or 
As a conseqeunce of above a  a  0

(d) Vector product of orthonormal trial of unit vectors i→, →j, k→

Using thedefintionof thevector product, we obtain

i→  i→  →j  →j  k→  k→  0

i→  →j  k→, →j  k→  i→, k→  i→  →j

→j  i→   k→, k→  →j  i→, i→  k→   →j

(e) a  b in terms of unit vectors

Let a  a2 i  a2 j  a3 j  a  a12

b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k , b  b12

then a  b  ( a1 i  a2 j  a3 k)  (b1i  b2 j  b3 k)

or ab sin  n
→  a1 b2 i  j  a1 a3 i  k  a2 b1 j  i  a2 b3 j  k  a3 b1 k  i  a3 b2 k  j

 ( a2 b3  a3 b2 )i  (a3 b1  a1 b3 ) j  ( a1b2  a2 b1 ) k ...(1)

Above can be expressed in determinant from as

i j k
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

VECTOR ALZEBRA
36 QUIZRR
(f) Sine of the angle between a and b
From the value of a b derived above in (e) part and squaring it

a 2 b2 sin 2   ( a2 b2  a3 b2 )2

( a2 b3  a3 b2 )2
 sin 2  
a12 .b12

(g) Condition for vectors to be parallel.

In this case a  b  0 as  = 0 or  and hence from (e) the last two rows of the determinant
must have their corresponding elements proportional.

(h) Distributivity of vector product over vector addition)


Let a , b, c be any three vectors. Then
      
(i) a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c (Left distributivity)
      
(ii) (b  c )  a  b  a  c  a (Right distributivity)


(i) For any three vectors a , b, c , we have
      
a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
 
Remark : It follows from the above property that a  a  0 for every non-zero vector a

which in turn implies that i→  i→  →j  →j  k→  k→  0 .

VECTORS NORMAL TO THE PLANE OF TWO GIVEN VECTORS


Let a, b be two non-zero, non-parallel vectors and let  be the angle between them.

   
a  b  a b sin  n→
 
where n→ is a unit vector  to the plane of a and b such that a, b, n→ form a right-handed system
 
    ab
 ( a  b)  a  b n→  n→   
ab
 
ab

Thus, a  b is a unit vector  to the plane of a and b .

 
ab 
 
Note that a  b is also a unit vector  to the plane of a and b .

 
   (a  b )
A vector of magnitude '  ' normal to the plane of a and b is given by   
a b

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 37

SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS

  
1.


The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is a  b

 1  
2. The area of a triangle with adjacent sides a and b is ab .
2

1   1  

3. The area of a triangle ABC is AB  BA or CB  CA .
2 2

 1  
4. The area of a parallelogram with diagoinals a and b is ab .
2

1  
5. The area of a plane quadrilateral ABCD is AC  BD , where AC and BD are its diagonals.
2

LAGRANGE’S IDENTITY


If AC and a,b be any two vectors, then

 2 2 2 
a  b  a b  ( a.b)2

 2  2 2
or a  b  ( a.b)2  a b

Proof. We have
   
a  b  a b sin 

 2 2 2
 a  b  a b sin 2 

2 2

 a b 1  cos2  
2 2 2 2
 a b  a b cos2 

2 2  
 a b  ( a b cos  )2

2 2  
 
2
 a b  a.b

 2 2 2  
 
2
Hence, a  b  a b  a.b

 2  2 2
 a  b  (a.b)2  a b

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 38 QUIZRR

Illustration 40
  
If a , b , c are the position vectors ofthe vertices A,B,Cofa triangle ABC, show that the area
1      
of triangle ABC is a b  bc  c a .
2
  
Deduce the condition for points a , b , c to be collinear.
Solution :
1  
Area of ABC  AB  AC .
2

Now, B  Position vector of B - Position vector of A  b  a ,
  
AC = Position vector of C - Position vector of A  c  a
     
 AB  AC  (b  a)  (c  a)
       
 bc  ba ac  aa
       
 b c  ab  c c  a  0
     
 ab bc  ca
1   1      
Hence, area of ABC  AB  AC  ab  bc  c  a
2 2
If the points, A,B,C are collinear, then
Area of ABC  0
1      
 ab  b c  c a  0
2
     
 ab  b c  c  a  0

       
ab bc  ca  0
       
Thus, a  b  b  c  c  a  0 is the required condition of collinearity of three points a , b, c .

Illustration 41

   
If a  2i→  →j  k→ and b  i→  3 j→  k→ , find a  b
Solution :

i→ →j k→
 
ab  2 1 1
 (1  3)i→  (2  1) →j  (_ 6  1) k→  2i→  3 →j  7 k→
1 3 1

 
 a  b  (2)2  (3)2  (7)2  4  9  49  62 .

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 39

Illustration 42

Find a unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors i→  →j  k→ and 2i→  j→  3 k→ .

Solution :
  
Let a  i→  j→  k→, b  2i→  →j  3k→ and n→ be the unit vector perpendicular to a and b . Then

 
ab
n→   
ab

i→ →j k→
 
a  b  1 1 1
 (3  1)i→  (3  2) →j  (1  2) k→  2i→  5 →j  3k→
2 1 3

 
a  b  (2) 2  (5)2  (3)2  4  25  9  38

  2i→  5 j→  3k→ 2 → 5 → 3 →
ab   i j k
 n→   
ab 38 38 38 38

Illustration 43

Find the area ofaparallelogram whosediagonals arethe vectors 2i→  3 →j  6 k→ and 2i→  2 j→  k→

Solution :
 
Let a  2i→  3 →j  6 k→ and b  2i→  2 j  k→

1  
Then, area of parallelogram ab
2

i→ j→ k→
 
a  b  2 3 6  15i→  14 →j  2 k→
2 2 1

 
a  b  (15) 2  (14)2  (2)2  225  196  46  495  5 17

1   5
Required area = ab  17 sq. units.
2 2

VECTOR ALZEBRA
40 QUIZRR

Illustration 44

Find the area of atriangle whose vertices are (3, 1, 2), (1, 1,3) and (4, 3,1) .
Solution :
Let A(3, 1,2), B(1, 1,3) and C(4, 3,1) then
 
a  OA  3i→  j→  2k→
 
b  OB  i→  →j  3k→

 
and c  OC  4 i→  3 →j  k→

  
where a, b and c are position vectors of A,B, and C resectively.
 
Area of triangle  1 a  b  b  c  c  a
2

i→ →j k→
 
a  b  3 1 2  i→  7 →j  2 k→
1 1 3

i→ →j k→
 
b  c  1 1 3  8i→  11 j→  k→
4 3 1

i→ →j k→
 
c  a  4 3 1  5i→  5 →j  5k→
3 1 2

     
a  b  b  c  c  a  2i→  →j  4 k→

     
a  b  b  c  c  a  (2)2  (1)2  (4)2  4  1  16  21

1       1
Requiredarea = ab bc  ca  21
2 2
Second Method :

OA  3i→  →j  2k→

OB  i→  →j  3k→

OC  4i→  3 →j  k→

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 41
  
Now, AB  OB  OA

   
 i→  →j  3k→  3i→  →j  2 k→  2i→  k→

  

AC  OC  OA

 (4 i→  3 →j  k→ )  (3i→  →j  2k→ )  i→  2 →j  k→

1  
Area of triangle  AB  OA
2

i→ →j k→
 
AB  AC  2 0 1  2i→  →j  4 k→
1 2 1

 
AB  AC  (2)2  (1)2  (4)2  4  1  16  21

1   1
Required area= AB  AC  21
2 2
Note. It is convenient to use second method as it involves only one cross product.

Illustration 45
     
If a  2, b  5 and a  b  8 , find a .b .
Solution :
 
ab  8

 
 a b sin   8  (2)(5)sin   8

4 3
 sin    cos  
5 5

   3
Now, a.b  a b cos  (2)(5)    6
5
 
 a.b  6
or we could directly use lagranges identity
i.e. | a  b|2  (a.b)2 | a |2| b|2

 (a.b)2  22 .52  82  100  64  36

 a.b  6

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 42 QUIZRR

Illustration 46
  
If A<B,C bethreenon-collinear points with positon vectors a , b , c respectively, show that

     
a b  bc  ca
the length of perpendicular from C on AB is  
ba

Solution :

C(c)
Area of ABC

1  
 AB  AC
2
p
1    
 (OB  OA)  (OC  OA)
2

1      
 (b  a)  ( c  a) A(a) B(b)
2

1         1      
 b c  b a  a c  a a  b c  ab  c  a ...(i)
2 2

1
Also, Area of ABC  p( AB)
2

1  1   1  

 P AB  p OB  OA  p b  a ...(ii)
2 2 2

From (i) and (ii), we get

1   1      
p b  a  bc  ab ca
2 2

     
ab  bc  ca
 p   .
ba

Illustration 47

   
  2 a .a a .b
Prove that (a  b )      .
a .b b .b

   
 
2
Solution : ( a  b)2  a b sin  n→

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 QUIZRR 43

2 2
2 2 2
 a b sin 2  n→  a b 1  cos 
2
   n→  1

2 2 2 2    
 
2  
 a b  a b cos2   a 2 b 2  a b cos = (a.a )(b.b)  (a.b)2

  
a.a a.b
   
a.a b.b

In fact you can remember this result.

Illustration 48
               
If a  b  c  b and a  c  b  d , show that (a  d ) is parallel to (b  c ) , where a  d and b  c .
   
Solution : (a  d )  (b  c )
               
 ab ac  db  dc  ab ac  bd  cd
               
 ab  b d  b d  ab [ a  c  b  d and c  d  a  b]

0
   
 ad bc .

Illustration 49

         
Prove that a  (b  c )  b  ( c  a )  c  (a  b )  0
Solution :
        
a  (b  c)  b  (c  a)  c  (a  b)
           
 ab  a c  b c  b a  c  a  c b
            
 ab  bc  ca  ca bc  ab  0

Illustration 50

     
Prove that (a  b)  (a  b )  2a  b and intercept it geometrically.
Solution :
           
( a  b)  ( a  b)  a  a  a  b  b  a  b  b
     
 a  b  a  b  2a  b
Geometrical interpretation. Let ABCD be a parallelogram whose diagonals intersects at origin O.

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44 QUIZRR

Let positive vector of A and B be a and b respectively. Then, D C
   
OC   a and OD  b b 
Aea of parallelogram ABCD a
  O 
 AB  AD b

a
       
 (OB  OA)  (OD  OA)  (b  a)  ( b  a)
A B
             
 b  b  b  a  a  b  a  a  ab  ab  2 ab

 
= 2 (area of || gm with adjacent sides OA and OB )
Thus, the area of a given parallelogram is twice the area of another parallelogram whose
adjacent sides are the semi diagonals of the given parallelogram.

GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS

Illustration 51

Prove by vector method that the parallelograms on the same base and between the same
parallels lines are equal in area.
Solution :
Let ABCD and ABCÊDÊ be two parallelograms on the same base AB and between the same
parallels lines
  
Let AB  a and AD  b D´ D C´ C
 
Now, DD  a  
DD   a
    
 b
and AD  AD  DD  b   a
Area of parallelogram ABCD
     
 AB  AD  a  ( b   a) A a B

     
 a  b  a  a  a  b = area of ||gmABCD.

Illustration 52

If D,E,F are the mid-pointsof the sides of a triangle ABC, prove by vector method that

1
area of DEF  (area of ABC ) .
4

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 QUIZRR 45

Solution :

Let A be the origin and position vectors of B and C be b and c respctively. Then the

1  
position vector of D  (b  c )
2

1
position vector of E  c and A
2

1
position vector of F  b.
2
 F E
Now, DE  (P.V. of E) - (P.V. of D)

1 1   1
 c  (b  c )   b
2 2 2
 B D C
and DF  (P.V. of F )  (P.V. of D)

1 1   1
 b  (b  c )   c
2 2 2

1   1 1  1
area of DEF  DE  DF   b   c
2 2 2 2

1 1   11    11   
 (b  c )   b  c    b  c 
2 4 24  42 

1  1    1
 AB  AC    area of ABC 
4  2  4

Illustration 53

a b c
Prove sine formula vectors   .
sin A sin B sin C

Solution :
Consider a triangle ABC such that side opposite to A represents a , side opposite to B represents
 
b and side opposite to c represents c as shown in Figure

Now, a  b  c  0  A
A

   
a  b  c 
b
     
c
 (a  b)  b   c  b

        C
a  b  b  b  c  b B
 B 
a C

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46 QUIZRR

    
ab  b c

   
 a b sin(  C)n→  b c sin(  A) n→

 
 absin Cn→  bc sin An→ [ a  a and b  b ]

 ab sin C  bc sin A [if two vectors are equal then their magnitudes are equal]

 a sin C  c sin A

a c
 
sin A sin C

a b c
Similarly,  
sin A sin B sin C

Illustration 54

Prove by vector method that sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

Solution :
Y P (cos A, sin A)
Let OP make an angle A and OQ make an angle B
with positive direction of x-axis as shown in Figure
and let OP  OQ  1 Q (cos B, sin B)

Then, POQ  A  B

  OP
  OQ
 OP
 sin( A  B) k→ A B
OQ
X´ O M N X
   OP
OQ   sin( A  B)k→ Y´

  OP
OQ   sin( A  B)
 ...(i)

OM MP
Now,  cos A and  sin A
OP OP
 OM  cos A and MP  sin A [  OP  1 ]

 Coordinates of point P are (cos A,sin A) .

Similarly, coordinates of point Q are (cos B,sin B) .

  cos Ai→  sin Aj→

OP

  cos Bi→  sin Bj→

and OQ

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i→ →j k→
  OP
OQ   cos B sin B 0
cos A sin A 0

 0i→  0 j→  (sin A cos B  cos A sin B) k→

 (sin A cos B  cos A sin B) k→

  OP
OQ   sin A cos B  cos A sin B
 ...(ii)

From (i) and (ii)

sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B .

TRIPLE PRODUCTS
   
Let a, b, c be three vectors. By increasing dot and cross between a , b, c in the same alphabetical
order we intriduce the following products :
         
( a.b).c, ( a.b)  c, ( a  b).c and (a  b)  c
 
Consider the product (a.b).c . Since a.b is a scalar quantitity and dot product is defined between
  
 
two vector quantities, therefore the product a.b .c is not meaningful.
 
Similarly, (a.b)  c is not meaningful.
    
But (a  b).c is meaningful, because a  b is a vector and its dot product with c i.e. (a  b).c is
  
a scalar quantity. This product is known as the scalar triple product of a, b, c .
     
The product (a  b)  c is also meaningful, because a  b is a vector and its cross-product with c ,
     
i.e. (a  b)  c is also a vector. This product is known as the vector triple product of a, b, c .

SCACAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS

   
Defintion : Let a , b, c be three vectors. Then the scalar (a  b).c is called the scalar triple
 
productof a, b and c and is denoted by [ a b c ] .

    
Thus, [a b c ]  (a  b ). c

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48 QUIZRR
Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product
  
Let a, b, c be three vectors. Consider a parallelopiped having coterminous edges OA, OB and OC
     
such that OA  a, OB  b and OC  c . Then a  b is a vector perpendicular to the plane of
      
a and b . Let  be the angle between c and a  b . If n→ is a unit vector along a  b , then  is also

the angle between n→ and c .
    
Now, [ a b c ]  ( a  b).c
C F
L
= ( Area of the parallelogram OADB) n→ .c

c

= ( Area of the parallelogram OADB)  n→ .c 
E G
 
= ( Area of the parallelogram OADB) n→ c cos 
b
O B
 
= ( Area of the parallelogram OADB)  c cos   [ n  1 ]

a

= ( Area of the parallelogram OADB) (OL) [ OC cos   OL ]

A D
= ( Area of the base of the parallelopiped)  (height)

= Volume of the parallelopiped with coterminous edges a , b, c

 
Thus, the scalar triple product [ a b c ] represents the volume of the parallelopiped whose coterminous

edges a , b, c from a right handed system of vectors.

PROPERTIES OF SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT


1. If a , b, c are cyclically permuted the value of scalar triple product remains same.

        
i.e. (a  b).c  (b  c).a  (c  a).b
       
or [ a b c ]  [b c a ]  [ c a b ]

2. The change of cyclic order of vector in scalar triple product changes the sign of the scalar
triple product but not the magnitude.
          
i.e. [ a b c ]   [b a c ]  [ c b a ]  [ a c b ]

3. In scalar triple product the position of dot and cross can be interchanged provided that the
     
cyclic order of the vectors remains same i.e. (a  b).c  a.(b  c)
4. The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if any two of them are equal.
      
5. For any three vectors a , b, c and scalar  ,   a b c     a b c  .

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 49

6. The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if any two of them are parallel or collinear.
            
7. If a b c d are four vectors, then  a  b c d    a c d    b c d 
  
8. The necessary and sufficeint condition for three non-zero, non-collinear vectors a, b, c to be
      
coplanar is  a b c   0 i.e., a , b, c are coplanar   a b c   0 .
 
9. For points with positive vectors a , b, c and d will be coplanar if
           
[ a, b, c ]  [ d, c, a]  [ d, a, b]  [ a, b, c ]

10. Distributivity of Cross-Product Over Vector addition


For any three vectors a , b, c , we have
      
a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c .

Scalar Triple Product in terms of components

  
Let a  a1i→  a2 j→  a3 k→ , b  b1 i→  b2 j→  b3 k→ , and c  c1 i→  c2 →j  c3 k→ be three vectors. Then, we have

a1 a2 a3
 
 a b c   b1 b2 b3
  .
c1 c2 c3

Illustration 55
     
If a  2i→  3 j→  k→ , b  i→  2 j→  k→ and c  3i→  →j  2 k→ find [a b c ]
Solution :
We have
2 3 1
  
[ a b c ]  1 2 1  2(4  1)  3(2  3)  1(1  6)
3 1 2

 10  15  5  30

Illustration 56
  
If a  2i→  j→  k→ , b  i→  3 j→  k→ and c  i→  2 j→  3 k→ , find their scalar triple product.
Solution :
2 1 1
  
a b 
c   1 3 1  2(9  2)  1(3  1)  1(2  3)

1 2 3

 22  4  1  25
VECTOR ALZEBRA
 50 QUIZRR

Illustration 57

Find the value of  so that the vector i→  j→  4 k→ , 4i→  7 j→  10 k→ and 2i→  →j  2 k→ are coplnar.

Solution.
  
 
Let a  i→   →j  4 k→ , b  4 i→  7 j→  10 k→ and c  2i→  →j  2k→ . If a, b and c arecoplanar, then  a b c   0
 

1  4
4 7 10  0

2 1 2

 1(14  10)   (8  20)  4(4  14)  0

 12  36
  3

Illustration 58

Find  so that the four points with position vectors i→  3 →j  2 k→ , 3i→   →j  4 k→ , 5i→  7 →j  3 k→ and

13i→  17 j→  k→ are coplanar.

Solution :
Let O be the origin and

OA  6i→  3 →j  2k→

OB  3i→   →j  4 k→

OC  5i→  7 →j  3k→

and OD  13i→  17 →j  k→
  
If the four points A,B,C, and D are coplanar, then vector AB, AC and AD are also coplanar and
  
therefore AB AC AD  0 .

Illustration 59

        
Show that  a  b b  c c  a   2  a b c 

     
Solution :  a  b b  c c  a 

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 51

   
  
 ( a  b). (b  c )  ( c  a) 
         

 ( a  b). b  c  b  a  c  c  c  a 
         
 (a  b).(b  c  b  a  c  c  c  a)
          
 (a  b).(b  c  b  a  c  a) [ c  c  0 ]

                 
 a.(b  c)  a.(b  c)  a.(c  a)  b.(b  c )  b.(b  a)  b.(c  a)
[If two vectors in scalar triple product are same then scalar triple product is zero]
 
= a.(b  c )  b.(c  a )

     
 a.(b  c)  a.(b  c) (Using property)

        
  a b c    a b c   2  a b c 

Illustration 60

     
Show that  a  b b  c c  a   0

Solution :
 
 a  b b  c c  a 
 

             
  
 
 ( a  b). (b  c )  ( c  a)  ( a  b). b  c  b  a  c  c  c  a 
               
  
 ( a  b). b  c  b  a  c  a  ( a  b). b  c  a  b  c  a 
                 
 a.(b  c)  a.(a  b)  a.(c  a) b.(b  c )  b.(a  b)  b.(c  a)
     
 a.(b  c)  b.(c  a)

Illustration 61

Find the value of  if the volume of the parallelopiped whose cote r minous edges are

12i→  k→ , 3 j→  k→ and 2i→  →j  15 k→ is 546 cubic units.

Solution :
  
If a  12i→   k→, b  3 j→  k→ and c  2i→  j→  15k→ are cotermious edges of the parallelopiped, then its

  
volume is  a b c  . The volume is given to be 546 cubic units.

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 52 QUIZRR

  a b c   546
 

12 0 
0 3 1  546

2 1 15

 12(45  1)   (6)  546

 12(44)  6  546

 528  6  546
 6  18
   3 .

Illustration 62
        
(i) Show that a , b and c are noncoplanar if and only if a  b , b  c and c  a are noncoplanar.
        
(ii) Show that a , b and c are coplanar if and only if a  b , b  c and c  a arecoplanar.
Solution.We know that
  
 a  b b  c c  a   2  a b c 
   
  
(i) a, b and c are non-coplanar


  a b c   0
 

  
 2  a b c   0

 
  a  b b  c c  a   0
 
     
 a  b, b  c and c  a are non-coplanar.
  
(ii) If a, b and c are coplanar

  
 a b c   0
  
 2  a b c   0
    
 
 a  b b  c c  a  0
     
 a  b, b  c and c  a are coplanar.

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 53

Illustration 63

    
a .l b .l c .l
                 
If a , b , c and l , m , n aretwo traids of vectors, prove that  a b c  l m n   a .m b .m c .m
     
a .n b .n c .n

  
Solution : Let a  a1i→  a2 →j  a3 k→, b  b1i→  b2 j→  b3 k→ , c  c1 i→  c2 →j  c3 k→
  
l  l1i→  l2 →j  l3 k→ , m  m1 i→  m2 →j  m3 k→ and n  n1i→  n2 →j  n3 k→
Then,

a1 a2 a3 l1 l2 l3
    
 a b c  l m n   b1 b2 b3 m1 m2 m3
  
c1 c2 c3 n1 n2 n3

 a1 l1  a2 l2  a3 l3 a1 m1  a2 m2  a3 m3 a1 n1  a2 n2  a3 n3 
  b1 l1  b2 l2  b3 l3 b1 m1  b2 m2  b3 m3 b1 n1  b2 n2  b3 n3 
 c1 l1  c2 l2  c3 l3 c1 m1  c2 m2  c3 m3 c1 n1  c2 n2  c3 n3 

       
a.l a.m a.n a.l b.l c.l
          
 b.l b.m b.n  a.m b.m c.m
         
c.l c.m c.n a.n b.n c.n

Illustration 64

  
a b c
             
If a , b , c , l , m are vectors , prove that [a b c ](l  m )  a .l b .l c .l .
     
a .m b .m c .m
Solution.
a1 a2 a3 i j k
   
  
 a b c  l  m  b1 b2 b3 l1 l2 l3
c1 c2 c3 m1 m2 m3

a1 i→  a2 →j  a3 k→ a1 l1  a2 l2  a3 l3 a1 m1  a2 m2  a3 m3
 b1 i→  b2 →j  b3 k→ b1 l1  b2 l2  b3 l3 b1 m1  b2 m2  b3 m3
c i→  c →j  c k→ c l  c l  c l
1 2 3 11 22 33 c1 m1  c2 m2  c3 m3

      
a a.l a.m a b c
      
 b b.l b.m  a.l b.l c.l
         
c c.l c.m a.m b.m c.m

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 54 QUIZRR

Illustration 65

( x  a )2 ( x  b)2 ( x  c )2
  
If ( y  a )2 ( y  b)2 ( y  c )2  0 and X  ( x 2 , x ,1), Y  ( y 2 , y,1), Z  ( z 2 , z,1) are non-coplanar,
( z  a )2 ( z  b)2 ( z  c )2
  
then prove that a  ( a2 , a,1), b  (b2 , b,1), c  ( c2 , c,1) are coplanar.
Solution :
  
Since X  ( x2 , x,1), Y  ( y2 , y,1) and Z  ( z2 , z,1) are non-coplanar vectors. Therefore

x2 x 1
  
[ X Y Z ]  0  y2 y 1 0
z2 z 1

( x  a )2 ( x  b)2 ( x  c)2 x2  2ax  a 2 x2  2bx  b2 x2  2cx  c2

Now, ( y  a )2 ( y  b)2 ( y  c)2  0  y2  2ay  a2 y2  2by  b2 y2  2cy  c2  0
( z  a )2 ( z  b)2 ( z  c)2 z2  2az  a 2 z2  2bz  b2 z2  2cz  c2

x2 x 1 1 2a a 2
y2 y 1 1 2b b2  0
 {by using row expansion method}
z2 z 1 1 2 c c2

x2 x 1 a2 a 1
y2 y 1 b2 b 1 0

2 2
z z 1 c c 1
     
  X Y Z  a b c   0
  
     
  
a b c   0 [  X Y Z   0 ]
  
 a, b, c are coplanar.

Illustration 66

The vector OP  5i→  12 →j  13 k→ turns through an angle /2 about O passing through the

positive side of the →j axis on its way. Find the vector in the new position.
Solution :

Let OQ  xi→  yj→  zk→ be the vector in the new position. Thenm
 
OP  OQ  x2  y2  z2  338 ...(i)

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 QUIZRR 55
 
Also, OP  OQ
 
 OP.OQ  0  5 x  12 y  13 z  0 ...(ii)
 
Clearly, OP, →j and OQ are coplanar.
 
 OP →j OQ  0
 

5 12 13
 0 1 0 0
x y z

13
 13 x  5 z  0  z  x ...(iii)
5

Vect or T r ip le Pr od uct
        
If a, b and c are three vectors then (a  b)  c and a  (b  c) are called vector triple products.
 
In general a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c .
            
b  c is perpendicular to b and c and a  (b  c) is perpendicular to a and b  c , therefore a  (b  c)
  
is perpendicular to a and is parallel to b and c . Whereas (a  b)  c is parallel to a and b and
 
is perpendicular to c , thus a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c .
  
For any three vectors a, b and c
      
(i) a  (b  c)  (a.c )b  (a.b)c
  
(ii) (a  b).c  (a.c)b  (b.c) a

AID To Memory
      
a  (b  c)  (a.c )b  (a.b)c can also be wrotten as I  ( II  III)  ( I. III) II  ( I. II ) III .

Note 1. The vector triple product a  (b  c) is a linear combination of those two vectors which
are within brackets.
 
Note 2. The vector r  a  (b  c) is perpendicular to a and lies in the plane of b and c .
  
Note 3. The formula a  (b  c)  (a.c )b  (a.b)c is true only when the vector outside the bracket
is on the left-most side. If it is not we first shift on left by using the properties of cross-
product and then apply the same formula. For example,
     
(b  c)  a  (a  (b  c))
       
 {(a.c)b  (a.b).c }  (a.c)b  (a.b)c

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 56 QUIZRR

Illustration 67
         
Prove that (a  b )  c  a  (b  c ) iff (c  a )  b  0
Solution :
We have
     
( a  b )  c  a  (b  c )
     
  c  (a  b)  a  (b  c)
         
  
 ( c.b) a  ( c.a)b  ( a.c )b  (a.b) c

         
  ( c.b) a  ( c.a)b  ( a.c )b  (a.b) c
   
 (c.b)a  (a.b)c
   
 (b.c) a  (b.a) c
    
 (b.a)c  (b.c) a  0
   
 b  (c  a )  0
   
 (b  (c  a))  0
   
 (c  a)  b  0

Illustration 68
       
Show that (a  b )  c  a  (b  c ) iff a and c are collinear.
Solution : We have.
     
(a  b)  c  a  (b  c)
     
  
 ( c  (a  b)  a  (b  c )

       
 {(c.b)a  (c.a)b}  (a.c)b  (a.b) c
       
 (c.b)a  (a.c)b  (a.c )b  (a.b) c
   
 (c.b) a  (a.b)c
   
 (c.b)a  (a.b)c

 (a.b) 
 a    .c
(c.b)

  , where a.b
 a  c  
c.b
 
 a and c are collinear.

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 57

RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS

  
Let a, b, c be three non-coplanar vectors, and let
     
 bc  ca  ab
a     , b     , c    
a b c  a b c  a b c 
     
   
a, b, c are said to form a rciprioal system of vectors for the vectors a , b, c .

Pr op er t ies of R ecip r ocal Syst em of Vect or s

     
if a, b, c and a, b, c form a reciprocal system of vectors, then show that

(i)   
a.a  b.b  c.c  1
     
(ii) a.b  a.c  0; b.c  b.a  0; c.a  c.b  0


(iii)  a  b c   1 
  a b c 
 
     
(iv) a, b, c are non-coplanar iff so are a, b, c .

Illustration 69
         
Prove that a  (b  c )  b  ( c  a )  c  (a  b )  0
Solution :
      
a  (b  c)  (a.c )b  (a.b)c
     
b  (c  a)  (b.a)  (b.c)a
      
c  (a  b)  (c.b)a  (c.a)b
Adding them, we get
               
a  (b  c )  b  (c  a)  c  (a  b)  0 [a.c  c.a, a.b  b.a and b.c  c.b ]

Illustration 70
    
Prove that for any vector a , i→  (a  i→ )  →j  (a  →j )  k→  (a  k→ )  2a .
Solution :
  
i→  ( a  i→ )  →j  (a  →j )  k→  ( a  k→ )
     
 (i→.i→ ) a  (i→.a)i→  ( →j. →j ) a  ( →j.a) →j  ( k→.k→ ) a  (k→.a) k→

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 58 QUIZRR

   
 3 a  (i→.a)i→  ( j.a) j→  (k→.a)k→ 

 3 a  ( a1 i→  a2 →j  a3 k→ )
  
 3a  a  2a

Illustration 71

        2
Prove that  a  b b  c c  a    a b c 

     
Solution :  a  b b  c c  a 

     
  ( a  b)  (b  c )  .( c  a)

  
 
 
 r  (b  c ) .( c  a)

where a  b  r

     
 
 (r .c )b  (r .b) c .( c  a)

        
 
 [( a  b).c ]  b  [( a  b).b ]c .(c  a)

        
 
 ( a  b).c b.(c  a) [ ( a  b).b  0 ]

           
  a b c   b c a    a b c   a b c 

   2
  a b c 

Illustration 72

       
 a b d  c   a b c  d .
Prove that (a  b )  (c  d ) 
   
Solution :
   
( a  b )  (c  d )
     
 r  ( c  d) , where r  a  b
    
 (r.d) c  (r.c)d
       
 [(a  b).d ]c  [(a  b).c ]d
       
 [ a b d ] c   a b c  d

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 59

Illustration 73

   
    a .c a .d
Prove that (a  b ).( c  b )     
b .c b .d
Solution :
   
(a  b).(c  d )
     
 r.(c  d) , where r  a  b
  
 (r  c ).d
        
 [(a  b)  c ].d  
 ( a.c )b  (b.c ) a .d

     
 (a.c)(b.d)  (b.c)(a.d )
  
a.c a.d
    .
b.c b.d

Illustration 74
Prove that
        
(i) a , b and c are non-coplanar if and only if a  b , b  c and c  a are non-coplaanr.
        
(ii) a , b and c are coplanar if and only if a  b , b  c and c  a are coplanar.
Solution :
We know that
   2
 a  b b  c c  a    a b c 
   
  
(i) a, b and c are non-coplanar

  
 a b c   0
 2
  a b c   0
 
 
  a  b b  c c  a   0
 
     
 a  b, b  c and c  a are non-coplanar.
  
(ii) a, b and c are coplanar.

  a b c   0
 

VECTOR ALZEBRA
60 QUIZRR
 2
  
 a b c   0
 
  a  b b  c c  a   0
 
     
 a  b, b  c and c  a are coplanar.

Illustration 75
       
Show that : (a  b )  c  a  (b  c ) if and only if a and c are collinear.
     
Solution : Let (a  b)  c  a  (b  c)
       
 (a.c)b  (b.c)a  (a.c)b  (a.b)c
   
 (b.c) a  (a.b)c

  a.b  
 a      c
 b.c 

  a.b
 a  c where    
b.c
 
 a and c are collinear.
Conversely, Let a and c be collinear, then a   c .
         
 (a  b)  c  ( c  b)  c  ( c.c)b  (b.c) c
   
  [(c.c)b  (b.c)c ] ...(i)
 
Also, a  (b  c)   c  (b  c)
   
 ( c.c)b  ( c.b)c
   
  [(c.c)b  (c.b)c ] ...(ii)
 from (i) and (ii), we get
     
( a  b )  c  a  (b  c )

Illustration 76

1
If a→ , b→ and c→ be three non-parallel unit vectors such that a→  (b→  c→ )  b→ , then find the angle
2
which n→ makes with b→ and c→ .
Solution :
1
a→  (b→  c→ )  b→
2
VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 61

1
 ( a→ .c→ )b→  (a→ .b→) c→  b→
2

 1→ →
  a→ .c→  2  b  ( a→ .b) c→  0
 

1
 a→ .c→   0 and a→ .b→  0 [b→ and c→ are non-parallel]
2
1
 a→ .c→  and a→ .b→  0
2
1
 a→ c→ cos   and a→  b→ [where  is angle between a→ and c→ ]
2
1
 cos   and a→  b→
2

  and a→  b→
3
 
Thus, angle between a→ and b→ is and angle between a→ and c→ is .
2 3

Illustration 77
           
If p , q and r are the vectors b  c , c  a and a  b respectively, then show that a , b and c
     
are parallel to q  r , r  p and p  q respectively.
Solution :
  
a  (q  r )
   
 ( a.r ) q  (a.q)r

   
 
   
 a.( a  b) q  a.( c  a) r

       
  a a b  q   a c a  r

 
 (0) q  (0) r  0
  
 a  q r
     
Similarly, b  r  p and c  p  q .

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 62 QUIZRR
GEOMETRY OF VECTORS
 
1. Angle bisector of a & b
 
We know that diagonals of rhombus are angle bisectors also, so arangin a & b to form a rhombus
(remeber vector are like free lines which can be moved parallel to their direction ratios, which we
will cover in 3D)
From diagonal

OP  OM  ON
  
OP   a   b M
  a P
  ( a  b) [as sides are of equal length
so same  for both side]
and unit vector will be
 
 ab
OP    O N
ab b

 
or if a & b are unit vectors only i.e. a→ & b→ then angle bisectors are a→  b→ only.

2. Vector equation of a line :


The vector equation of a line passing through a point having position vector a and parallel to
 
vector b is r  a   b , where  is scalar.

3. Vector equation of a plane :

The vector equation of a plane passing through a point having position vector a andcontaining
 
vectors b & c is
   
r  a  b   c , where  ,   R
OR
Let r be a point on the required plane with a given point a and normal to the plane n .Then
equation of plane becomes
  
(r  a).n  0

For three points

  
The vector equation of a plane passing through 3 points having position vectors a, b & c is
   
1. r  (1     ) a   b   c
   
2. (r  a).(b  c )  0
The reasoning for second one is easy.See we needed a normal vector to the plane and we know
 
that cross product produces a vector normal to both the vectors, so the resultant of b  c is
perpendicular to the plane.

VECTOR ALZEBRA
 QUIZRR 63

Bisect or s of t he angles b et ween 2 lines :

 
1. The angle bisectors of theline r   a and r   b aregiven by

  
 a b
r     
 a b
 
   
2. The angle bisector for lines r  a   b r  a   c {i.e. lines originating or passing through
the point a) is given by

   b c 
r  a     .
b c
 

 
Equation of lines through 2 points a & b

It is given by r  a   (b  a )

Logic :

It is easy, as we need a parallel vector along the line & (b  a ) will serve that purpose now.
A
T et r a h ed r o n

In the figure pull the point O out of plane.

The 3D figure which you can imagine now
O
is tetrahedron
Properties of tetrahedron
B C
1
1. If OA = a,OB  b & OC  c , then volume of tetrahedron =  a b c 
6

1
2. The angle between any two plane faces of regular tetrahedron is cos1
3

3. Any two edges of regular tetrahedron are perpendicular to each other

1
4. Angle between any edge & a face not containing the angle is cos1 , for any regular
3
tetrahedron

VECTOR ALZEBRA
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION
 QUIZRR 3

1. Defint ion :

dy d 2 y
An equation containing x, y & , , etc is called a differential equation. In other words, a
dx dx2
differential equation is an equation that involves an independent variable ( x) , the depednent

 dy d 2 y 

variables ( y) & the derivatives of the dependent variable  i.e., , 2 ,etc.  .

 dx dx 

Example :

dy d2 y dy
(i)  5x  0 (ii)  4 x(sin x  y) 0
dx dx2 dx

3/2
  2 2 
1   d y    dy 3
  dy  d5 y
 I  ky  1 
(iii)   dx2    dx 
(iv) 
   dx  dx5

O r d er and d egr ee of a d iffer ent ial eq uat ion

Defintion.
1. Order of the higehst order derivative occuring in the given differential equation is called the order
of the differential equation.
2. Degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest order derivative i.e. degree of a
differential equation is the power of the highest order derivative when the differential equation
has been made rational and integral i.e. free from radicals and fractions so far as the differential
co-efficietns are concerned.
Examples :

d2 y dy
(i)   y  0 . This differential equation is of second order because order of the highest
dx 2 dx

d2 y
order derivative is two. Degree of this differential equation is one because power of the
dx2

d2 y
highest order derivative is one.
dx2

2
 d3 y   dy 
3
(ii)  3   3   20.
 dx   dx 

d3 y
This differential equation is of 3rd order because highest order derivative is and its
3 dx3
d y
degree is 2 because power of the highest order derivative is 2.
dx3
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 4 QUIZRR

(iii) 1  x2 dx  1  y2 dy  0

dy 1  x2
This differential equation can be written as dx   . It is of first order and first
1  y2

degree.

Solut ion of a Differ ent ial E q uat ion

Any relation between dependent and independent variables which when substituted in the
differential equation, reduce it to an identity is called a solution of the differential equation. A
solution of a differential equation does not contain the derivatives of the dependent variables with
respect to the independent variable.

Example :
Consider the differential equation

d2 y
 y0 ...(i)
dx2

Let y  A sin x  B cos x , where A, B are arbitrary constant ...(ii)

Differentiating (ii) twice w.r.t. x, we get

d2 y
  A sin x  B cos x
dx2

d2 y d2 y
 y   y0
dx2 dx2

Therefore y  A sin x  B cos x is a solution of differential equation (i).

It can be easily seen that y  3sin x  2cos x, y  B cos x are all solutions of (i). The most general
of these solution is (ii), all others are particular solutions of the differential equation (i).

G ener al Solut ion

The solution of an ordinary differential equation of nth order, which contains n arbitrary constants
is called the complex primitive or the General Solution.
Let the equation involving the variables x, y and n independent arbitrary constants be

f ( x, y, C1 , C2 ,..., Cn )  0 ...(i)
& the differential equation obtained from (i) be

 dy d 2 y dn y 
F  x, y, , 2 ,..., n   0 ...(ii)
 dx dx dx 


DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 5

Then (i) is called the general solution of (ii).

Note that the general solution of an ordinary differential equation of nth order contains n
independent arbitrary solution of ÂnÊ arbitrary constants. Thus the general solution of an ordinary
differential equation of order one contains one arbitrary constant and of second order contains two
independent arbitary constants and so on.

Par t icular Solut ion

The solution of the differential equation for particular values of oneor more of the arbitrary
constant is called a particular solution of the given differential equation.
Note 1. The general solution of a differential equation may have several forms but the arbitrary
constants (parameters) in one form will be related to the parameters in the other form.
Example :
y  a cos( x  b) ...(1)

and y  A sin x  B cos x ...(2)

are both solutions of the differential equation

d2 y
 y0
dx2
Both (1) and (2) contains two parameters (1) can be written as
y  a (cos x cos b  sin x sin b)

  a sin b sin x  b cos c cos x

 A sin x  B cos x , where A  a  b sin c and B  b cos c
Here there are only two independent parameters A and B .

L inear and non-linear d iffer ent ial eq uat ion :

A differential equation which is of degree one in the dependent variable (unknown variable) and
its derivative is called a linear differential equation.
A differential equation which is not linear is called a non-linear differential equation.
A differential equation is linear if it can be expressed as

dn y d n1 y dy
a0 n
 a1 n1
 ...  an 1  an y  Pn
dx dx dx

Where a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an and pn are constants or functions of independent variable x.

Thus a differential equation will be non-linear differential equation if and only if
(i) its degree is more than one
(ii) exponent of the dependent variable is more than one.
(iii) any of the differential coefficeint has exponent more than one
(iv) products containing dependent variable and its differential coefficients are present.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 6 QUIZRR
Examples :

2
d3 y  dy 
1. 2  5   7 y  x2 (non-linear)
dx3
 dx 

dy
Here exponent of is 2.
dx

dy
2. y  x (non-linear)
dx

dy
Here degree of the term y is 2.
dx

For mat ion of Differ ent ial E q uat ions

Let f ( x, y, a)  0 be a family of curves depending on one arbitrary constant a.

f ( x, y, a)  0 ...(1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to x, we get

P ( x, y, y, a)  0 ...(2)

Eliminating a from eq (1) and (2), we get an equation involving x, y, y .. This is the required
differential equation of the family of curves represented by (1). Similarly if the given differential
equation has two arbitrary constants then we differentiable the given equation twice with respect
to x. By eliminating the arbitrary constants from the given equation and the equations obtained
by the differentiation, we get the required differential equations.

Illustration 1

Find the differential equation from the family of straight lines which pass through the
origin.
Solution :
The equation of the straight lines which pass through the origin
y  mx , where m is a parameter ...(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to x

dy
m ...(2)
dx

Eliminating x from equation (1) and (2)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 2

Find the differential equation of the family of curves y  ex ( A cos x  B sin x)

Solution :

y  ex ( A cos x  B sin x) ...(1)

Differentiating with respect to x.

dy
 ex ( A cos x  B sin x)  ex ( A cos x  B sin x)
dx

dy
 y  ex ( A sin x  B cos x) ...(2)
dx
Again differentiating with respect to x

d2 y dy dy
  ex ( A cos x  B sin x)  ex ( A sin x  B cos x)   y y [From Equation (2)]
dx 2 dx dx

d2 y dy
or 2  2 y  0 ; which is the required differential equation.
dx 2 dx

Pr ob lem b ased on for mat ion of d iffer ent ial eq aut ion
Working Rules :
(i) Write down the given equation
(ii) Differentiate the given equation with respect to independent variable x as many times as
the number of arbitrary constants.
(iii) Eliminate the arbitrary constants from given equation and the equations obtained by
differentiation.

Illustration 3
Obtain the differential equation of the family of curves represented by

y  Ae x  Be  x  x 2 , where A and B are arbitrary constants.

Solution :

Given equation is y  Aex  Be x  x2 ...(1)

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy
 Aex  Be x  2 x ...(2)
dx
Again differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 8 QUIZRR

d2 y
2
 Aex  Be x  2 ...(3)
dx

d2 y d2 y
(1) - (2)  y  2
 x2  2 or, 2
 y  x2  2  0 ...(4)
dx dx
(4) is the required differential equation, because it does not contain arbitrary constant A and B.

Illustration 4

Show that the function y  ( A  Bx) e3 x is a solution of the differential equation

d2 y dy
6  9y  0 .
dx 2 dx
Solution :

Given, y  ( A  Bx) e3 x ...(i)

dy
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get  Be3 x  3e3 x ( A  Bx) ...(ii)
dx

d2 y
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. x, we get  6 Be3 x  9 e3 x ( A  Bx) ...(iii)
dx2

d2 y dy
 6  9 y  {6 Be3 x  9e3 x ( A  Bx)}  6[ Be3 x  3e3 x ( A  Bx)}  {9( A  Bx)e3 x
dx2 dx

d2 y dy
 6  9y  0
dx2 dx

So, y  ( A  Bx) e3 x satisfies the given differential equation.

Hence, it is a solution of the given differential equation.

Illustration 5

Show that the differential equation of which ( x 2  y 2 )  c ( x 2  y 2 )2 is the solution is

( x 2  3 xy2 )dx  ( y3  3 x 2 y)dy

Solution :

We have x2  y2  c( x2  y2 )2
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 9

dy  dy 
2x  2 y  2 c( x2  y2 )  2 x  2 y 
dx  dx 

 dy  2 2  dy 
  x  y dx   2c( x  y )  x  y dx 
   
From (i) and (ii), we have

 dy  2( x2  y2 ) 2  dy 
 x  y  2 ( x  y2 )  x  y 
 dx  ( x  y )
2 2
 dx 

[on substituting the value of c from (i) in (ii)]

 dy   dy 
 ( x2  y2 )  x  y   2( x2  y2 )  x  y 
 dx   dx 

 x(x 2

 y2 )  2 x( x2  y2 ) 
dy
dx
 
2 y( x2  y2 ))  y( x2  y2 )

dy
 (3 xy2  x3 )  (3x2 y  y3 )
dx

 ( x3  3 xy2 ) dx  ( y3  3 x2 y) dy
which is the given differential equation.

Illustration 6

From the differential equation representing the family of curves y  A cos( x  B) , where
A and B are constants.
Solution :
We are given that y  A cos( x  B) ...(i)
[Since the given equation contains two arbitrary constants, we shall differentiate it two times and
we shall get a differential equation of second order.]
Differentiate (i) w.r.t. x,. we get

dy
  A sin( x  B) ...(ii)
dx

d2 y
  A cos( A  B)
dx2

d2 y
  y [Using (i)]
dx2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 10 QUIZRR

Illustration 7

Form the differential equation corresponding to y2  a (b  x)(b  x) by eliminating a and b.

Solution :

Given y2  a(b2  x2 ) ...(i)

[Since there are two arbitrary constants in the given equation, so we shall differentiate it two
times and we shall get a differential equation of second order.]
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy
2y  2 ax  y   ax ...(ii)
dx dx
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. x, we get
2
d 2 y  dy 
y    a ...(iii)
dx2  dx 
From (ii) and (iii), we get

 d 2 y  dy 2  dy
x y  y
2  dx  dx
 dx   

This is the required differential equation.

Illustration 8

(i) To form a differential equation from the equation y2  4 ax where a is the parameter.

Given curve is y2  4 ax ...(i)

Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy 2 a
2y  4a   ...(ii)
dx dx y
Now eliminating a using (i) and (ii), we get

dy y2 dy y
y  i.e.  ...(iii)
dx 2 x dx 2 x
which is the required differential equation.
(ii) To form a differential equation of a family of circles touching y-axis at origin.
y

O x

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 11

The required equation of circles will be x2  y2  2 gx  0 ( f  c  0 ) ...(i)

where g is the parameter. That is for different values of g, we get different circles belonging to
the family.
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get

dy
2x  2 y  2g  0 ...(ii)
dx
Now eliminating ÂgÊ using (i) and (ii), we get

 dy  dy
x2  y2  2 x   x  y   0 i.e. y2  x2  2 xy 0
 dx  dx

which is the required differential eqaution.

(iii) To form a differential equation of a family of circles having centre at origin.

Let the equation of circle be y

x2  y2  a 2 ...(i)
a=4
where a (radius) is the parameter.
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get a=2
a=1
O
dy x
2x  2 y 0 (0,0)
dx
This is a differential equation for all the members of
the family & it does not contain any parameter.

Illustration 9

If the differential equation whose equation represents the family y  e 3x  be x , is

d2y dy
a b  cy  0 , then a ,b,c
dx 2 dx

Solution :

y  ae3x  bex ...(i)

Differentiating equation (i), we get

dy
 3ae3 x  bex ...(ii)
dx

d2 y
and  9 ae3 x  bex ...(iii)
dx2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 12 QUIZRR
Eliminating a and b from equation (i), (ii) & (iii), we get

d2 y 4y
  3 y  0  a  1, b  4, c  3
dx2 dx

Note : The order of differential equation (of family of curves with n constants) is equal to n. But
sometimes the order of the differential equation can be find on the basis of its solution. The
order of differential equation is equal to the number of constants involved in the solution
(in reduced condition).

FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

A first order differential equation is a relation

dy
 f ( x, y)
dx

in which f ( x, y) is a function of two variables defined on a region in the xy-plane.

Example :

dy y y
The equation 1 is a first order differential equation in which f ( x, y)  1  .
dx x x

METHOD OF SOLVING FIRST ORDER FIRST DEGREE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

We have divided the method in various types which we will discuss now.

S et - 1
dy
Type-1 Differential Equation of type  f ( x)
dx
This is a very simple type which can be solved easily by using

 dy   f ( x) dx  C

dy
Type-2 Differential equation of the type  f ( y)
dx
This is the same type as above with the only change in functions on R.H.S. Here we solve
it by the following manner.

dy
If,  f ( y) then
dx

dy dy
dx 
f ( y)
  dx  
f ( y)
C

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 13

dy
Type-3 Equation in variable separable form  f ( x)
dx

In this type the differential equation exists as product of two separate functions of x & y
respectively in R.H.S. We solve them as follow,

dy
 f ( x) g ( y)
dx

dy
  f ( x) dx
g ( y)

dy
  g ( y) 
 f ( x) dx  C

Other forms of this could be

 g ( y) dy   f ( x) dx  C

dx
or  g ( y) dy  
f ( x)
C

dy
Type-4 Equation reducible to variable separable form i.e.  f ( ax  by  c)
dx

In this form the D.E. is not directly in Type-3 but by proper substitution it can be reduced
to Type-3.
For this put ax  by  C  t

dy dt
 ab 
dx dx

Other form of this type

f (ax  by  c1 ) dx  f ( ax  by  c2 ) dy  0

in this substitute ax  by  t

dy dt
 ab 
dx dx
TIP : The success of this substitution lies only when after substritution, the D.E. gets free from
all forms of x,y terms and converts solely into a function of t.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
14 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 0
Solve the following differential equations :
Type-1

dy dy
(i)  x log x 2
(ii) (1  x )  x  2 tan 1 x .
dx dx
Solution :
(i) Given differential equation is

dy
 x log x  dy  x log xdx
dx
Integrating both sides, we get

x log x dx
 1dy   II I

x2 1 x2 x2 1
 y  log x.   . dx  log x   xdx
2 x 2 2 2

x2 1 x2
 log x  . c
2 2 2

x2 1
 y log x  x2  c
2 4
which is the required solution.
(ii) Given differential equation is

dy
(1  x2 )  x  2 tan 1 x
dx

dy dy x 2tan 1 x
 (1  x2 )  x  2 tan 1 x   
dx dx 1  x2 1  x2

 x 2 tan 1 x 
 dy   2
  dx
 1  x 1  x2 

Integrating both sides , we get

 x 2 tan 1 x 
 1dy   
 1  x
2

1  x2 
 dx

x tan 1 x
 y dx  2  1  x2 dx
1  x2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 15

1
Putting tan 1 x  t  dx  dt
1  x2

1 2x 1 t2
2  1  x2 
2
 dx  2 tdt  log 1  x  2 c
2 2

1
 y log 1  x2  (tan 1 x)2  c
2
which is the required solution.

Illustration 1 1
Tpye 2
Solve the following differential equations :

d y 1  cos 2 y d y 1  y2
(i) dx  1  cos 2 y (ii) 
dx y3

Solution :

dy 1  cos2 y
(i) Given differential equation is 
dx 1  cos 2 y

dy 2sin 2 y dy
    tan 2 y
dx 2cos2 y dx

dy
  dx  cot 2 ydy  dx
tan 2 y

Integrating both sides, we get

 cot 2 ydy   1dx

  (cos ec2 y  1) dy   1dx

  cos ec2 ydy   1dy   1dx

  cot y  y  x  c

 x  y  cot y  c  0
which is the required solution.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 16 QUIZRR
(ii) Given differential equation is

dy 1  y2 y3
  dy  dx
dx y3 1  y2

Integrating both sides, we get

y3
 y2  1
dy   1dx

 y 
  y 2  dy   1dx
y  1 


1 2y
  ydy   2
2 y 1
dy   1dx

y2 1
  log y2  1  x  c
2 2
which is the required solution.

Illustration 1 2
Tpye 3
Solve teh following differential equation.

y
(i) e x 1  y 2 dx  dy  0 (ii) (1  e 2 x )d y  (1  y 2 )e x dx  0
x

dy dy  dy 
(iii)  2 x 2  y2  x 2 y 2  2 (iv) y x  a  y2  
dx dx  dx 

 dy  dy
(v) log    a x  by (vi) 1  x 2  y2  x 2 y 2  xy 0
 dx  dx

Solution :
(i) Given differential equation is

y y
ex 1  y2 dx  dy  0  dy   ex 1  y2 dx
x x

y
 dy   xex dx
2
1 y

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 17

Integration both sides, we get

y
 dy    xex dx Puting 1  y2  t  2 ydy  dt
2
1 y

1
 ydy   dt
2

1 dt
   xex   ex dx
2 t
 
 

  t  [ xex  ex  c]  1  y2  xex  ex  c
which is the required solution.
(ii) Given differential equation is

(1  e2 x ) dy  (1  y2 ) ex dx  0

 (1  e2 x ) dx  (1  y2 ) ex dx

dy ex
  dx
1  y2 1  e2 x

Integrating both sides, we get

dy ex
 1  y2
 
1  e2 x
dx Putting ex  t  ex dx  dt

dy dt
  1 y 2
 
1  t2

 tan 1 y   tan 1 t  c  tan 1 y   tan1 ex  c

 tan 1 y  tan 1 ex  c
which is the required solution.

(iii) Given differential equation is

dy
 2 x2  y2  x2 y2  2  2 x2  2  x2 y2  y2
dx

 2( x2  1)  y2 ( x2  1)

dy dy
  ( x2  1)(2  y2 )  2
 ( x2  1) dx
dx y 2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
18 QUIZRR
Integrating both sides , we get

dy 1 y x3
 2
y 2
  ( x2  1) dx 
2
tan 1
2

3
 x c

which is the required solution.

(iv) Given differential equation is

dy  dy  dy dy
y x  a  y2   y x  ay2  a
dx  dx  dx dx

dy dy y  ay2
 y  ay2  ( a  x)  
dx dx a x

dy dx dy dx
   
y  ay 2 a x y(1  ay) a  x

Integrating both sides , we have

dy dx
 y(1  ay)

ax

1 a  dx
   y  1  ay  dy   a  x
 
[Using partial fraction]

1 1 dx
  y
dy  a 
1  ay
dy  
ax

a log 1  ay
 log y   log a  x  log c
a

 log y  log 1  ay  log a  x  c

y y
 log  log a  x c   ( a  x) c
1  ay 1  ay

which is the required solution.

(v) Given differential equation is

 dy 
log    ax  by
 dx 

dy
  eaxby [ log x  y  x  ey ]
dx

dy dy
  eax .eby  by
 eax dx
dx e

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 19

 e by dy  eax dx
Integrating both sides, we get

 eby dy   eax dx

eby eax
  c
b a

eax e by
  c0
a b
which is the required solution.

(vi) Given differential equation is

dy dy
1  x2  y2  x2 y2  xy 0  1  x2  y2 (1  x2 )  xy 0
dx dx

dy dy
 (1  x2 )(1  y2 )  xy 0  1  x2 1  y2  xy 0
dx dx

dy y 1  x2
xy   1  x2 1  y2  dy   dx
 x
dx 1  y2

Integrating both sides, we get

y 1  x2
 dy   
x
dx
1  y2

y 1
I1  
2
Let dy Putting 1  y  t  2 ydy  dt  ydy  dt
1 y 2 2

1 dt
I1 
2  t
 t  c  1  y2  c1

1  x2
Let I2    dx Puting 1  x2  z2  2 xdx  2 zdz
x

z z
 dx  dz  dx  dz
x 2
z 1

z z z2
I2    . dz    dz
z2  1 z2  1 z2  1

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 20 QUIZRR

1 1 1 z 1
  1 dz    1dz   dz   z  log  c2
z 12 2
z 1 2 z1

1 1  x2  1
  1  x2  log  c2
2 1  x2  1

Thus, from (i)

1 1  x2  1
1  y2   1  x2  log c [ c  c2  c1 ]
2 1  x2  1

1 1  x2  1
 1  y2  1  x2  log c
2 1  x2  1

which is the required solution.

Initial Value Problem

In initial valueproblem along with a differential equation some initial values are given (i.e.,
correponding values of x and y). Using the initial values, we determine the value of constant c
to get a particular solution of given differential equation.

Illustration 1 3
Solve the following initial value problems :

dy 1
(i)  2ex y3 , y(0)  (ii) edy/ dx  x  1, y(0)  3
dx 2

dy
(iii) xy  y  2, y(2)  0 (iv) (1  y2 )(1  log x) dx  xdy  0, y(1)  1
dx
Solution :
(i) Given differential equation is

dy dy
 2ex y3  3
 2ex dx
dx y
Integrating both sides, we get

dy 1
 3
 2  ex dx  2
 2 ex  c ...(i)
y 2y

1 1
Now, y(0)   when x  0, y 
2 2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 21

1
Thus  2
 2e0  c From (i)
1
2 
2

 2  2  c  c  4

1
 From (i)  2
 2 ex  4
2y

which is the required particular solution of given differential equation.

(ii) Given differential equation is

edy/ dx  x  1

dy
  log( x  1)  dy  log( x  1)dx
dx
Integrating both sides, we get

 1dy   log( x  1) dx

x
 y  log( x  1).1dx  log( x  1). x  
x1
dx

 1 
 x log( x  1)   1  dx
 x  1 

1
 x log( x  1)   1dx   dx
x1

y  x log( x  1)  x  log x  1  c ...(i)

Now, y(0)  3  when x  0, y  3

Thus, 3  0  0  log1  c [From (i)]

 c3 [  log1  0 ]

 From (i), y  x log( x  1)  x  log x  1  3

which is the required particular solution of given differential equation.
(iii) Given differential equation is

dy y dx
xy  y 2  dy 
dx y2 x

Integrating both sides , we get

y dx  2  dx
 y 2
dy  
x
  1  y  2  dy   x
 
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
22 QUIZRR

1 dx
  1dy  2
y2
dy  
x

 y  2log y  2  log x  c ...(i)

Now, y(2)  0  when x  2, y  0

Thus, 0  2 log 2  log 2  c [From (i)]

 c  3 log 2

 from (i), y  2log y  2  log x  3log 2

 log ey  log( y  2) 2  log x  log 8

ey 
 log 2
 log
( y  2) 8

ey x
 2

( y  2) 8

 8 e y  x( y  2)2
which is the required particular solution of given differential equation.
(iv) Given differential equation is

(1  y2 )(1  log x) dx  xdy  0

 xdy  (1  y2 )(1  log x) dx

dy  1  log x 
    dx
1 y 2 x 

Integrating both sides , we get

dy 1  log x
 1 y 2
 
x
dx

(1  log x)2
 tan 1 y   c ...(i)
2

[by putting 1  log x  t ]

Now, y(1)  1  when x  1, y  1

1
Thus tan 1 (1)   c [From (i)]
2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 23

 1 1 (1  log x) 2  1
  c  From (i), tan y   
4 2 2 4 2
which is the required particular solution of the given differential equation.

TYPE-4
E q uat ions R ed ucib le t o Var iab les Sep ar ab le
In some differential equations the variables are not separablem, but by suitable substituting they
can be reduced to a form in which variables are separable.

Illustration 1 4

Solve the following differential equations :

dy dy
(i)  tan 2 ( x  y) (ii)  (3 x  y  1)2
dx dx

dy dy 2 x  y
(iii)  sin( x  y)  cos( x  y) (iv) 
dx dx 3  2 x  2 y

Solution
(i) Given differential equation is

dy
 tan 2 ( x  y)
dx

dy dv dy dv
Putting x  y  v  1     1
dx dx dx dx

 Given eqaution reduces to

dv dv dv
  1  tan 2 v   tan 2 v  1   sec 2 v
dx dx dx

dv
  dx  cos2 vdv  dx
sec 2 v

Integrating both sides , we get

1  cos 2v
 cos2 vdv   1dx   2
dv   1dx

1 1 sin 2v 
2
 (1  cos2v) dv   1dx   v  x c
2 2 

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
24 QUIZRR

1 sin 2( x  y) 
  ( x  y)    x c
2 2 

1 1
 ( x  y)  sin 2( x  y)  x  c
2 4

1 1
 ( y  x)  sin 2( x  y)  c
2 4
which is required solution.

dy
(ii) Given differential equation is  (3 x  y  1)2
dx

Putting 3x  y  1  v

dy dv
 3 
dx dx

dy dv
  3
dx dx
 Given equation reduces to

dv dv dv
 3  v2   v3  3  3  dx
dx dx v 3
Integrating both sides , we get

dv
 2
v 3
  dx

1 v
 tan 1  x c
3 3

1 (3 x  y  1)
 tan 1  x c
3 3
which is the required solution.

dy
(iii) Given differential equation is  sin( x  y)  cos( x  y)
dx
Putting x y  v

dy dv
 1 
dx dx

dy dv
  1
dx dx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 25

 Given equation reduces to

dv
 1  sin v  cos v
dx

dv
  sin v  cos v  1
dx

dv
  dx
sin v  cos v  1
Integrating both sides, we get

dv
 sin v  cos v  1
  1dx

dv
  v v
  1dx
2 tan 1  tan2
2  2 1
2 v 2 v
1  tan 1  tan
2 2

v
1  tan 2
dv
2
  v v v 
 1dx
2 tan  1  tan 2  1  tan 2
2 2 2

v
sec 2 dv
1 2
2  tan v 1 
 1dx


2

v
Putting tan 1  t
2

1 v
 sec 2 dv  dt
2 2

dt  log t  x  c
    1dx
t

v  x y
 log tan  1  x  c  log tan   1  x c
2  2 

which is the required solution.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 26 QUIZRR
(vi) Given differential equation is

dy 2 x y 2  ( x  y)
 
dx 3  2 x  2 y 3  2( x  y)

Putting x y  v

dy dv
 1 
dx dx

dy dv
 1
dx dx
 Given equation reduces to

dv 2  v
1 
dx 3  2v

dv 2  v 3  2v  2  v 1  v
 1  
dx 3  2v 3  2v 3  2v

3  2v
 dv  dx
1v
Integrating both sides , we get

3  2v
 1v
dv   1dx

 1 
  2  1  v  dv 
 
 1.dx

1
 2 1dv   dv   1dx
1v

 2v  log 1  v  x  c

 2( x  y)  log 1  x  y  x  c

 x  2 y  log 1  x  y  c
which is the required solution.

Illustration 1 5
Solve the following differential equation :

dy dy
(i) y2  x 2  xy (ii) ( x 3  3 xy 2 )dx  ( y3  3 x 2 y)dy  0
dx dx

(iii) x 2 dy  y( x  y)dx  0 , given that when x  1, y  1 .

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 27

Solution :
(i) Given differential equation is

dy dy
y2  x2  xy
dx dx

dy dy y2

2
( xy  x )  y2  
dx dx xy  x2

Since degree of each term of numerator and denominator is same i..e, 2, therefore given
equation is homogeneous.

dy dv
Putting y  vx   v x
dx dx
Given equation reduces to

dv v2 x2 v2
v x  
dx xvx  x2 v  1

dv v2 v2  v2  v
 x  v
dx v  1 v1

dv v
 x 
dx v  1

v1 dx
 dv 
v x
Integrating both sides, we get

v1 dx
 v
dv   x

1
  1  dv  log x  c
v

y y
 v  log v  log x  c   log  log x  c
x x

y
  log y  c
x
which is required solution.

(ii) Given differential equation is

dy x3  3 xy2
( x3  3 xy2 ) dx  ( y3  3 x2 y) dy  0  dx   3
y  3 x2 y

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
28 QUIZRR
Since degree of each term of numerator and denominator is same i..e, 3, therefore given
equation is homogeneous equation.

dy dv
Putting y  vx   v x
dx dx
Given equation reduces to

dv x3  3 xv2 x2
v x  3 3
dx v x  3 x2vx

dv 1  3v2
 v x  3
dx v  3v

dv 1  3v2 1  3v2  v4  3v2

 x  3 
dx v  3v v3  3v

dv 1  6v2  v4 v3  3v dx
 x   dv  
dx 3
v  3v 2
1  6v  v 4 x
Integrating both sides, we get

v3  3v dx
 2
1  6v  v 4
dx   
x

1 dt dx
4 t
  
x

where t  1  6v2  dt  (12v  4 v3 ) dv  dt  4(3v  v3 ) dv

1 1 c
 log t   log x  log c  log t  log
4 4 x

4
c c4
 log t  log   t 
 x x4

c4 6 y2 y4 c4
 1  6v2  v4   1  
x4 x2 x4 x4

 x4  6 x2 y2  y4  c4
which is the required solution.

(iii) Given differential equation is

dy yx  y2
2
x dy  y( x  y) dx  0   
dx x2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 29

dy dv
Putting y  vx   v x
dx dx

Given equation reduces to

dv vx2  v2 x2 dv
v x   v x  v  v2
dx x2 dx

dv
 x  2v  v2  (2v  v2 )
dx

dv dx
 
2v  v 2 x

Integrating both sides, we get

dv dx 1 1 1  dx
 v(2  v)
 
x
    
2  v 2  v
dv   
x

1 1 1 1 dx
 
2 v
dv  
2 2v
dv   
x

1 1
 log v  log 2  v   log x  log c
2 2

1 v c
 log  log
2 2v x

v c2 v c2
 log  log 2   2
2v x 2v x

y
x c2 x2 y
   c2
 y x2
2 2x  y
x

1
When x  1, y  1   c2
3

x2 y 1
 Rquired solution is   3 x2 y  2 x  y
2x  y 3

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
30 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 6
Solve the following differential equation :

 y  y  x
(a)  x cos  ( yd x  xd y)   y sin  ( xdy  yd x ) (b) (1  e x / y )d x  e x / y  1   dy  0
 x  x  y

(c) fy( xy  e xy )dx  x ( xy  e xy )dy  0 .

Solution :
(a) Given differential equation is

 y  y
 x cos   ydx  xdy   y sin   xdy  ydx
 x  x

y y y y
 xy cos dx  x2 cos dy  xy sin dy  y2 sin dx
x x x x

 y 2 y  2 y y
  xy cos x  y sin x  dx   x cos x  xy sin x  dy  0
   

2
y y y cos y   y  sin y
 y2 sin
xy cos  
dy x x x x  x x

dx y y y y y
x2 cos  xy sin cos  sin
x x x x x

dy y
Since is a function of , therefore, given equation is homogeneous.
dx x

dy dv
Putting y  vx   v x
dx dx
Given equation reduces to

dv v cos v  v2 sin v
v x 
dx cos v  v sin v

dv v cos v  v2 sin v v cos v  v2 sin v  v cos v  v2 sin v

 x  v
dx cos v  v sin v cosv  v sin v

dv 2v cos v cos v  v sin v dx

 x   dv  2
dx cos v  v sin v v cos v x
Integrating both sides , we get

cos v  v sin v dx
 v cos v
dv  2 
x

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 31

c
 log v cos v  2log x  log c  log v cos v  log
x2

c y y c
 v cos v   cos  2
x 2 x x x

y
 xy cos  c,
x
which is the required solution.

(b) GIven differential equation is

 x
(1  ex/ y ) dx  ex / y  1   dy  0
 y

 x
x/ y  ex/ y  1  
dy 1  e dx  y
   
dx  x dy x/ y
ex / y  1   1 e
 y
x dx dv
Putting  v  x  vy   v y
y dy dy

Given equation reduces to

dv  ev (1  v) dv  ev (1  v)
v y   y  v
dy 1  ev dy 1  ev

dv  ev  vev  v  vev
 y 
dy 1  ev

dv ev  v 1  ev dy
 y   dv  
dy 1  ev v ev y

Integrating both sides, we get

1  ev dy
 v ev
dv   
y
 log v  ev   log y  log c

c c
 log v  ev  log  v  ev 
y y

x c
  ex/ y   x  yex/ y  c
y y

which is the required solution.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
32 QUIZRR

(c) Let xy  u  xdy  ydx  d

Now given equation can be written as xy2 dx  x2 ydy  y.exy dx  x.exy dx  xexy dy  0

 xy( ydx  xdy)  exy ( ydx  xdy)  0

 xy( ydx  xdy)  exy ( ydx  xdy  2 xdy)  0

 u  2u.eu
 udu  eu  du  2. dy   0  udu  eu du  .dy  0
 y  y

1  u  eu  dy
2
  u 
 du   0
 u.e  y


1
2
  1
log u  log eu  log y  c   log xy  xy  log y  c
2

Non-homogeneous d iffer ent ial eq uat ions r ed ucib le to homogeneous for m :

Equation of the form

dy a1 x  b1 y  c1

dx a2 x  b2 y  c2

Can be reduced to a homogeneous form by putting x  X   and y  Y   , where  and  are

constants which will be determined so that the differential equation becomes homogeneous.
When x  X   , y  Y   , dx  dX , dy  dY

dy dY
 
dx dX
Now equation (1) becomes

dY a1 ( X   )  b1 (Y   )  c1

dX a2 ( X   )  b2 (Y   )  c2

dY a1 X  b1Y  a1  b1   c1
or 
dX a2 X  b2Y  a2  b2   c2

We choose  and  such that

a1  b1   c1  0

and a2  b2   c2  0

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 33

  1
so that  
b1 c2  b2 c1 c1 a2  c2 a1 a1b2  a2 b1

b1 c2  b2 c1 c a c a
or  ,  1 2 2 1
a1b2  a2b1 a1b2  a2b1

a1 b1
These values of  and  are possible only when a  b .
2 2

For these values of  and  equation (2) becomes

dY a1 X  b1Y
 ...(3)
dX a2 X  b2Y

Equation (3) is homogeneous and can be solved by putting Y  vX .

Finally replacing X by x   and Y by y   in the solution thus obtained we will get the
required solution.
Special Case.

a1 b1
If a  b  k (say) , then method given above fails. In this case equation (1) becomes
2 2

dy a2 kx  b2 ky  c1

dx a2 x  b2 y  c2

k(a2 x  b2 y)  c1
 ...(4)
a2 x  b2 y  c2

Putting z  a2 x  b2 y , we get

dz dy
 a2  b2
dx dx

 dz  dy
  dx  a2   b2 dx
 

 kz  c1 
 b2   [from (4)]
 z  c2 

dz  kz  c1 
or  a2  b2  
dx  z  c2 
Now the variables can be separated.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 34 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 7

Solve the differential equation ( x  y  1)dx  (2 x  2 y  1)dy  0

Solution :
Given differential equation can be written as
dy x y1
 ...(1)
dx 2 x  2 y  1

dz dy dy 1 dz
Put z  2 x  2 y , then  22 or  1
dx dx dx 2 dx

z
1
1 dz 2 z2
1  
2 dx z  1 2z  2

dz  z2  2(3 z  4) 3 x  4
or  2  1  
dx  2z  2  2z  2 z1

z1 z1
or
3z  4
dz  dx or  3z  4
dz   dx

1 3z  3
3  3z  4 
or dz  dx

1 3z  4  1
3  3z  4 
or dz  dz

1  1 
or 
3  1
3 z  4 
dz   dx

1 1
or z  log(3 z  4)  x  k
3 9
or 3 z  log(3 z  4)  9 x  9 k

or 6 x  6 y  log[6 x  6 y  4]  9 x  9 k

1 1 3
or y x  log  6( x  y)  4   c , where c  k
2 6 2

Illustration 1 8

dy x  2y  3
Find the solution of differential equation dx  2 x  y  3

Solution :
dy x  2 y  3
Given equation is dx  2 x  y  3 is ...(i)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 35

Putting x  X  h, y  Y  k in equation (i)

 dx  dX & dy  dY
dY X  h  2(Y  k)  3
 from (i) 
dX 2( X  h)  Y  k  3

( X  2Y )  (h  2k  3)
 ...(ii)
(2 X  Y )  (2 h  k  3)
Now choosing h & k such that
h  2k  3  0
and 2h  k  3  0
h k 1
Solving by cross multiplication  
6  3 6  3 1  4
 h  1, k  1
dY X  2Y
 equation (ii) becomes  ...(iv)
dX 2 X  Y
dY dv
Putting Y  vX , then  v X
dX dX
dv 1  2v
 from (iv), v  X  Ê
dX 2v
Separating the variables, we get

dv 1  v2 2v dX
X   dv 
dX 2v 1v2 X

2v dX
Integrating both sides,  1v 2
dv  
X
 c1

2v
or  (1  v)(1  v)
dv  log X  c1

1 3
or log(1  v)  log(1  v)  log X  c
2 2
1 v
 3
 cX 2
(1  v)
Y
1
X  cX 2
3
or  Y
1  X 
 
or X  Y  c( X  Y )3
or x  1  y  1  c[( x  1)  ( y  1)]3

or x  y  2  c( x  y)3

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
36 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 9

d y ( x  y  1)2
Find the solution of differential equation 
dx 4( x  2)2
Solution :

dy ( x  y  1)2
Given differential equation is  ...(i)
dx 4( x  2)2
Putting x  X  h, y  Y  k in (i)
then dx  dX , dy  dY

dY ( X  h  Y  k  1)2
 given equation becomes dX  ...(ii)
4( x  h  2)2
Choosing h and k such that
h  k1  0 & h2  0  h  2, k  1

dY ( X  Y )2
equation (ii) becomes  ...(iii)
dX 4X2
dY dv
Puting Y  vX , then  v X
dX dX
 from (ii), we have

dv ( X  vX )2 (1  v)2
v X  
dX 4X2 4

dv (1  v)2 (1  v)2
X  v
dX 4 4

4 dX
Separating the variable, dv 
(1  v) 2 X

Integrating both sides, 4  (1  v)  2dv  log X  c

4
 log X  C
1v

4
or  log X  c
1  (Y / X )

4( x  h)
or  log( x  h)  c
( x  h)  ( y  k)

4( x  2)
or  log( x  2)  c is the required solution.
x y3

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 37

SET -3
TYPE-1
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
A differential equation is linear if the dependent variable (y) and its derivative appear only in
the first degree. The general form of a linear differential equation of first degree is
dy
 Py  Q ...(i)
dx
Where P and Q are the functions of x (& not of y).
dy xdy dy
Example :  xy  x2 ,  2 y  x3 ,  2 y  sin x
dx dx dx

dx
Similarly,  Px  Q is a linear differential equation, where P and Q are functions of y
dy
(& not of x).

Solution of Linear differential equation.

Multiplying equation (i) throughout by e Pdx , we get

dy 
 Py.e  Q.e
Pdx Pdx Pdx
.e
dx

d   Pdx   Pdx
or  y.e   Q.e
dx  

Integrating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

y.e   Q.e
Pdx Pdx
dx  c

Which is the required solution.

The factor e Pdx is called an integra tion factor of the differential equation & is shortly written
as I.F.
dy
Remember : The solution of
dx
 Pt  Q is y.( I . F )   Q .( I . F )dx  c .

Illustration 20
Solve the following differential equations :

(i)
dy y
  x2
dx x
(ii) ( x log x )
dy
dx
 y  2 log x 
(iii) 1  x
2
 dx
dy
 y  tan 1
x

3 dy dy 1  sin x dy
(iv) (1  x )  6 x 2 y  (1  x 2 ) (v) y 2
(vi) ( x  1)  2 xy  x2  4
dx dx 1  cos x dx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
38 QUIZRR
Solution :
(i) Given differential equation is

dy y
  x2
dx x

1
which is linear in y, where P  and Q  x2 .
x

1
 dx log x
I .F .  e x e x [ elog m  m ]
Solution is given by

y( I .F .)   Q( I .F .) dx

x4
 yx   x2 .xdx  yx   x3 dx  yx 
4
c

(ii) Given differential equation is

dy dy y 2
( x log x)  y  2 log x   
dx dx x log x x

1 2
which is linear in y, where P  x log x and Q 
x

1
 dx
I .F .  e x log x
 elog(log x)  log x [ elog m  m ]

Solution is given by y( I .F .)   Q( I .F .) dx

2 log x 1
 y log x   dx   2tdt where t  log x  dt  dx
x x

 t2  c

 y log x  (log x)2  c

(iii) Given differential equation is

dy dy y tan 1 x
(1  x2 )  y  tan 1 x   
dx dx 1  x2 1  x2

1 tan 1 x
which is linear in y, where P  and Q 
1  x2 1  x2
1
 dx 1 x
I .F .  e 1 x2  etan
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 39

Solution is given by

y( I .F .)   Q( I .F .) dx

1 x tan1 x 1 x
 yetan  2
etan dx
1 x

1 1
  tet dt where t  tan x  dt  dx
1  x2

1 x
 yetan  tet  et  c

1 x 1 x 1 x
 yetan  tan 1 xetan  etan c

e
y  (tan 1 x  1) 
 1 x
etan
(iv) Given differential equation is

dy dy 6 x2 (1  x2 )
(1  x3 )  6 x2 y  (1  x2 )   y 
dx dx 1  x3 1  x3

6 x2 1  x2
which is linear in y, where P  and Q 
1  x3 1  x3

6 x2
 dx 3) 3 )2
I .F .  e 1 x3  e2 log(1 x  elog(1 x  (1  x3 )2

Solution is given by

y( I .F .)   Q( I .F .) dx

1  x2
 y(1  x3 )2   (1  x3 )2 dx   (1  x2 )(1  x3 ) dx
1  x3

  1  x3  x2  x5 dx   1  x2  x3  x5 dx

x3 x4 x6
 y(1  x3 )2  x    c
3 4 6

(v) Given differential equation is

dy 1  sin x
y
dx 1  cos x

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
40 QUIZRR

1  sin x
which is linear in y, where P  1 and Q 
1  cosx

I.F .  e
1 dx
 ex

Solution is given by y( I .F .)   Q( I .F .) dx

1  sin x x  1 sin x 
 yex   e dx   ex    dx
1  cos x  1  cos x cos x 

 x x
2sin cos 
x 1 2 2
 e    dx
 2cos2 x 2cos 2 x 

 2 2 

1 x x
  ex  sec 2  tan  dx
 2 2 2 

1 x x
  sec 2 ex dx   tan ex dx
2 2 2

1 x x 1 x
  sec 2 ex dx  tan ex   sec 2 ex dx
2 2 2 2 2

x x
 yex  tan e c
2

(vi) Given differential equation is

dy dy 2x x2  4
( x2  1)  2 xy  x2  4   2  2
dx dx x  1 x 1

2x x2  4
which is linear in y, where P  and Q 
x2  1 x2  1
2x
I.F.  dx log x2 1
e x2 1 e  x2  1
Solution is given by

y( I .F .)   Q( I .F .) dx

x2  4
y( x2  1)   2
( x2  1) dx   x2  4 dx
x 1

x 2
 y( x2  1)  x  4  2 log x  x2  4  c
2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 41

Type 2

Ber noulli’s E q uat ion in X / E xt end ed for m of linear eq uat ion

For this type, the equation is as follows

dy
 Py  Qyn
dx
where P & Q are functions of x alone and do not contain y. How to solve it then :

Step-1 : Make R.H.S. free of y

 dividing by yn

1 dy P
n dx
 n 1  Q
y y

dy
Step-2 : Make the coefficient of free of x. Here it is already free so go to Step-3.
dx

1
Step-3 : Substitute n1
t {Substituting the coefficient of middle term i.e.f.}
y

(n  1) dy dt

yn dx dx
putting in DE

1 dt
PQ
(1  n) dx

dt
  P(1  n)  Q(1  n)
dx
which becomes our normal linear form now & can be solved as done earlier.

Illustration 21

dy
(a) ( y log x  1) ydx  xdy (b) sec 2 y  x tan y  x 3
dx
Solution.
(a) ( y log x  1) ydx  xdy

dy
y2 log x  y  x
dx

dy
or x  y  y2 log x
dx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
42 QUIZRR

1 dy 1 log x
or 2 dx
 
y xy x

1
Now put t
y

1 dy dt
  
y2 dx dx

dt t log x
   
dx x x

dt t  log x
  
dx x x
Now this is normal linear form

1
  dx
I.F. = e
P.dx 1
e x  e log x  elog(1/ x) 
x

 Solution becomes

1  log x   1   log x 

t.          dx      dx
 x  x  x   x2 
integratign using by parts

t 1 1 1
 log x   . dx
x x x x

t 1 1
or  log x   C
x x x

 t  log x  1  Cx

 log x  log e  Cx

 log ex  Cx
replacing the value of t

1
  log ex  Cx
y

dy
(b) sec 2 y  x tan y  x3
dx
This is again bernoulliÊs equation through simplified one as step-1 & step-2 have already
been done here. Only step-3 is required to be done

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 43

putting tan y  t

dy dt
 sec 2 y 
dx dx

dt
  xt  x3
dx
Now this is normal Linear form

I.F. = e
 xdx 3 /2
 ex

2 /2 2 /2
t.ex   x3 ex dx

x2
for R.H.S. now putting z
2

 xdx  dz
2 /2
 t.ex   2 z ez dt

using by parts
2 /2
t.ex  2ez ( z  1)  C
replacing value of t & z

2 /2 2 /2  x2 
 tan y.ex  2 ex   1  C

 2 

 x2  2
 tan y  2   1   Ce x /2
 2 
 

 solution is
2 /2
tan y  ( x2  2)  Ce2 x

Illustration 22

dy dy xy
(a) Solve the differential equation : x 2  xy  y2 (b)   xy1 / 2
dx dx 1  x 2
Solution :

dy y y2
The differential equation is   (BernoulliÊs Diferential Equation)
dx x x2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
44 QUIZRR

1 dy 1 1
 
2 dx xy
 2 ...(1)
y x

1 1 dy dt
Let t  
y y2 dx dx
On substituting in (1), we get

dy t 1
  i.e. linear differential equation.
dx x x2

1
   dx 1
I.F.  e x  e tan x 
x
Using the standard result, the solution of the differential equation is

1 1 1
     2 dx  C
x  x x

1 1
   2  C is the general solution.
xy 2x

dy xy
(b)   xy1/2
dx 1  x2

this is bernoulliÊs equation.

1 dy  x  1/2
 y  x
y dx  1  x2 
1/2

1/2 1 dy
& d( y )  , which has same function of y as in coefficient of ,
2y 1/2 dx

hence right condition for linear form.

putting y1/2  t

1 dy dt
 
2y 1/ 2 dx dx

 equation becomes

dt  x 
2  t x
dx  1  x2 

dt  x  t x
 
dx  1  x2  2 2
or

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 45

now it is normal linear form

x dx
 2
I.F. = e 1 x 2

1 xdx
2  1 x2
 e

putting 1  x2  z
 2xdx  dz

1 dz 1 1
  z  log z  log(1 x2 )
 I.F. = e 4 e 4 e 4

2 )1/4
 elog(1 x

 I.F. = (1  x2 )1/4
so solution of D.E. becomes

x
t.(I.F.) =  2
(I.F.)dx  C

x
 t.(1  x2 ) 1/4   (1  x2 ) 1/4 dx  C
2

R.H.S. can be solved by putting (1  x2 )  z

 2xdx  dz

z3/4
 t.(1  x2 ) 1/4  C
3

z3/4
 t.(1  x2 ) 1/4  C
3
putting back the value of t & z
 solution to D.E. is

y1/2 (1  x2 ) 1/4  (1  x2 )3/4  C

Illustration 23

2 dy
Solve the differential equation : y  x  y3
dx
Solution :
2 dy
The given differential equation is : y  x  y3
dx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
46 QUIZRR

dy x
  y
dx y2

dy
  y  xy2 (BernoulliÊs Differential Equation)
dx

dy
 y2  y3  x
dx

dy dt
Let y3 = t  3 y2 
dx dx
On substituting in the differential equation, it reduces to linear differential equation : i.e.

dt
 3t  3 x
dx

 e
3 dx
I.F.  e3 x
Using the standard result, the solution of the differential equation is :

e3 xt  3  xe3 x dx  c

 1 
 y3 e3 x   x e3 x dx   e3 x dx  C
 3 

1 3 x
 y3 e3 x   xe3 x  e C
3

1
 y3   x   Ce3 x
3

  
3 y3  x  1  ke3 x is the general solution

H ow t o d ecid e whet her given D.E . is linear or not

Step-1 : Make R.H.S. independent of y.

dy
Step-2 : Make coefficeint of independent of x
dx

dy
Step-3 : If derivative of terms of y from middle term = coefficeint of term then the equation
dx
is reducible to linear D.E. by assuming the coefficient of middle term = t
else
interchange middle term & R.H.S. in original D.E. & then go to Step-1 again.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 47

For example

dy y y(log y)2
take D.E.,  log( y) 
dx x x2
Step-1  R.H.S. independent of y

1 dy 1 1
  2
y(log y) dx 2(log y) x x

dy
Step-2 : Coefficient of independent of x
dx

1
Step-3 : Middle term = x log y

1
& terms of y  (log y)

d  1  1 dy
derivative of terms of y    2 = coefficient of
dx  log y  y(log y) dx

Hence this is in Linear form

1
now put t
log y

1
 dy  dt
y(log y)2

 original DE becomes

dt t 1
   2
dx x x

dt t 1
   2
dx x x
which is our normal linear D.E. Solve it using the method used in earlier questions.

(2) But now take the example

dy tan y
 (1  x) ex sec y 
dx 1 x
applying the above procedure here too

1  dy  (1  x) ex 1
  sec y 
tan y  dx  tan y (1  x)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
48 QUIZRR

sec y
now terms of y in middle terms  tan y  cos ecy

d 1
& (cos ecy) 
dy tan y

as it is  cot x cos ecy , hence not in linear from

so going through the else part, i.e. interchanging the middle term and R.H.S.
so DE becomes

dy tan y
  (1  x) ex sec y
dx 1  x
removing terms of y from R.H.S.

1 dy tan y
  (1  x) ex
sec y dx sec y (1  x)

dy sin y
cos y   (1  x)ex
dx (1  x)

d
now (sin y)   cos y
dx

dy
which is equal to coefficeint of except for the minus sign which can neglected.
dx

Type 3. Linear DE in x

dx
i.e.  Px  Q , where P & Q are functions of y or constants
dy

Note here I.F. would be integrated with respect to dy

I.F.=e
Pdy
i.e.
 Solution to the DE becomes

x(I.F.) =  Q.(I.F.)dy  C

Type 4. Following the same lines is BernoulliÊs D.E. in x

dx
i.e. for  Px  Qxn , the process remains the same
dy

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 49

i.e. divide by xn

1 dx P
n dy
 n 1  Q
x x

1
Let n1
t
x

(1  n) dx dt
 
xn dy dy

1 dt P
  Q
(1  n) dy t

dt P
  (1  n)  Q(1  n)
dy t

I.F.=e
 (1 n) Pdy

 Solution becomes

t(I.F.) =  Q(1  n)(I.F.)dy  C

1
 n 1
(I.F.)   Q(1  n)(I.F.)dy  C
x
Note : The condition for checking whether the given DE is linear or not will remain same as done
earlier for this type, just repalce y by x & x by y in all the conditions done there.

Illustration 24
Solve the following differential equations :

dy
(i) ydx  ( x  2 y 2 )dy  0 (ii) ( x  y  1) 1
dx

 1  dy
(iii) y2   x   0 (iv) (1  y2 )d x  (tan 1 y  x )d y
 y  dx

Solution :
(i) Given differential equation is

ydx  ( x  2 y2 ) dy  0

dx
 ydx  ( x  2 y2 ) dy  0  y  x  2 y2
dy

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
50 QUIZRR

dx x dx x
   2y    2y
dy y dy y

1
which is linear in x, where P   and Q  2 y
y

1
  dy
y  log y 1 1
I.F.  e e  elog y 
y

Solution is given by

1 1
y 
x(I.F.)   Q(I.F.)dy  x.  2 y. dy
y

x
  2 1dy  2 y  c
y

 x  2 y2  cy

(ii) Given differential equation is

dy
( x  y  1) 1
dx

dx dx
 x y1    x  y 1
dy dy

which is linear in x, where P  1 and Q  y  1

I.F. = e
1dy
 e y

Solution is given by x.(I.F.) =  Q(I.F.)dy

 xe y   ( y  1) e y dy

 xe y  ( y  1) e y   e y dy  ( y  1) e y  e y  c

 x  ( y  1)  1  ey c

 x  ( y  2)  ey c  x  y  2  ey c

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 51

2  1  dy
(iii) Given differential equation is y   x   0
 y  dx

2 dx 1 dx x 1
 y dy  x  y  0   2  3
dy y y

1 1
which is linear equation in x, where P  2 and Q  .
y y3

1 1
 dy 
y2 y
I.F. = e e

Solution is given by x(I.F.)   Q(I.F.)dy

1 1 1
 
y 1 y 1 y 1
 xe  e dy   e . 2 dy   (tet )dt
y3 y y

1 1
where t    dt  2 dy
y y


1  1
 
1
1 y
xe y
   e e y  c

  y 
 

1 1 1 1
 1   1
y
 xe  e y  e y  c  x   1  ce y
y y

(iv) Given differential equation is

(1  y2 ) dx  (tan 1 y  x) dy

dx tan 1 y x
  
dy 1 y2
1  y2

dx x tan 1 y
  
dy 1  y2 1  y2

1 tan 1 y
which is linear in x, where P  2
and Q 
1 y 1  y2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
52 QUIZRR

1
 dy
1 y
1 y2
I.F. = e  etan
Solution is given by

x(I.F.) = Q(I.F.)dy

1 y tan 1 y 1 y
 xetan  2
.etan dy
1 y

1 y 1 1
 xetan   tet dt , where t  tan y  dt  dy
1  y2

1 y 1 y 1 y
 xetan  tan 1 yetan  etan c

c
 x  (tan 1 y  1)  1 y
etan

Illustration 25
Solve the following initial value problems :

dy  
(i)  2 y tan x  sin x , y    2
dx 3

dy
(ii)  y cot x  2 x  x 2 cot x , y(0)  0
dx

3 dy
(iii) ( x  2 y )  y, y(2)  1 .
dx
Solution :

dy
(i) Given differential equation is  2 y tan x  sin x which is linear in y,
dx

P  2 tan x amd Q  sin x

I.F. = e
2 tan xdx 2 log sec x 2x
e  elog sec  sec 2 x
Solution is given by

y(I.F.) =  Q(I.F.)dx

 y sec 2 x   sin x sec 2 xdx   tan x sec xdx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 53

 y sec 2 x  sec x  c

  
Now, y    2  when x  , y2
3 3

 
 2sec 2  sec c  8  2 c c6
3 3

y sec 2 x  sec x  6
which is the required solution.

(ii) Given differential equation is

dy
 y cot x  2 x  x2 cot x
dx

which is linear in y, where P  cot x and Q  2 x  x2 cot x

I.F. = e
cot xdx
 elog (sin x)  sin x
Solution is given by

y(I.F.)   Q(I.F.)dx

 y sin x   (2 x  x2 cot x) sin xdx   (2 x sin x  x2 cos x) dx

  2 x sin xdx   x2 cos xdx

  2 x sin xdx  x2 sin x   2 x sin xdx

 y sin x  x2 sin x  c

Now, y(0)  0  when x  0, y  0  0  0 c  c  0

Thus y sin x  x2 sin x  y  x2

which is the required solution.

(iii) Given differential equation is

dy dx
( x  2 y3 ) y  x  2 y3  y
dx dy

x dx dx x
  2 y2     2 y2
y dy dy y

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
54 QUIZRR

1
which is linear in x, where P   y and Q  2 y2

Solution is given by

x(I.F.) =  Q(I.F.).dy

1 1
 x     2 y2 dy  2 ydy
y
  y

x x
  y2  c   y2  c
y y

Now, y(2)  1  when x  2, y  1

 2  1 c  c  1

x 2 3
Thus y  y  1  x  y  y

is required solution.

Set-4

Type : Exact Form

A differential equation of the form M ( x, y)dx  N ( x, y)dy  0 is said to be exact form if its left hand
expression is the exact differential of some function i.e. ( x, y) .

i.e. du  M.dx  N.dy

It is a form which can be interpreted to get solution of DE. This form works by method of
inspection and for that you require practice.
The following shortcuts will ease out your process
1. xdy  ydx  d ( xy)

1
2. xdx  ydy  d ( x2  y2 )
2

xdy  ydx  y
3.  d 
x2
 x

ydx  xdy  x
4.  d  [remember these two by the dinominator in DE]
 y
2
y

xdy  ydx   y 
5.  d  log  
xy   x 
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 55

ydx  xdy   x 
6.  d  log  
xy   y 

xdy  ydx   y 
7.  d  tan 1   
2
x y 2
  x 

ydx  xdy   x 
8.  d  tan 1   
x2  y2   y 

ydx  xdy
9.  d  log( xy) 
xy

xdy  ydx  1 
10.  d 
 xy 
2 2
x y

Illustration 26

xdy  ydx
(a) xdx  ydy  0 (b) (1  x2 y2 ) dx  ydx  xdy (c) (1  xy) ydx  (1  xy) xdy  0
x2  y2

Solution :

xdy  ydx
  ydy
xdx   2 2
0
x  y

(a) If you see this one, this is
 x2  y2  This one is derivative of
d  y
 2  tan 1
x

 DE becomes

 x2  y2   1 y 
d   d  tan 0
 2   x 

integrating this to get the solution.

x2  y2 y
 tan 1  0
2 x

(b) (1  x2 y2 ) dx  ydx  xdy

We know RHS is of teh form d[ xy] and LHS also contains the term of xy . Rearranging

d[ xy]
dx 
1  x2 y2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
56 QUIZRR
on RHS putting xy  t

 d[ xy]  dt

dt
 dx 
1  t2

dt
integrating  dx  
1  t2

1 1 t
 x log c
2 1t

replacing t by xy

1 1  xy
 x log c
2 1  xy

(c) (1  xy) ydx  (1  xy) xdy  0

at first look we cannot see any exact form over here but let us wait.

ydx  xy2 dx  xdy  x2 ydy  0

( xdy  ydx)  xy( ydx  xdy)  0 ...(i)

now this can be in exact form
d[ xy]  xdy  ydx

  x  ydx  xdy
and d log   
  y  xy

So arranging for DE

( xdy  ydx)
 ( ydx  xdy)  0
xy

 xdy  ydx  ( ydx  xdy)

   0
 ( xy)
2
 ( xy)

d ( xy)   x 
 d  log    0
 y 
2
( xy) 

for this part
put xyt , d[ xy] dt

dt   x
  d  log     0
 y
2
t 
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 57

1  x
  log    c  0
t  y

 x 1
 log    c0
 y  xy

Illustration 27

y
(a) ydx  dx  sin ydx  xdy  log xdy  x cos yd y  0
x

xdx  yd y a 2  x 2  y2 dy y 1
(b)  (c)  
xdy  ydx x 2  y2 dx x (1  log x  log y)2

Solution :

y
(a) ydx  dx  sin ydx  xdy  log xdy  x cos ydy  0
x
arranging them to pair, to form exact forms

 y 

ydx  xdy   sin ydx  x cos ydy  
    
dx  log xdy   0
x

d [ xy] d [ x sin y]  
d[ y log x]

why d[ x sin y] ?

differentiate ( x sin y) w.r.t. x & y separately

d[ x sin y]  sin ydx  x cos ydy

   
w.r .t. x w.r.t. y

so integrating the DE formed

 d[ xy]   d[ x sin y]   d[ y log x]  0

xy  x sin y  y log x  0

xdx  ydy a2  x2  y2
(b) 
xdy  ydx x2  y2

xdx  ydy a2  ( x2  y2 )

xdy  ydx x2  y2

 x2  y2 
also we know xdx  ydy  d  
 2 

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
58 QUIZRR

 x2  y2 
d 
 2  a2  ( x2  y2 )
 xdy  ydx
x2  y2

divding both sides by x2  y2 , because

xdy  ydx   y

 d  tan 1   
2
x y 2
  x 

1 d[ x2  y2 ] a2  ( x2  y2 )  xdy  ydx 
   2 2 
2 x2  y2 x2  y2 
 x y 

1 d[ x2  y2 ]   y 
 d  tan 1   
2 x2  y2 a 2  ( x2  y2 )   x 

taking terms of ( x2  y2 ) on LHS

put x2  y2  t2 on LHS

1 2tdt   y
 d  tan 1   
 2 t2 a2  t2   x

dt   y 
  d  tan 1   
a 2  t2   x 

integrating & using standard formulaÊs

t  y
sin 1    tan 1    c
a  x

 The solution is

 x2  y2 
sin 1    tan 1  y   c
 a   x
 

dy y 1
(c)  
dx x (1  log x  log y)2

again at first look this looks like a non-exact form

dy y 1
 
dx x (1  log xy)2 using log a  log b  log ab

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 59

xdy  ydx 1

xdx (1  log( xy))2

 ( xdy  ydx)(1  log xy)2  xdx

and we know d[ xy]  xdy  ydx

putting xy  t

 d[t](1  log t)2  xdx

integrating both sides

 1.(1  log t)2 dt   xdx

solving LHS by parts

2(1  log t) x2
(1  log t) 2 .t   t. dt  c
t 2

x2
t.(1  log t)2  2 (1  log t) dt  c (i)
2
Now solving

I  (1  log t) dt   dt   log tdt

 t   log tdt

 t  (t log t  t)

 t log t
putting this value back in (i)

x2
t.(1  log t) 2  2t log t  c
2
 solution is

x2
xy(1  log xy) 2  2 xy log xy  c
2

O r t hogonal T r aj ect or y of a G iven C ur ve :

Any curve, which cuts every member of a given family of curvs at right angle, is called an
orthogonal trajectory of the family.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 60 QUIZRR
y

Orthogonal
projactory

Pr oced ur e :

(i) Let f (x, y, c)  0 be the eqaution where c is an arbitrary parameter

(ii) Differentiate the given equation w.r.t. x and eliminate c

dx dy
(iii) Substitute  for in the equation obtained in step (ii)
dy dx

(iv) Solve the differential equation obtained from step (iii).

Illustration 28

Find the orthogonal trajectories of the curve y  a x 2 .

Solution :

y  ax2 ...(i)
Differentiating equation (i), we get

dy
 2 ax ...(ii)
dx
Eliminating a from equation (i) & (ii) , we get

dy 2 y
 x ...(iii)
dx x2

dx dy
Putting  dy in equation (iii) in place of , we get
dx

 dx 2 y
   xdx  2 ydy
dy x

x2 2 y2
   2 y2  x2  0
2 2
This is the family of required orthogonal trajectories.
Note : All the curves in this family of curves are orthogonal to the given family of curves.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 61

Illustration 29

Find the orthogonal trajectory of teh curve a n1 y  xn .

Solution :

Given curve is a n1 y  xn ...(i)

n1 dy
Differentiating equation (i) w.r.t. x, we get a  nxn1 ...(ii)
dx
Eliminating a from equation (i) & (ii) we get

xn dy
 nxn1 ...(iii)
y dx

dx dy
Putting  in equation (iii) in place of , we get
dy dx

xn dx  xdx
 .  nxn 1  n   xdx  nydy
y dy ydy

x2 ny2
 c  ny2  x2  constant .
2 2

Illustration 30

Find the orthogonal trajectories of the circles x2  y2  ay  0 where a is a parameter.

Solution :

Here, x2  y2  ay  0 : differentiating w.r.t. x,

dy dy
2x  2 y a 0
dx dx

dy x2  y2 dy  2 2 x2  y2 
 2x  2 y  0  x  y  ay  0  a  
dx y dx  y 

y2  x2 dy
or 2x  0.
y dx

This is the differential equation of the circle. The equation of orthogonal trajectories is

y2  x2  dx    dx dy 
2x  .  0,  putting in place of 
y  dy   dy dx 

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
62 QUIZRR

or 2 xydy  ( x2  y2 ) dx  0 .
It is a homogeneous equation.

dy dy
Put y  vx ; then  v x
dx dx

 dv 
 2 x.vx.  v  x   x2  v2 x2  0
 dx 

 dv  dv
or 2v  v  x   1  v2  0  1  v2  2vx 0
 dx  dx

dx 2v
or  dv  0 ; integrating, we get log x  log(1  v2 )  log c
x 1  v2

 x(1  v2 )  c

 y2 
or x  1  2   c , i.e., x2  y2  cx .
 x 


T o solve d iffer ent ial eq uat ion of t he fir st or d er b ut of higher d egr ee.
Standard forms of differential equation of the first order and higher degree are as follows (here
dy
we denote by p).
dx
Ć Solvabale for p.
Form { p  f1 ( x, y)}{ p  f2 ( x, y)}...{ p  fn ( x, y)}  0

Method Solve the first order and first degree equation p  f1 ( x, y)  0 etc. If  ( x, y, c)  0 , etc. are
solutions (taking the same arbitrary constant c for each) then 1 ( x, y, c).2 ( x, y, c)...n ( x, y, c)  0
is the solution.
Ć Solvable for y. Form y  f (x, p)

Method. Differentiate y  f ( x, y) w.r.t. x which gives a first order and first degree equation
in p and x. Solve it to get  ( x, p, c)  0 .

Eliminating p from y  f (x, p) and  ( x, p, c)  0

Ć Solveable for x From x  f ( y, p)

Method. Differentiate x  f ( y, p) w.r.t. y, which gives a first order and first degree equation
in p and y. Solve it to get  ( y, p, c)  0 . Eliminate p from x  f ( y, p) and  ( y, p, c)  0 .

Ć ClairautÊs equation. Form y  px  f ( p)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 63

Method. Differentiate w.r.t. x, we get

dp
{ x  f ( p)} 0
dx

 p  c or f ( p)  x  0

When p  c , the general solution is y  cx  f (c) which gives a family of straight lines.

When f ( p)  x  0 , eliminating p from y  px  f ( p) and f ( p)  x  0 we get a solution

which is a curve (without any arbitrary constant) touching all the lines given by y  cx  f (c) .
This solution is called the singular solution.

Illustration 31

2
 dy  dy
Solve x    ( y  x)  y0.
 dx  dx

Solution :

dy
Here xp2  ( y  x) p  y  0 where p 
dx

or xp2  xp  yp  y  0

 xp( p  1)  y( p  1)  0

or ( p  1)( xp  y)  0

or ( p  1)( xp  y)  0

 p 1  0 or xp  y  0

dy
Now, p  1  0  1
dx
 y x c

dy
xp  y  0  0 x  y0
dx

 xdy  ydx  0

 d ( xy)  0
 xy  c

 the general solution is ( y  x  c)( xy  c)  0 .

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
64 QUIZRR

Illustration 32

2
d y  dy 
Solve y  2 x   .
dx  dx 

Solution :

dy
Here, y  2 xp  p2 where p  .
dx

It is in the form y  f ( x, p) [solvabale for y]

Differentiate w.r.t. x,

dp dp
p  2 p  2x  2p
dx dx

dp
 2( x  p)  p0
dx

dx
or p  2x  2 p  0
dp

dx 2
  x  2 ...(1)
dp p

The integrating factor

2
 dp 2
e p
 e2 log p  elog p  p2 .

Multiplying (1) by p3 .

dx
p2  2 px  2 p2
dp

d
 ( p2 x)  2 p2
dp

or d ( p2 x)  2 p2 dp

2 p3 c
 p2 x   2 p2 dp    .
3 3

Thus, we have y  2 xp  p2 and 3 p2 x  2 p3  c

 2 py  c  2 p(2 xp  p2 )  (3 p2 x  2 p3 )

 4 xp2  3 p2 x  xp2  x( y  2 xp)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 65

 p(2 y  2 x)2  xy  c

xy  c
 p .
2 y  2 x2

Putting this in y  2 xp  p2

2
xy  c  xy  c 
y  2 x.   
2 y  2 x2  2 y  2 x2 

 4 y( y  x2 )2  4 x( xy  c)( y  x2 )  ( xy  c)2

Illustration 33

2
dy  dy
Solve 1    x
 dx  dx

Solution :

dy
Here , xp  1  p2 where p 
dx

1
 x p ...(1)
p

which is of the form x  f ( y, p) {solvable for x}

Differentiating (1) w.r.t. y

1  1  dp
   2  1 
p  p  dy

 1 
or dy  p  1  2  dp
 p 

 1
 y  c    p   dp
 p

p2
or y x   log p ...(2)
2

 the p-eliminating , obtained by eliminating p from (1) and (2), is the genenral solution.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
66 QUIZRR

Illustration 34

2
dy  dy 
Solve y  x   .
dx  d x 

Solution :

dy
Here, y  xp  p2 where p  ; this is of the form y  xp  f ( p) .
dx
Differentiating w.r.t. x

dp dp
p  p x  2p
dx dx

dp dp
 ( x  2 p) 0;  x  2 p  0 or 0
dx dx

dp
0  p  c]
dx

 y  xp  p gives y  cx  c2

x
x  2p  0  p .
2

Fact s fr om car t esian cur ve :

dy y
(i) Slope of tangent at any point P ( x, y) 
dx P(x, y)
dy
(ii) Equation of tangent PQ at ( x, y) is Y  y  ( X  x) 
dx
T N
dx
(iii) Equation of normal PR at ( x, y) is Y  y   dy ( X  x)

Q S.T. M S.N. R x
2
 dx 
(iv) Length of trangent PQ at ( x, y)  y 1   
 dy 

2
 dy 
(v) Length of normal PG at ( x, y)  y 1   
 dx 

dx
(vi) Length of subtangent QM at ( x, y)  y.
dy

dy
(vii) Length of subnormal MR at ( x, y)  y. .
dx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 67

Illustration 35
Find the equation of curve whose subtangent is n times the abscissa of the point of contact.
Solution :

dx
If (x,y) be any point on the curve, the subtangent at ( x, y)  y dy ...(i)

dx
Now y  nx (given)
dy

dy dx
or n 
y x

Integrating, n log y  log x  log c

or yn  cx which is the required equation of the family of curves.

Illustration 36
Find the equation of curve in which the length of the subnornal in twice the square of the
ordinate.
Solution :

 dy 
The subnormal at any point ( x, y) on the curve is given by y  .
 dx 

 dy  2
Now y   2y (given)
 dx 

dy
or  2dx
y

Integrating, log y  2 x  c

y
or  e2x i.e. y  ce2x
c

Illustration 37
Find the equation of the curve for which the length of the normal at any point is k times
square of the ordinate.
Solution :
2
 dy  2
Given that y 1   ky
 dx 

2
 dy  dy
or 1   k2 y2   k2 y2  1
 dx  dx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
68 QUIZRR

dy
 dx
or 2 2 ...(i)
x y 1

dy
 dx
or x ...(i)
y2  1 / x2

Now solve it using normal integration

Illustration 38
Find equation of the cure in which the perpendicular from the origin upon the tangent is
equal to the abscissa of point of contact.
Solution :
Let P(x, y) be any point on the curve equation of tangent at P is

dy
yă y= ( x  x)
dx

dy dy
or X Y  y x 0 ...(i)
dx dx
Now, length of perpendicular from then origin (0,0) on (i) is x

dy
0 0  y x   dy  
2 2
dx  x  dy  2
   y  x dx   x  1   dx  

 dy 
2      
 dx   1
 

dy
or y2  2 xy  x2
dx

dy y2  x2
or  ...(ii)
dx 2 xy

dv v2 x2  x2 v2  1
v x   [putting y  vx in (ii)]
dx 2vx2 2v

dv v2  1 1  v2
 x  v
dx 2v 2v

2v dx
 dv  0
1 v 2 x

Integrating (1  v2 ) x  c

 x2  y2  cx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 69

Illustration 39
Find the equation of the curve passing through (2,1) which has constant subtangent.
Solution :
The length of subtangent is constant. Using this property, we can define the differential equation
y
of the curve i.e. subtangent   k where k is a constant.
y

dy
 k y
dx
Integrate both sides to get :
kdy
 y
  dx

 k log y  x  c where c is an arbitrary constant.

As the required curve passes through (2,1), it lies on it.
 0  2k  c  2

 the equation of the curve is : k log y  x  2 .

Note that above equation can also be put in the form y  AeBx .

Illustration 40
Find the curve through (2,0) so that the segment of tangent between point of tangency and
y-axis has a constant length equal to 2.
Solution :
The segment of the tangent between the point of tangency and y-axis has a constant length
= PT  2
Using this property, we can define the differential equation of the curve i.e.

PT  x sec   x 1  tan 2   x 1  y2

2
 dy 
 x 1  2
 dx 
2 P(x, y)
 dy  4
 1   2
 dx  x T 
x
dy 4  x2
 
dx x2
Intgerate both sides to get :

4  x2
 y   dx  c1
x2
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
70 QUIZRR
Put x  2sin   dx  2cos d

cos2 
 y2 d  c1    (cos ec  sin  ) d  c1
sin 
 (2log cos ec  cot   2cos )  c

 
2  4  x2
y  2 log   4  x2   c
  x 
 

As (2,0) lies on the curve, it should satisfy its equation, i.e. c  0 .

 2 
y   2 log  2  4  x  4  x2 
 the equation of the curve is :  x .
 

Problem based on application of differential equation

Illustration 41
A normal is drawn at a point P(x,y) of a curve. It meets the x-axis at Q. If PQ is of constat
length k, then show that the differential equation describing such a curve is

dy
y   k 2  y2
dx
Find the equation of such a curve passing through (0,k). [IIT 1994]
Solution :
Let P(x, y) be any point on the curve . Given, PQ = k

 y sec [from PNQ ]

 y 1  tan 2  Y
no
rm tangent
al
2
 dy   dy  P(x, y)
 y 1   tan  dx  90Ĉ
 dx   

  dy 2   y
 k2  y2 1    
  dx   O L N Q X

2
2 2 dy  2
or k y y  
 dx 

dy
 y   k2  y2
dx

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 71

2nd part.
y
From (1),  dy    dx
k2  y2

or  k2  y2   x  c ...(2)
Sine curve (2) passes through (0,k)

  k2  k2  0  c  c  0

 from (1), required curve is  k2  y2   x

or k2  y2  x2 or x2  y2  k2

Illustration 42

Let y  f ( x ) be a curve passing through (1,1) such that the triangle formed by the co-
ordinate axes and the tangent at any point of the curve lies in the first quadrant and has
area 2. From the differential equation and determine all such possible curves. [IIT 1995]
Solution :
Equation of tangent to the curve
y  f ( x) at P ( x, y) is

dy
Y y ( X  x) ...(1)
dx

y
Putting Y  0 , we get X  x  y
1

dy
where y1 
dx

 y   y 
 A   x  ,0  x   0 as P lies on the positive side of x-axis 
 y1   y1 
Again putting X  0 in (1), we get Y  y  xy1

 B  (0, y  xy1 )[ y  xy1  0] Y

According to question area of AOB  2
y = f(x)
1 B
 OA.OB  2 or OA.OB  4
2
P(x, y)
y
or x y  xy1  4
y1 O A X

or ( xy1  y)2  4 y1

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
72 QUIZRR

 xy1  y  2  y1 ...(2)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t x, we get

dy1 2   dy1 
y1  x  y1    
dx 2  y1  dx 

dy1  1 
or x 0
dx   y1 


dy1 dy
  0  y1  constant  y1  c
dx dx

From (2), cx  y  2  c ...(3)

But curve (3) passes through (1,1)

 c  1  2  c  c2  2c  1  4 c

 c2  2 c  1  0  (c  1)2  0  c  1

From (3),  x  y  2

or x  y  2

But when x  1; y  1, x  y  2 is not satisfied  x  y  2 ...(4)

1
Again x 0
 y1

1 1
   x   x2
 y1  y1

1 dy 1
or y1     2
x 2 dx x

1
or y  c1 ...(5)
x
Since curve (5) passes through (1,1)

 1  1  c1  c1  0

1
 from (5), y  or xy  1 ...(6)
x
Hence required curves are
x  y  2 and xy  1 .

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 73

Illustration 43

A curve y  f ( x ) passes through the point P(1,1). The normal to the curve at P is
a ( y  1)  ( x  1)  0 . If the slope of the tangent at any point on the curve is proportional to
the ordinate of the point. Determine the equation of the curve. Also obtain the area bounded
by the y-axis, the curve and the normal to the curve at P. [IIT 1996]
Solution :
Equation of the curve is y  f ( x) ...(1)
Let P ( x, y) be any point on the curve. According to question

dy dy
dx
 ky   y 
 kdx

or log y  kx  c ...(2)
Since curve (2) passes through (1,1)
 log1  k  c  c   k ...(3)

 dy 
Also   at (1,1) = k.1  k
 dx 
But normal to the curve at P(1,1) is
a ( y  1)  x  1  0 ...(4)

1 1 1
Its slope =     k a
a k a
 from (3), c   a
Hence required curve is log y  ax  a ...(5)

or y  eax a  e a .eax ,

or y  meax , where m  e ax ...(6)

Now, A  (0, m) and B   0,1  1 

 a
Required area ABCA
1 1 1  x  a 
  ( y1  y2 ) dx     e aeax  dx
0 0 a 
Y 1
y=1+a
1 B
1 x2 
 ax  e a .  eax     a  e a (ea  1) 
1 1 1 1
 x 
a  2 a   a 2  C y = meax
 0 0
a(y
ă1
)+
1 1  A xă
  a   e a  sq. units. 1=
a 2  (0, m) y=m 0
O X

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
74 QUIZRR

Illustration 44
A curve C has the property that if the tangent drawn at any point P on C meets the co-
ordinate axes at A and B, then P is the mid point of AB. The curve passes through the point
(1,1). Determine the equation of the curve. [IIT 1998]
Solution :
Let the given curve C be y  f ( x) ...(1)
Let P(x,y) be a point on curve (1).
Equation of the tangent to curve (1) at P is

dy
Y y ( X  x) ...(2)
dx
Here (X,Y) is arbitrary point on the tangent and (x,y) is arbitrary point on the curve.

y
Putting Y  0 , we get X  x 
dy
dx

dy
and putting X  0 , we get Y  y  x .
dx
Since line (2) cuts x and y axes at A and B respectively.

 dy   dy 
 A  x y/ ,0  , B   0, y  x 
 dx   dx 
Since P(x,y) is the mid point of AB,

dy dy
 2x  x  y / x  y ...(3)
dx dx

dy dy
and 2y  y  x x  y ...(4)
dx dx

dy
From (3) and (4), x  y
dx

dy dx
or   0  log y  log x  log c
y x

or log xy  log c

or xy  c or xy  c or xy  c ...(5)
Since curve (5) passes through (1,1)
 c  1.1  1
From (5), required curve is xy  1 ...(6)

[ xy  1 does not pass through (1,1)]

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 75

Illustration 45
A curve passing through the point (1,1) has the property that the perpendicular distance
of the origin from the normal at any point P of the curve is equal to the distance of P from
the x-axis. Determine the equation of the curve. [IIT 1999]
Solution :
Let the curve be y  f ( x) ...(1)
Equation of the normal to curve (1) at any point P(x,y) is

dx
Y y ( X  x)
dy

dx dx
or X  Y  y x 0 ...(2)
dy dy

where (X,Y) is the co-ordinate of any point on the normal.

According to question length of perpendicular from (0,0) to line (2) = distance of P(x,y) from x-
axis

dx
y x  dx 
2   dx 2 
dy  y  x   y2
1  
  y or dy    dy  
2 
 dx 
  1
 dy 

2 2
 dx  dx  dx 
or y2  x2    2 xy  y2  y2  
 dy  dy  dy 

dx  2 dx dx 
 x  2 xy  y2 0
dy 
or
dy  dy

dx
  0  x = constant = k
dy

But the curve passes through (1,1)  x1

dx dx
Again x2  2 xy  y2  0.
dy dy

dx 2 xy
  2
dy y  x2

dy y2  x2
or  ...(3)
dx 2 xy

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
76 QUIZRR

dy dv
Put y  vx , then  v x
dx dx

dv v2  1
From (3), v  x 
dx 2v

dv v2  1 1  v2
or x  v
dx 2v 2v

2v dx
or  1 v 2
dv   
x

 c 
or log(1  v2 )   log x  log c  log  
 x
 

c
or 1  v2 
x

y2c  y2 
or 1 2    c  0 and 1   0 
x x  x2 

or x2  y2  cx ...(4)

Since curve (4) passes through (1,1)  2  c .

 From (4), x2  y2  2 x  0

Thus required curves are x  1  0 and x2  y2  2 x  0 .

Illustration 46
A country has a food defict of 10%. Its population grows continuously at a rate of 3% per
year. Its annual food production every year is 4% more than that of the last year. Assuming
that the average food requirement per person remains constant, prove that the country
will become self-sufficeint in food after n year, where n is the smallest integer bigger than
or equal to
log10  log 9
log(1.04)  0.03
[IIT 2000]

Solution :
Let x0 be the present population and y0 be the present food production. Let k units be the food
requirement per person which is given to be constant.

9
Given, y0  kx0 ...(A)
10

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 77

Since population grows continuously at the rate of 3% per year.

Therefore, if x be the population at any time t, then

dx 3
 x  0.03 x
dt 100

x dx t
 x0 x 0
 0.03dt

 log e x  log e x0  0.03t

 x  x
 log    0.03t   e0.03t  x  x0 e0.03t ...(B)
 x0  x0

 Population after n years is given by x  x0 e0.03n

 Food requirement after n years is given by

x  kx0 e0.03 n ...(1)

Food production after n years is given by

n
 4 
y  y0  1   y0 (1.04)n
100 
...(2)


For self sufficeincy in food, y  xt

9
 y0 (1.04) n  kx0 e0.03 n  kx0 (1.04) n  kx0 e0.03 n
10

n
 1.04  10
  0.03   9
e 

 n(log1.04  0.03)  log10  log 9

log10  log 9
 n
log1.04  0.03

Illustration 47
A hemisphere tank of radius 2 metres is initially full of water and has an outlet of 12cm2
cross-sectional area at the bottom. The outlet is opened at some instant. The flow through
t h e ou t l et i s accor di n g t o t h e l aw v(t )  0.6 [2 gh(t )] , where v(t) and h(t) are respectively the
velocity of the flow through the outlet and the height of water level above the outlset at
time t and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Find the time it takes to empty the tank.
[IIT 2001]

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
78 QUIZRR
Solution :
Let PQ and RS be the level of water at time t and t + dt respectively.
Let OL  x, OM  x  dx . O
A  B
Given OO  2 metres L X
P Q
R M S
Now LQ2  OQ2  OL2  22  x2
Decrease in volume of water in the tank in time dt
O´
  LQ2 .LM   (22  x2 ) dx ...(1)
Volume of water following out in time dt

12
 .v(t)dt
1002

12  v  0.6 2 gh 
 0.6 2 gh dt
10000  

7.2

10000
2 g (2  x) dt  h  OL  2  x ...(2)

From (1) and (2)

7.2
2 g (2  x) dt   (22  x2 ) dx
10000

10000  (4  x2 )
or dt  dx
7.2 2g 2  x

Let the tank become empty in time T, then

T 10000  2
0 dt  7.2 2g
0 (2  x) 2  xdx (3)

Put z2  2  x , then 2zdz   dx

When x  0, z  2 , when x  2, z  0

 from (3)

10000 2
T
(7.2)

2g 0
(4  z2 ) z2 dz

2
100002  z3 z5  20000  8 2 4 2 
 4    .  
(7.2) 2 g  3 5 
0
(7.2) 2 g  3 5 

20000 7 17 105

 4 2. 
(7.2) 2. g 15 135 g units.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 79

Illustration 48

dy
Solve the differential equation : y  (1  p ) x  a p 2 , where p  .
dx
Solution :

The given differential equation is y  (1  p) x  ap2 [solveable for y, refer section 3.3] ...(1)
Differentiating the given eqaution w.r.t. x, we get

dy dp dp
 p  1 p x  2ap
dx dx dx

dp
 0  1 ( x  2 ap)
dx

dx
  x  2ap  0 , which is a linear equation.
dp

I.F. = e dp
 ep
Using the standard result, the solution of the differential equation is :

xe p  2a  pe p dp  C  2a( p  1) e p  C

 x  2a(1  p)  Ce p (2)

The p-eliminating of (1) and (2) is the required solution.

Illustration 49

Solve the differential eqaution : p2 y  2 px  y

Solution :

y yp
The given differential is : x   [solvable for x, refer section 3.4] ...(1)
2p 2

Differentiating with respect to y, we get

dx 1 1 y dp p y dp
    
dy p 2 p 2 p2 dy 2 2 dy

1 p y dp  1 
    2  1 
2p 2 2 dy  p 

1  p2 y dp 1  p2
 
2p 2 dy p2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
80 QUIZRR

y dp
 1 as 1  p2  0
p dy

 pdy  ydp  0  d ( py)  0

C
Integrating, we get py  k  p  .
y

Putting the value of p in (1), we get

C2 C
y.  2 x. y C 2  2Cx  y2
y2 y

which is the required solution.

Illustration 50
Find the equation of the curve passing through (1,2) whose differential equation is

y( x  y 3 )dx  x ( y3  x )dy .
Solution :

Here, ( xy  y4 ) dx  ( xy3  x2 ) dy

or y3 ( ydx  xdy)  x( ydx  xdy)  0

xdy  ydx
or  x2 y3 .  xd ( xy)  0
x2

y  y  d ( xy)
or  d   0 (dividing by x3 y2 )
x  x  x2 y2

y  y d ( xy)
or  d    c
x  x ( xy)2

2
 y
  1 y2 1
x ( xy) 1  c0
  
  .
c 2 x2 xy
2 1

 y3  2 x  2 cx2 y  0
It passes through (1,2). So
23  2  2c.2  0

10 5
 c 
4 2

 the curve is y3  2 x  5 x2 y  0

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 81

Illustration 51

dy
If y1 , y2 are two solutions of the differential equation  P ( x ). y  Q( x ) then prove that
dx
y  y1  c ( y1  y2 ) is the general solution of the equation where c is any constant . For what
relation between the constants ,  will the linear combination  y1   y2 also be a solution.
Solution :
As y1 , y2 are two solutions of the differential equation.
dy
 P ( x). y  Q( x) ...(1)
dx
dy1
  P ( x). y1  Q( x) ...(2)
dx
dy2
and  P( x). y2  Q( x) ...(3)
dx
From (1) - (2)
 dy dy1 
 dx  dx   P ( x).( y  y1 )  0
 
d
 ( y  y1 )  P( x).( y  y1 )  0 ...(4)
dx
From (2) - (3)
d
( y1  y2 )  P ( x).( y1  y2 )  0 (5)
dx
From (4) and (5)
d d d
( y  y1 ) ( y  y1 ) ( y1  y2 )
dx y  y1 dx
   dx
d y1  y2 y  y1 y1  y2
( y1  y2 )
dx
 integrating log( y  y1 )  log( y1  y2 )  log c
or log( y  y1 )  log c( y1  y2 )
 y  y1  c( y1  y2 ) .
Now, y   y1   y2 will be a solution if
d
( y1   y2 )  P ( x).( y1   y2 )  Q( x)
dx
 dy1   dy 
or   P ( x) y1     2  P ( x) y2   Q( x)
 dx   dx 
or  .Q( x)   .Q( x)  Q( x) , using (2) and (3)
 (   )Q( x)  Q( x) .
Hence     1 .

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 82 QUIZRR

Illustration 52

du dv
Let u( x ) and v( x ) satisfy the differential equation  p( x )u  f ( x ) and  p( x )v  g ( x )
dx dx
respectively where p(x), f(x) and g(x) are continuous functions. If u ( x1 )  v( x1 ) for some x 1
and f ( x )  g ( x ) for all x  x1 , prove that any point (x, y), where x > x 1, does not satisfy the
equations. y  u( x ) and y  v( x ) .
Solution :

du( x)
Here,  p( x)u( x)  f ( x)
dx

dv( x)
and  p( x)v( x)  g ( x)
dx

d[u( x)  v( x)]
  p( x){u( x)  v( x)}  f ( x)  g ( x)
dx

d   p ( x) dx   p ( x) dx
or {u( x)  v( x)}.e
dx 
  { f ( x)  g ( x)}e

 it was in linear form

x
  p ( x) dx  x  p ( x) dx

{u( x)  v( x)}e   x1 { f ( x)  g( x)}e dx ...(1)
  x1

  p( x) dx    p( x) dx 
e   ,  e  
Let    
 x   x1

Clearly,  ,  are positive

  p ( x) dx 
 u( x)  v( x)   {u( x1 )  v( x1 )}.  0  f ( x)  g ( x) for x  x1 and e  0
 

 {u( x)  v( x)}  {u( x1 )  v( x1 )}  0 [because u( x1 )  v( x1 ) ]

 u( x)  v( x)  0 for x  x1

 u( x)  v( x) when x  x1 .
Hence the problem.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 QUIZRR 1

AREA
CURVE SKETCHING
There are 5 steps to draw a curve, y = f(x)
Step 1 :
CHECK FOR SYMMETRY
1. Check whether function is even.
(a) Replace x by x
(b) If no change in f(x), then function is even
(c) Graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
2. Check if function is odd
(a) Replace x by x
(b) If f ( x) = f(x), then function is odd
(c) Graph is symmetric about origin
3. Replace y by y, if no change, then the graph is symmetrical about x-axis.
4. If function is periodic, draw graph only in the period, as the remaining curve is a repetition of
this one.

Step 2 :
POINTS OF INTERSECTION
(a) Find points of intersection with x-axis & y-axis.
for x axis, put y = 0
y axis, put x = 0
(b) Special care of double & triple roots
for example, if f (x) = (x a)2 g (x)
here x = a, is a double root of f (x) or you can also say repeated root of f (x) = 0
note in this case f (a) = 0, f´(a) = 0 but f´´ (a)  0 i.e. can be point of local maxima / local
minima

now take f (x) = (x a)3 g (x)

 x = a is a triple root of f (x)
here, note
f (a) = 0
f´(a) = 0
a
f´´ (a) = 0, but
f´´´(a)  0

AREA
 2 QUIZRR
 a is the point of inflection (as shown in diagram) i.e. the point where shape of the
curve changes from convex to concave & vice-versa.
 TIP : if f (x) = (x a)n g (x)
& nth derivative is the first non zero derivative then

if n is even  x = a is a point of local maxima / minima

n is odd  x = a is a point of inflection

let us take another example

y = x (x ă 1)2
we can see that x = 1 is a double root of f (x)
Step 1 : no symmetry
Step 2 : has double root at x = 1
Step 3 : put f (x) > 0
 x (x 1)2 > 0

· + +
0 1
double root so
no sign change across it.
 for x  (0, ) y > 0
x  (  0) y < 0
so approximate graph would be

0 1

from this we can also deduce that x = 1 will be point of local minima & not local
maxima. If it was local maxima then the curve will come in the negative half.
Step 3 :
SIGN OF GRAPH
(a) Put y > 0 & see where the graph is above x-axis & where it is below x-axis.
for example if f (x) = x (x 1) (x 2)
put x (x 1) (x 2) > 0 · + · +
(using wavy curve) 0 1 2

AREA
 QUIZRR 3

So corresponding to it the graph will be above x-axis where region is +ve & below x-axis
where region is represented by ve sign.

0 1 2

Further x (x 1) (x 2) is a polynomial function, so it will be continuous & hence the

following will be the curve.

Check the domain : Find the domain (especially in cases where denominator can become
zero). Draw the curve only in its domain.

Step 4 :
ASYMPTOTE
Examples of asymptote

y=Logx

y=1
x
x=0 is a vertical
asymptote
here x = 0 is a vertical asymptote
& y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote

AREA
4 QUIZRR
(a) Horizontal asymptote

Ć If lim f ( x)  c1 , where c1 is finite then y = c1 is horizontal asymptote in right half.

x

if lim f ( x)  c2 , where c is finite then y = c is horizontal asymptote in left half.

x   2 2

for example
1
y = tan x

/2

/2

here y = /2 is a horizontal asymptote in right half.

y= /2 is a horizontal asymptote in left half.

(b) Vertical Asymptote

If ylim g( y)  c1 , where c is finite, then x = c is a vertical asymptote.

 1 1

OR
in normal words, if for a finite value of x, y approaches ( or ) then x = c is a vertical
asymptote.
e.g.

/2

y = tanx y = Log x

x = /2, a vertical asymptote x = 0, a vertical asymptote

Take special care in case of

(a) when denominator can be zero. Put denominator = 0 to get the value of x for which vertical
asymptote will be formed.

AREA
 QUIZRR 5

(b) Logarithmic functions

for log (f(x)) = 0, find f (x) = 1 & for those values of x it will be a vertical asymptote.

Step 5 :
Find the points of maxima, minima.
find the shape of curve, i.e. either concave or convex.

Concave Convex

No line segment lies above the graph No line segment lies below the graph

A twice differentiable function f defined on interval I is

(a) concave if and only if f´´(x)  0 for x  I
(b) convex if and only if f´´(x)  0 for x  I
inflection is the point where the shape of the curve changes from convex to concave or vice-versa.

Sket ch of some common cur ves :

(a) Linear inequality, straight line curve
ax + by  c or ax + by  c
convert inequality into equality, to obtain an equation of straight line.
For deciding which region is the answer put origin in the line and check for the region
required.
e.g 3x + 5y  15

(0,3)
now put origin (0, 0) in the inequation.

(5,0) (0, 0) satisfies the inequality

 shaded region is the required area.

AREA
 6 QUIZRR
(b) Circle
general form : x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
standard form : (x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2
for inequality (x h)2 + (y k)2  r2 or  r2

(h,k) (h,k)

2 2 2
(x h) + (y k) < r
(region inside the circle) 2 2 2
(x h) + (y k) > r
(region outside the circle)

3. Parabola
standard forms : y2 = 4ax
other forms y2 = 4ax, x2 = 4ay & x2 = 4ay

y2 = 4ax y2 = 4ax y2 = 4ay y2 = 4ay

for inequalities

y2  4ax  region inside the parabola

y2 > 4ax  region outside the parabola

Ar ea of Bound ed R egions
1. For a continuous function f (x) defined over [a, b], the area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the
x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b is given by

b b

 f (x) dx or  y dx
a a
y = f (x)

Other types
a b

AREA
 QUIZRR 7

2. When f (x) is below x-axis then the value of integral will come
out to be negative but as we know area is a positive quantity.
a b
b b

 Area =   f (x) dx   f (x) dx

a a
y = f (x)

3. Area of such curves is obtained by using the above 2 types

Area = Area (I) + Area (II) + Area (III)
I b III
b c d a c d
II
= 
a
f ( x) dx 

b
f ( x) dx 

c
f ( x) dx

4. Area between 2 function / curves

When 2 curves intersect at 2 points they form an area which we can find out by the following
formula

Area =  (upper
a
lower)dx

y = f (x)
b

=  (difference of curves)dx
a

a b
b y = g (x)
=  ( f (x)  g(x) dx
a

The result will be the same whether the curves meet in 2 points or 1.

a b

intersecting at one point on inter section

AREA
 8 QUIZRR
Sometimes it is easier to take area with y-axis as in following cases :
y=b
b
b

1. Area =  f ( y) dy x = f (y)
a a
y=a
Note : The function inside the integral is a function of y not x.
It is because we have to integrate with respect to y.

2. Area =   f ( y) dy
a y=b
b

=  f ( y) dy
a
y=a
a

when we were integrating with respect to x, portion below x-axis gave negative area, & here left
part will give negative area.

3. Here Area = Area (I) + Area (II) + Area (III)

a
b c d I x = f (y)
= 
a
f ( y) dy 

b
f ( y) dy 

c
f ( y) dy
b
II
c
III
d

4. Here area will be

b
b

area =  (right
a
left)dy
g (y) f (y)

a
b

=   f ( y)  g( y) dy
a

AREA
 QUIZRR 9

see you can use any set of formula, but choose such a one which makes your calculation easier.
let us discuss some cases.
f (x)

g (x)

for such cases, use

  f (x)  g(x) dx
for such cases use   f ( y)  g( y) dy
because to integrate wrt x is very
lengthy & cumbersome

for such case both sets can be used i.e.   f (x)  g(x) dx
  f ( y)  g( y) dy
Illustration 1

Draw the rough sketch of the curve y  3 x  4 and find the area under the curve above
x-axis and between x = 0 and x = 4.
Solution :

The equation y  3 x  4 represents the upper half of parabola y2 = 3x + 4 whose axis of

symmetry is x-axis, focus on positive direction of x-axis and vertex also on x-axis. When y = 0,

4  4 
x , therefore vertex is at   3 , 0  . The parabola opens on the right, therefore it also intersects
3  
y-axis. Putting x = 0, we get y =  2, therefore parabola passes through points (0, 2) and
(0, 2) as shown. x = 0 is equation of y-axis and x = 4 is equation of line parallel to y-axis as
shown. The region whose area is to be determined is the shaded portion shown.

AREA
10 QUIZRR
The region is bounded between two parallel lines x = 0 and x = 4
 required area

3 4

=  y dx  
0 0
3 x  4 dx Y y = 3x + 4

4 (0,2)
2 (3 x  4)3 / 2 
= 3 
3  0

X´ 4 X
( , 0)
2 3/2
3
= [16)  (4)3 / 2 ] x=4
9

2 2 Y´ x = O
3 3
= [(4)  (2) ]  (64  8)
9 9

2 112
=  56  sq. units.
9 9

Illustration 2
Find the area of region bounded by the curve 4x 2 + 9y2 = 36.
Solution :
The equation 4x2 + 9y2 = 36

x2 y2
   1, represents an ellipse, with a = 3 and b = 2.
9 4

2
y= 9 x2
3

X´ (3, 0) ( 3, 0) X

x=3
Y´
x=O

The region is symmetric about both coordinates axes. We determine the area of region in first
quadrant and multiply it by 4 to get the required area. The region in first quadrant is bounded
between two parallel lines x = 0 and x = 3.

AREA
 QUIZRR 11

 required area

= 4  y dx
0
x2
9

y2
4
= 1

y2 9  x2
 =
4 9

2
 y= 9  x2
3

3 3
2 8 x 9 x
= 4 
0
3
9  x2 dx  
3 2
9  x2  sin 1 
2 3 0

8  9 1 9  8 9 
=  0  2 sin (1)  0  2 (0)   3  2 . 2   6 sq. units.
3    

Illustration 3
Find the area bounded by the curve y2 = 4a x and the line y = 2a and y-axis.
Solution :
The equation y2 = 4ax represents a parabola whose vertex is at origin, axis of symmetry is x-axis
and it opens on right side with focus on positive direction of x-axis, y = 2a is equation of straight
line parallel to x-axis as shown. The region whose area is to be determined is the shaded
portion.
The region is bounded between two parallel lines y = 0 and y = 2a.
 required area

2a 2a
y2
= 
0
x dy 

0
4a
dy Y y2 = 4ax

y = 2a
2a  2a 
1 1  y3   y=O

2
= 4a y dy =   
4 a  3   X´ O X
0  0 

1  8 a3  2
= 4a   0  = 2a sq. units. Y´
 3  3

AREA
12 QUIZRR

Illustration 4
Find the area of the region included between the parabola y2 = x and the line x + y = 2.
Solution :
The equation y2 = x represents a parabola whose vertex is at origin, axis of symmetry is x-axis
and it opens on the right with vertex on positive direction of x-axis.
For finding the points of intersection of y2 = x and x + y = 2, we solve them to get
(2 x)2 = x  4 + x2 4x = x
2
 x 5x + 4 = 0
 (x 4) (x 1) = 0
 x = 4 and x = 1
 y= 2 and y = 1
The region whose area is to be determined is the shaded portion.
The region is bounded between two parallel lines y = 2 and y = 1.
 required area
Y
1 1

=  (x of line) dy   (x of parabola) dy
2 2
(0, 2) y2 = x

y=1
(2, 0)
1 1 1 1 X´ O
y2  y3  X
= 
2
(2  y) dy 

2
y2 dy  2 y  
2 
2
 
3 
2
y= 2

x+y=2
 1  4   1 ( 8) 
=  2      4       Y´
 2  2   3 3 

3   1 8  15 9
=   6      3 sq. units.
 2   3 3  2 2

Illustration 5

x2 y2
Find the area of smaller region bounded by the ellipse   1 and the straight line
a2 b2
x y
 1
a b

x2 y2
Solution : The equation   1 represents an ellipse.
a2 b2

AREA
 QUIZRR 13

The region whose area is to be determined is the shaded portion.

The region is bounded between two parallel lines x = 0 and x = b.
 required area Y
x2 y2
+ =1
a a (0, b) a2 b2
=  ( y of ellipse) dx   ( y of line) dx
0 0 (a, 0)
X´ ( a 0) X
a a
x y
+ =1
b b a a
  a (a  x) dx (0, b)
2 2
= a  x dx 
a
0 0 Y´
x=O x=a

 a  a
b x 2 a2 2 1 x   b  (a  x)2  
= a  a x  sin      
 2 2 a   a  2  0 
0  

 a2  b  a 
2
b
= a 0  sin 1 (1)    
 2  a  2 

ab  ab ab   
.    1  sq. units.
2  2
=
2 2 2 

Illustration 6

Sketch the region bounded by the curve y  5  x 2 and y = |x ă 1| and find its area.
Solution :

The equation y  5  x2 represents the upper half of the circle x2 + y2 = 5 whose centre is at
origin and radius 2.
The region whose area is to be determined is the shaded region.
For finding the points of intersection of Y

y  5  x2 and y = |x 1|, we solve them to get y= 5 x2

y= x 1
|x 1| = 5  x2
(x 1)2 = (5 x2)
2
 x 2x + 1 = 5 x2
X´ O X
 2x2 2x 4 = 0
 x2 x 2 = 0
x =1 x=2
 (x + 1) (x 2) = 0
 x = 1 and x = 2
Y´
AREA
14 QUIZRR
The region is bounded between two parallel lines x = 1 and x = 2
 required area

2 2

=  ( y of circle) dx   ( y of modulus function) dx

1 1

2 2

  x  1 dx
2
5  x dx 
=
1 1

2 1 2 
 
  
2
5  x dx    ( x  1) dx  ( x  1) dx
=
 1 
1  1 

2  1 2
 ( x  1)  ( x  1) 2  
2
x 2 5 1 x 
= 2 5  x  2 sin   
5  1  2
 
2
 
 1
 1 


5  2  5 1 1  1
= 1 sin 1    1  sin  2  
2  5 2 5  2

5 1  2  5 1 1 1
=  sin    sin   sq. units.
2  5 2 5 2

Illustration 7
Find the area of the smaller region bounded by the curves x 2 + y2 = 4 and y2 = 3 (2x ă 1).
Solution :
Y
The equation x2 + y2 = 4 represents a circle with
centre at origin and radius 2 and y2 = 3 (2x 1) is y2 = 3(2x 1)
x2 + y2 =4
equation of a parabola whose axis of symmetry is
x-axis and it opens on the right. The vertex is on
x-axis, putting y = 0, we get x = 1/2, therefore
(1/2, 0) is the vertex. X
X´ O (2, 0)
2 2
For finding the points of intersection of x + y = 4
and y2 = 3 (2x 1), we solve them to get
x2 + 3 (2x 1) = 4
2
 x + 6x 7 = 0 x=2
 (x + 7) (x 1) = 0 x=1
Y´
AREA
 QUIZRR 15

 x = 1 and x = 7 (not possible)

The region whose area is to be determined is the shaded portion.
The region is symmetric about x-axis and region in Ist quadrant can be divided into two regions
bounded between parallel lines x = 1/2 and x = 1 and x = 1 and x = 2 respectively.
 required area

 1 2 
 

= 2  ( y of parabola) dx 
1 / 2

1
( y of circle) dx


 1 2 
 
=  3
2


1/ 2
2 x  1 dx 

1
4  x2 dx


 1 2
 2 (2 x  1)3 / 2  x x 
= 
2 3 . .   4  x2  2sin 1  
 3 2 1 / 2 2 2 1 


 1 3  1  
= 2  2 sin 1 (1)   2 sin1  2 
 3 2   

 1   1 2 
= 2   2  
 2 3 3 2 3 3

4 1
=  sq. units.
3 3

Illustration 8
Find the area of the region bounded by the x-axis and the curves defined by

   3
y  tan x ,   x  ; y  cot x ,  x 
3 3 6 2
Solution :
To find the area hold by x-axis and curves
y = tan x, /3 < x < /3 ...(1)
and y = cotx /6 < x < 3/2 ...(2)
The curves interesect at P, where tan x = cot x, which is satisfied at x = /4 within the given
domain of x.

AREA
16 QUIZRR
The required area is shaded area
/4 /3
A=  / 6 y1 dx   / 4 y2 dx
P y = cotx
where (/4, 1)

y1 = tan x
/3 /6 /4/3/2  3/2
y2 = cot x O X

x
b = cotx

tan
/4 /3

y=
 A =  / 6 tan x dx   / 4 cot x dx
/4 /3
= [log sec x]  [log sin x]
/6 /4

 2   3 1 
=  log 2  log    log  log 
 3  2 2 

3 3
= log 2  log  log  log 2
2 2

 3 3
= 2  log 2 . 2  = 2 log
  2

= log 3/2 sq. units

Illustration 9

Find the area bounded by the curves x 2 + y2 = 4, x 2   2 y and x  y

Solution :
The given curves are
x2 + y2 = 4 ...(1)

x2   2 y ...(2)

x= y ...(3)
It is clear from the equations of curves that eq. (1) represents a cricle with centre (0,0) and radius
2. (2) represents a downward parabola with vertex at origin.
(3) represents a straight line, through origin making as anlge of 45 with +ve direction of x-axis.
Now points of intersection of (1) and (2)
Substituting the value of x2 from (2) in (1), we get
y2  2 y  4  0

2  2  16 23 2
 y 
2 2

AREA
 QUIZRR 17

4 2 2 2
= or = 2 2 or  2
2 2

 x2  2  2  
[rejective ve value of y as x2 can not be ve]
 x2 = 2

 x=  2

 Pts of intersection of (1) and (2) are ( 2,  2), ( 2,  2) .

Also for point of intersection of (1) and (3)

Solving eq. (1) and (3), we get

2x2 = 4  x2 = 2  x =   2    y =  2

 point of intersection are ( 2,  2), ( 2,  2) . Thus we observe all the three curves pass

through the same point ( 2,  2) .

Now required area = shaded area

y
x
0 2 y=
=  2  yC  yL  dx  0  yC  yP  dx
2+
y
2=
4

2 0 2 x
  0
O
= y dx  y dx  yP dx x1
2 C 2 L (0,0) B
(- 2,- 2) A
( 2,- 2)
C (0,2)
y1
2 0 2 x2
= 2 0  0
2
4  x dx  x dx  dx
2 2

0 2
x 2 4 1 x 
2  x2    x3 
2
=  2 4  x  sin      
2 2 0  2    3 2 0
2

 2  2    2  2 2
= 2 2 4  2  2sin 1   
 2    2 
    3 2

  2 1
= 1  2.   1    
 4  3 3

AREA
18 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 0
Find the area bounded by the curves, x 2 + y2 = 25, 4y = |4 ă x 2| and x = 0 above the x-axis.
Solution :
We have to find the area bounded by the cruves
x2 + y2 = 25
4y = |4 x2|
x= 0
above x-axis

4  x2 if x2  4
Now, 4 y  4  y2  
2 2
 x  4 if x  4

4  x2 if  2  x  2
4y  
2
 x  4 if x  2 or   2

Thus we have three curves

(I) Circle x2 + y2 = 25
(II) P1 = Parabola x2 = 4(y 1), 2 < x < 2
2
(III) P2 = Parabola x = 4(y + 1), x > 2 or x < 2
2
(I) and (II) intersect at 4y + 4 + y = 25
2 2
or (y 2) = 5  y 2 = μ5
y = 7, y = 3
y = 3, 7 are rejected since. y = 3 is below x axis and y = 7 gives imaginary value of x.
(I) and (III) intersect at
4y + 4 + y2 = 25 or (y + 2)2 = 52
y + 2 = μ5
y = 3, 7
y = 7 is rejected, y = 3 gives the points above x-axis. When y = 3, x = μ4. Hence the points of
intersection of (I) and (III) are (4, 3) and ( 4, 3). Thus we have the shape of the curve as given
in figure.
Required area is
,3)
(-4 Q P(4,3)

= 2   ycircle dx   yP1 dx   yp2 dx

4 2 4
 0 0 2 
M B A L
(-5,O) (5,O)
(-2,0) (2,0)
 4 1 2 1 4 
= 2   25  x2 dx   (4  x2 ) dx   ( x2  4) dx
 0 4 0 4 2 

AREA
 QUIZRR 19

2 4
1 x3  1  x3 
4
 4 25 1 x 
=  0
2
2 25  x  sin    4 x      4 x
 2 5 0 4   3  4 3 
0 2

 25 4 1  8  1  64  8 
= 2 2 9  sin 1   8      16     8  
 2 5 4  3  4  3  3 

 25 4 4 4 4
= 2 6  sin 1    
 2 5 3 3 3

4 4
= 12  25sin 1  8  4  25sin 1
5 5

Illustration 1 1


Find the area of the region bounded by the curve C : y = tan x, tangent drawn to C at x 
4
and the x-axis.
Solution :
The given curve is y = tan x ...(1)
Let P be the point on (1) where x = /4
 y = tan /4 = 1
i.e. co-ordinates of P are (/4, 1)
 Equation of tangent at P is
y 1 = m (x /4)

dy
Where m  ]( / 4, 1)  sec2 x  sec 2  / 4  2
dx  ( / 4, 1)

 Equation of tangent at P is
y 1 = 2 (x /4)
or y = 2x + 1 /2 ...(2)
The graph of (1) and (2) are as shown in the figure.
Y
  2 
,1)

Tangent (2) meet x-axis at, L  , 0 (2)

4

 4 
/(
P=

Now the required area = shaded area LM X

O
= Area OPMO Ar (PLM)
(1)

/4 1 x=-/2

x=/2
= y(1) dx  LM.PM
0 2

AREA
20 QUIZRR

/4 1
= 
0
tan x dx 
2
(OM  OL) PM

/4 1    2
= [log sec x]0     .1
2 4 4 

1  1
=  log 2  2  Sq. units. Ans.
2  

Illustration 1 2

1
Sketh the curves and identify the region bounded by x  , x = 2, y = In x and y = 2x. Find
2
the area of this region.
Solution :
The given curves are
y = ex loge x ...(1)

log e x
and y ...(2)
ex

log x
The two curves intersect where ex log x =
ex

 1 
  ex  ex  log x  0
 

1
 x or x= 1
e

At x = 1/e or ex = 1,
log x = log e = 1, y = 1

1 
so that  ,  1  is one pt. of intersection and at x = 1, log 1 = 0  y = 0
 e 

 (1, 0) is the other common pt. of the curves.

1
Now in between, i.e.,  x1 or 1 < ex < e
e

1
and log   < log x < log 1
 e

AREA
 QUIZRR 21

or 1 < log x < 0

i.e. log x is ve, throughout.

log e x
y1 = ex loge x, y2 
ex

1
Clearly under the condition stated above y1 < y2 both being ve in the interval  x1
e

The rough sketch of the two curves is as shown in fig. and shaded area is the required area.
 The required area = shaded area

1 1
 log x 
= 1/ e
( y1  y2 ) dx =
 
1/ e
ex log x 
ex 
dx

1 1 1 log x
 
x
x log x  Log
= e dx y=ex
1/ e e 1/ e x B
O (1, 0) X
1
(e , -1) A
1 1
 x2 x2  1  (log x)2  Log
X
= e  log x      y= ex
 2 4  e  2 
1/ e 1/ e

 1   1 1  1  1
= e   4     2  2    e 0  2 
   2e 4e   

 1 3  1 e 3 1
= e   2   =  
 4 4e  2 e 4 4 e 2 e

5 e 5  e2 e2  5
=  = = Ans.
4e 4 4e 4e

Illustration 1 3

2
Sketh the region bounded by the curves y = x 2 and y  . Find the area.
1  x2
Solution :
2
The given curves are y = x2 and y  . Here y = x2 is upward parabola with vertex at origin.
1  x2

2
Also, y  is a curve symmetrical with respect to y-axis.
1  x2

AREA
22 QUIZRR

dy  4x
At x = 0, y = 2   0 for x > 0
dx (1  x2 )2

 Curve is decreasing on (0, )

dy
Moreover  0 at x = 0
dx

 At (0, 2) tangent to curve is parallel to x-axis.

As x  , y  0
 y = 0 is asymptote of the given curve.
For the given curveÊs pt of intersection : solving their equations we get x = 1, y = 1, i.e., (1, 1).
Thus the graph of two curves is as follows :

1
y
2

2
 The required area = 2   x  dx
0  1  x2 
(1,1)
1
 1 2 x3   2 x´ O x

=  4 tan x    4. 
 3  4 3
0

2
=  sq. units. y´
3

Illustration 1 4
Find the possible values of b > 0, so that the area of the bounded region enclosed between

x2
the parabolas y = x ă bx 2 and y  is maximkum.
b

Solution :
The given curves are
y = x bx2 ... (1) and y = x2/b ...(2)
2
 1   1 
  y  4b    b  x  2b  and x2 = by
   

 1 1 
Here clearly first curve is a downward parabola with vertex at  ,  and meeting x-axis at
 2b 4 b 
(0, 0) and (1/b, 0) while second is an upward parabola with vertex at (0, 0).

 b b 
Solving (1) and (2) we get the intersection points of two curves at (0, 0) and  2
, 
2 2
 1  b (1  b ) 

AREA
 QUIZRR 23

Hence the graph of given curves is as below

Shaded portion represents the required area, given by

b
 x2 

y
1  b2  x  bx2   dx 2 b
A = 
0  b  1 b , (1+b2 )
2
P 1+b

O(0, 0) x
b
x bx 2
x 3 3 1  b2
 A =    
 2 3 3b 
0

b2 b4 b2
=  
2 (1  b2 )2 3 (1  b2 )3 3 (1  b2 )3

b4  b2 b2
= 
6 (1  b2 )3 6 (1  b2 )2

dA
For area to be max/min we should have 0
db

1
 [2b (1 + b2)2 (1 + b2) . 2b . b2] = 0
6

2b (1 + b2) (1 + b2 2b2) = 0
 1 b2 = 0
 b = 1, 1
but given that b > 0   b = 1

Illustration 1 5

 1 
Let O (0, 0), A (2, 0) and B  1,  be the vertices of a triangle. Let R be the region consisting
 3
of all those points P inside OAB which satisfy, where d denotes the distance from the
points to the corresponding line. Sketch the region R and find its area.
Solution :
OAB is the given . Consider OI the  bisector of BOA. We know any point on OI must be at
equal distances from OB and OA.
Thus for d (P, OA)  min [d (P, OB), d (P, AB)]
Point P must lie under OI and similarly under AI. Thus within or on OIA
 Req. area = Ar ( OIA)

AREA
24 QUIZRR

1/ 3 1
Now, tan  BOA = 
1 3

 BOA = 30
 IOA = 15
SimilarlyIAO = 15
 Eqn of OI is y = (tan 15) x ...(1)
n
Eq of IA is y = ( tan 15) (x 2) ...(2)
with point of intersection I (1, tan 15)
 Required area

1
2
=  (tan 15) xdx 

1
 tan 15 ( x  2)dx
0 Y

 2 1  2 
2
x x
= tan 15     2 x    B(1, 1/ 3)
 2  
 2  
 0 1
I
A
 1  4 1 (0, 0)O
= tan15    4   2   (2, 0) X
 2  2 2

= tan 15 [1] = tan 15

= 2  3 sq. units.

Illustration 1 6
Let f (x) be a continuous function given by

 2x | x |  |
f (x) = f ( x )   
2
 x  a x  b, | x |  |

Find the area of the region in the third quardrant bounded by the curves x = 2y2 and
y = f (x) lying on the left of the line 8x + 1 = 0.
Solution :

 x2  ax  b ; x   1

2 x ; 1 x1
 2
 x  ax  b ; x  1

 f (x) is continuous at x = 1

AREA
 QUIZRR 25

 ( 1)2 + a ( 1) + b = 2
and 2 = (1)2 + a.1 + b f (x
)
y= y
i.e., a b = 3
and a + b= 1
On solving we get a = 2, b = 1
x1 O x
 x  2x  1 ; x   1
2

 f ( x)  2 x ; 1 x1
 2

x
x = -2Y2
 x  2x  1 ; x  1

=
-2
x = -1 x = -1/8

Given curves are

y = f(x), x = 2y2 and 8x + 1 = 0
Solving x = 2y2, y = x2 + 2x 1 (x < 1) we get x = 2.
Also y = 2x, x = 2y2 meet at (0, 0)

 1  1
y = 2x and x = 1/8 meet at   , 
 8 4 

The required area is the shaded region in the figure.

 Required area

 x
1  1/ 8  x 
=  
 2
 2
 ( x2  2 x  1) dx 
 
1

 2
 2 x dx


1  1/8
 1 2( x)3 / 2 x3 2   1 2( x)3 / 2 
=    x  x     x2 
 2 3 3   2  2 3   1

 2 1  4 8   2 1 1   2 
=  3  3  1  1    3  3  4  2    3 .      1 
     16 2 64   3 

 2  5   4  8  18   4  3   2  3 
=  3       192    3 
   3     

257
= square units
192

AREA
 DEFINITE
INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 3

DEFINITE INTEGRATION
Definition :

If  f ( x)dx  F(x) i.e. F(x) be an integral of f (x), then F(b) ă F(a) is called the definite integral

b b
of f (x) between the limits a and b and in symbols it is written as  f ( x)dx or, [F( x)].
a
a

b
Thus if  f ( x)dx = F( x) then by definition
a

b b
 f ( x)dx = [F(x)]  F(b)  F(a)
a
a

a is called the lower limit or inferior limit and b is called the upper limit or superior limit.
It is clear that value of a definite integral of a function is unique and it does not depend on
different forms of indefinite integral. For if
b b
a f ( x) dx = [F( x)  c]a  {F(b)  c}  F(b)  F( a)

b b
Thus the value of a f ( x)dx is same as when we take a f ( x)dx = F(x) .

G eomet r ical I nt er p r et at ion of Definit e I nt egr al

b
If f(x) > 0 for all x  [a, b]; then a f ( x)dx is numerically equal to the area bounded by the curve

y = f(x), the x-axis and the straight lines x = a and x = b

b
In general a f ( x)dx represents algebraic sum of the areas of the figures bounded by the curve

y = f(x), the x-axis and the straight lines x = a and x = b. The areas above x-axis are taken plus
sign and the areas below x-axis are taken with minus sign i.e.,

x=a f(x) x=b

S
P T
+ +
A B ă ă D E
C
Q R

b
i.e., a f ( x)dx = area APB ă area BQC ă area CRD + area DSTE

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 4 QUIZRR

Illustration 1

1
0 (4 x
3
Find  3 x 2  2 x  1)d x .

Solution :

1 x4 x2
0 (4 x3  3 x2  2 x  1) dx  4.
3
 2.
2
 x  x4  x3  x2  x

1
0 (4 x
3
  3 x2  2 x  1) dx

= (14 + 13 ă 12 + 1) ă (0 + 0 ă 0 + 0) = 2 ă 0 = 2

Illustration 2


sin x
 4
0 cos 3 x  2 cos x
dx .

Solution :

sin x sin x
 cos3x  3cos x dx   (4 cos3 x  3cos x)  3cos x dx

sin x 1 1
 4 cos3 x dx  4  tan x sec
2
= xdx  tan2 x [Put z  tan x]
8

 
sin x 1
 4
0 cos 3 x  2cos x
dx  [tan2 x] 4
8

1   1 1
=  tan 2  tan 2 0   1  0  
8 4  8 8

Illustration 3


dx
 2
0 1  sin x

dx dx dx
Solution :  1  sin x    

  
1  cos   x  2cos2   
2  4 2

  
tan   
1   1  4 2    tan     
=  sec2   dx  . 4 2
2 4 2 2 1  

2
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 5

 
 I dx     
2
0 1  sin x
   tan    2
  4 2 
0

   
=  tan     tan     tan 0  1  1
 4 2 4
2nd Method :

dx 1  sin x 1  sin x  1 sin x 

 1  sin x   1  sin2 x dx   2
cos x
dx      dx
 cos x cos2 x 
2

 (sec
2
= x  tan x sec x) dx  tan x  sec x.

 
dx
  2
0 1  sin x
 [tan x  sec x] 2
0

sin x  1
Lt  tan x  sec x   tan   sec 0  Lt  (0  1)
= x

0 x

0
cos x
2 2

   
 tan 2 and sec 2 are undefined 
 
Hence we can not take value of

tan x  sec x at x 
2


Here we take limit as x   0]
2

 
sin   h   1
2    
Lt  1 putting x =  h
= h 0    2 
cos   h 
2 

h
2sin2
cos h  1 1  cos h 2 1
= Lt 1 Lt  1  Lt
h  0  sin h h 0 sin h x 0 sin h

2
 h
 sin 2  h2
2  .
 h  4
= Lt  2  1011
h 0 sin h
.h
h

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 6 QUIZRR
Note :
In the second method, numerator and denominator have been multiplied by (1 ă sinx) and the
 
value of 1 ă sinx is 0 when x  and hence when x  integrand is undefined
2 2
Hence avoid multiplying numerator and denominator by an expression which becomes zero at
any point of the interval [a, b] where a and b are the lower and upper limits respectively of
integration.

Pr omb lems in which int egr al can b e found b y Sub st it ut ion met hod :
Working Rule :
When definite integral is to be found by substitution then change the lower and upper limits of
integration. If substitution is z = (x) and lower limit of integration is a and upper limit is b then
new lower and upper limits will be (a) and (b) respectively.

Illustration 4


cos x
Find the value of  2
0 (1  sin x )2
dx .

Solution :
Let z = 1 + sinx, then dz = cosxdx
When x = 0, z = 1 + sin  = 1 +  = 1

 
and when x  , z  1  sin  1  1  2
2 2


cos x 2 dx 2
2
Now I =  2 dx  1  1 z dz
2 2
0 (1  sin x) z

2
 z1  1 
2
1  1
=  1     z     2  1  2
 1  1  

Note : Only principal value of  is taken. For example when sin = 0,  = n but principal value
of  is 0.

Illustration 5

1 1 x
Evaluate 0 1 x
d x.

Solution :
Let x = cos 2, then dx = ă2sin2d.

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 7

 
When x = 0, cos2 = 0  2  or,  
2 2

1 1x 0 1  cos 2
Now I =  dx   (2sin 2) d 
0 1 x 4
1  cos2

0 2sin2  0
  4 sin
2
=  2
(2.2sin  cos )d   d 
4
2cos  4

01  cos2 0
= 4  
2
d    2   (1  cos2) d
4 4

00
 sin 2 
=  2      [2  sin 2] 
 2  4
4

       
=  (0  sin )    sin   =  (0    1     1
 2 2   2  2

Illustration 6

 dx
Find  ( x  ) (  x )
.

Solution :
Let x = cos2 + sin2
Then dx = (ă2cossin + 2sincos)d = 2( ă ) sincosd
When x = ,  = cos2 + sin2
or, ( ă )sin2 = 0 or, sin2 = 0   = 0
when x = ,  = cos2 + sin2
or, cos2 = cos2 or, ( ă )cos2 = 0

or, cos2 = 0 or, cos = 0 or,   

2

 dx
Now I = a (x  )(  x)

/2 2(  )sin  cos 

= 0 d
( cos    sin2   )(   cos2    sin2 )
2

/2 2(  ) sin  cos  /2 /2  

= 0 2 2
d = 2
0 d  2 []0  2   0  
 2 
(  ) sin (  ) cos 

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 8 QUIZRR

Illustration 7

e ex
Find 1 x
(1  x log x )dx .

Solution :

ex x1 
 x (1  x log x)dx   e  x  log x  dx
x
= e [ f ´( x)  f ( x)]dx, where f ( x)  log x = exf (x) = exlogx

e ex e
1 (1  x log x) dx  [ ex log x]  ee log e  e log 1  ee
x 1

Illustration 8

2 dx
Evaluate  2 4  x 2 directly as well as by the substitution x = 1/t.

Examine as to why the answer do not tally ?

Solution :

2 dx
I = 2 4  x2

2
1 x 1 1     
=  tan 1   [tan 1 (1)  tan 1 (1)] =        I
2 2  2 2 2  4  4  4 4

on the other hand; if x = 1/t then,

2 dx 1/ 2 dt 1/2 dt
I = 2 4  x2  1 / 2 t2 (4  1/ t2 )  1 / 2 4t2  1

1/2
=  tan 1 (1)    tan 1 (1)  =       
1 1
=  1 tan 1 (2t) 
2  2  2  8 8 4
  1 / 2

 1
 I =  when x 
4 t

1
In above two results I = ă/4, is wrong. Since the integrand  0 and therefore the definite
4  x2
integral of this function cannot be negative.
Since x = 1/t is discountinuous at t = 0, the substitution is not valid (I = /4).
Note : It is important the substitution must be continuous in the interval of integration.

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 9

PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

b b

Property 1 : 
a
f ( x)dx   f (t )dt
a

i.e. integration is independent of change of variable.

b b

Property 2 : 
a
f ( x)dx    f ( x)dx
a

i.e. if the limits of a definite integral are interchangable then its value becomes negative
of the earlier value.

b c b

Property 3 :  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx

a a c

where a cb
Logic : We know that definite integral represents the area of the function between x-
axis under the given limits.

f(x) E
B C

A D F
a c b


b
Now f ( x)dx  area of f ( x) i.e. area ABCEFI
a

 area ABCDA+ area CEFDC

c b
  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a c

You can prove all the above 3 properties by alzebraic method. We are leaving that part
for you to do it yourself.

General form of Property-3

 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx  ...  

b c1 c2 b
f ( x)dx
a a c1 cn1

where a  c1  c2  ...  cn 1  b

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 10 QUIZRR
W or king R ule
This property is used when integrand is different in different intervals. This happens in the
following cases.
1. funct ion changes or is discount inuous at some point s in [ a , b]
2. Modulus function
3. Greatest intger function & fractional part.
In each of the 3 cases we find the point where the function is different & divide the interval
accordingly using property-3.

Illustration 9
1 1  2 x ; x  0
(a) Evaluate 1 f ( x )dx , where f ( x )  1  2 x ; x  0

1 1  2 x ; x  0
(b) Evaluate 1 f ( x )dx , where f ( x )  1  2 x ; x  0

Solution :
(a) The function is discontinuous at 0, at its value is changing. Hence we cannot integrate over
[ă1, 1]. So applying the rule.
1 0 1
1 f ( x)dx  1 f ( x)dx  0 f ( x)dx
0 1
  (1  2 x) dx   (1  2 x) dx
1 0

0 1
 [ x  x2 ]  [ x  x2 ]
1 0

= [0 ă (ă1 ă 1)] + [1 + 1 ă 0] = 4
(b)

ă1 ăve 0 +ve ă1

In case of modulus function, the value of function changes at the point where it becomes 0.
Hence, breaking the interval
1 0 1 0 1
Now 1| x|dx  1| x| dx  0| x| dx  1  xdx  0 xdx
[... when ă 1 < x < 0, |x| = ă x and when 0 < x < 1, |x| = x]

0 1
 x2   x2   1 1 
         0      0  1
2
  2
   2   2 

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 11


3
3. [ x]dx
1

We know greatest integer function returns integral values only. So for every integral interval
value will change.
0 1 2 3
2
  [ x]dx   [ x]dx   [ x]dx   [ x]dx
1 0 1 2 1
0
 1  0  1  2
ă1 1 2 3
2

  x dx
2
4.
0

For fractional part, let us draw the graph so for

2
0  x1  x  x
1
1 x  2  x  x  1 0
(this is the reason we did such graphs in functions chapter) ă1 1 2 3

   x dx    x dx   xdx   ( x  1)dx
1 2 1 2

0 1 0 1

1 2
x2 ( x  1) 2 1 1
    1
2 0 2 1
2 2

Illustration 1 0

2

2
(a) Find the value of
0
sin x dx (b) Evaluate 0 x 2  2 X  3 dx

Solution :
(a) [When sin x  0, x  n , where n  0, 1, 2,... out of which only p lies between lower and
upper limits of integration].

0 +ve  ăve 2
2  2
Now I  0
sin x dx   sin x dx  
0 
sin x dx

 2
  sin xdx   sin xdx    cos x0    cos x
 2
0 

 (cos   cos 0)  (cos 2  cos  )

 ( 1  1)  [1  ( 1)]  4

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
12 QUIZRR
2
(b) x + 2x ă 3 = 0    x = ă 3, 1

Sign scheme for x2 + 2x ă 3 in [0, 2] is

0 ăve 1 +ve 2

2
0| x
2
Now I =  2 x  3| dx

1 2 1 2
=  | x2  2 x  3| dx   | x2  2 x  3| dx =  ( x2  2 x  3) dx   ( x2  2 x  3) dx
0 1 0 1

1 2
 x3 2
  x3 
=    x  3 x     x2  3 x
 3  0  3  1

 1   8  5 2 5
=    1  3   0     4  6     1  3   =    4
1
 3    3  3  3 3 3

Illustration 1 1
Find the value of

 x  dx

 
4
cos x  sin x dx

3/ 2
(a)
0
(b)
0
(c) Evaluate x cos x dx
0

Solution :

 
(a) cos x  sin x  0  cos x  sin x  tan x  1  tan  x  n 
4 4


where n  0, 1, 2,... out of which only lies between lower and upper limits of definite
4
integration.]
sign scheme for cos x ă sin x

0 +ve  ăve 
 4
Now I   0
cos x  sin x dx
 /4 
 cos x  sin x dx   cos x  sin x dx
0  /4

 /4 
 (cos x  sin x)dx   (cos x  sin x)dx  [sin x  cos x]0 / 4   sin x  cos x / 4

0  /4

         
  sin  cos    sin 0  cos 0     sin   cos  )   sin  cos   
 4 4    4 4  

 1 1    1 1 
    1  (0  1)      2  1  ( 1  2)  2  1  1  2  2 2
 2 2    2 2 

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 13

  x dx
4
(b)
0

Here also the value of fractional part will change at integral values

x 1 at x  1
, which is the upper limit.
x2 at x  4
so value of

 x  x, 0  x 1
 x  1, 1 x  4

  x dx   xdx    
4 1 4
x  1 dx
0 0 1

1 4
2 3/ 2 2
  x3/2  x 1
4
x
3 0 3 1

2 2
       (8  1)  (4  1)
3 3

7

3

x  0

(c) x cos  x  0  
cos n x  0 or  x  (2n  1) 2 , n  I

x  0 sign scheme for x cos x is


 1 3 0 +ve 1 ăve 3
 x  2 , between 0and 2 2 2


3/ 2
x cos  x dx  
1/ 2
x cos  x dx  
3/ 2
Now x cos  x dx
0 0 1/2


1/ 2
x cos  xdx  
3/ 2
x cos  xdx
0 1/ 2

 x sin  x cos  x   x sin  x cos  x 

1/ 2 3/ 2

    
   0  
2
 2 1/ 2

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
14 QUIZRR

 1 1   3 1 
  2    
 2    2 2 

1 1 2 5 1
  2   2
2   2 

 f ( x)dx   f (a  x)dx
a a
Property 4 :
0 0

Proof. Put a  x  t on R.H.S.

so lower limit becomes a
and upper limit becomes 0
& dx  dt
a 0 0
 0
f (a  x)dx   f (t )(dt )    f (t )dt
a a

a
  f (t )dt {using Property-2]
0

a
  f ( x)dx [using Property-1]
0

Usefulness
This property is useful to convert an indefinite integral to a more easily solvable integral. This
property is specially very useful in trignometric integrals. Let us see how.

Illustration 1 2

 /2 sin x

1
(a) 0
sin x  cos x
(b) 0
x(1  x)99 dx

Solution :

 /2 sin xdx
(a) I  ...(i)
0
sin x  cos x
see now if you solve this without any use of definite properties, as a normal indefinite
question it will become a very lengthy problem.
Let us see how property comes handy in this case.

I 
 /2 sin x
dx  
 /2
sin   x
2  
0
sin x  cos x 0

sin   x  cos   x
2 2   
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 15

 /2 cos( x)
 I  ...(ii)
0
cos x  sin x
adding (i) and (ii)

 /2 sin xdx  /2 cos xdx

2I   
0
cos x  sin x 0
cos x  sin x

 /2  sin x cos x 
    dx
0
 cos x  sin x sin x  cos x 

 /2 sin x  cos x  /2
 dx   dx
0
sin x  cos x 0

 /2 
 x0 
2

 
 2I  I
2 4
So you can notice the usefulness of this property. When sin x & cos x are interchangeable
by this property, use it to reduce the integral.


1
(b) x(1  x)99 dx
0

Though we can solve this question by first using by parts and then applying the limits, but
here we will use this property to prevent that long step.
1
I   x(1  x)99 dx ...(i)
0

applying Property-4
1
I   (1  x)[1  (1  x)]99
0

1
  (1  x) x99 dx
0

1
  ( x99  x100 )dx
0

Now solve simply as integral of 2 functions (no need of using by parts)

1 1
x100 x101 1 1 1
    
100 0 101 0 100 101 10100

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
16 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 3

 /2  /2 sin x  cos x
(a)  0
log tan xdx (b) 0 1  sin x cos x
dx

 /4  /2 x
(c) 
0
log(1  tan x)dx (d) 
0 sin x  cos x
dx

Solution :
 /2
(a) I  log tan xdx ...(i)
0

applying Property-4

 /2  
I  log tan   2  dx
0
2 
 /2
 log cot xdx (ii)
0

adding (i) and (ii)

 /2  /2
2I   log tan xdx   log cot xdx
0 0

 /2
 (log(tan x)  log cot x)dx
0

Using the log property, log a  log b  log ab

 /2
 log(tan x  cot x)dx
0

 /2  /2
 log1dx   0.dx  0 [as log1  0 ]
0 0

Tip. Why I thought of using this property ?

1. Using by parts , is a very long process


2. Most importantly, upper limit is and every trignometric, function gives it
2


opposite pair at ă x, hence purpose solved.
2

 /2 sin x  cos x
(b) I  dx ...(1)
0 1  sin x cos x
Similarly in this question, a bell should ring that upper limit is  / 2 and function comprises

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 17

of sin x & cos x which can be interchanged.

Hence applying Property-4.

 /2 sin(  x)  cos(  x)
I  2 2 dx
0
1  sin(  x) cos(  x)
2 2

 /2 cos x  sin x
 dx ...(ii)
0 1  cos x sin x
adding (i) and (ii)

 /2  sin x  cos x cos x  sin x 

2I      dx
0
 1  sin x cos x 1  sin x cos x 
 /2
 0.dx = 0
0

 I = 0

 /4
(c) I  log(1  tan x)dx
0

applying Property-4

 tan   tan x 
  
 /4  /4
 log 1  tan   x dx   log 1  4  dx
0 4 0  1  tan  tan x 
 4 

 /4  1  tan x 
 log  1   dx ...(ii)
0
 1  tan x 

 /4  2 
 log  dx
0
 1  tan x 
adding (i) and (ii)

 /4   2 
2I    log(1  tan x)  log  1  tan x   dx
0
  

 /4  2 
 log  (1  tan x)  dx
0
 (1  tan x) 

 /4

0
 log 2  dx

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
18 QUIZRR

 /4  /4 
 2 I  log 2 dx  log 2 x 0  log 2
0 4


 I log 2
8
Note. Another common mistake is the last step. Students forget that on L.H.S. it is 2I , and
they have to divide by 2 to get the answer. So keep this in mind.
 /2 x
(d) 0 sin x  cos x
dx

x
Let f ( x)  (i)
sin x  cos x


x
  2
Then f   x  
2  sin    x   cos    x 
   
2  2 


x
  2
or f   x 
2  cos x  sin x

   1
(1) + (2)  f ( x)  f   x  
2  2 cos x  sin x



 
2 2 cos  x  
 4

  
 sec  x  
2 2  4

Now I  1
 /2   
2  f ( x)  f   x   dx
0
 2 

1   /2  
 .
2 2 2 
0
sec  x   dx
 4
 /2
      
  log sec  x    tan  x   
2 2  4  4  0

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 19

       
  log  cosec 4  cot 4   log sec 4  tan 4 
2 2   

 

4 2
log  
2  1  log  2 1 

  2 1  
 
2
 log    log 2 1
4 2  2 1  4 2



2 2
log  2 1 

 f ( x)dx   f (a  b  x)dx
b b
Property-5
a a

Property-4 is a special case of Property-5 when a  0 & b  a

Proof. Let a bt  x

 dt  dx
& at xa t b
xb ta

I   f (t )(dt )
a
 b

by using Property-2

I   f (t )dt   f ( x)dx
b b

a a

Illustration 1 4

x  /3 1

2
(a) 
1
3 x  x
dx (b) /6
1  cot x
dx

Solution :

2 x
(a) I  dx
1
3 x  x
If we apply Property-5 in this integral then the denominator remains the same, which gives
encouragement to use the same.

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
20 QUIZRR
 applying Property-5.

2 3 x
I  dx
1
3  (3  x)  3  x

2 3  x dx
 (ii)
1
x  3 x
adding (i) and (ii)

2 3 x x 
2 I      dx
1
 x  3 x 3  x  x 

2 3 x  x 
    dx
 3 x  x 
1

2
  dx  x 1  2  1 =1
2

1
 I .
2

 /3 1  /3 sin x
(b)  /6
1  cot x
dx  
 /6
sin x  cos x
dx

 
Earlier we have seen that in case of   x  transformation in trignometric integrals, the
2 
interigral was reduced to a very simple one. See, here also it is happening.

  
Now,  
3 6 2

 
& property 5 replaces x by ( a  b  x) i.e.   x .
2 
Hence our purpose is solved.

 
sin   x 
 /3 2 
 I  dx
 /6
   
sin   x   cos   x 
2  2 

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 21

 /3 cos x
 dx (ii)
 /6
cos x  sin x
Now I hope you understand what we are trying to do & what we will do next.
adding (i) and (ii)

 /3    
2I   dx     
 /6
3 6 6


 I
12

2 a f ( x)dx,
f ( x)dx   0
a if f ( x) is even
Property-6 a
0, if f ( x) is odd

Proof. From Property-3, we get

 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx

a 0 a
(i)
a a 0

 f ( x)dx   f (t )(dt )

0 0
Now (put x  t )
a a

  f (t )dt   f (  x)dx

a a

0 0

 a f ( x)dx,
 if f ( x) is an even function
 0 a (ii)
  f ( x)dx, if f ( x) is an odd function
 0

Thus, when f ( x) is an even function from (i) & (ii)


0
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx  2  f ( x)dx
a a a
 a 0 0 0

and when f ( x) is an odd function, from (i) & (ii)


0
f ( x)    f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx  0
a a
 a 0 0

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 22 QUIZRR
Geometrical Proof.
If f ( x) is EVEN
y
++ =2X
f(x) ++

=2X

ăa 0 a x

If f ( x) is ODD

This property should be used only when limits are equal and opposite and the function
which is to be integrated is either odd or even.

Illustration 1 5

 /4

1

1

4
(a) Find x3e x dx (b) Find x x dx (c) Evaluate x3 sin 4 xdx
1 1  /4

Solution :

Let f ( x)  x3e x
4
(a)

f ( x)  ( x)3 e(  x)   x3e x   f ( x)
4 4
Then

Hence f ( x) is an odd function.

1 1
 f ( x)dx  0  x3e x dx  0
4

 1
or
1

(b) Let f ( x)  x x

Then f ( x)   x  x   x x   f ( x) [ x  x ]

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 23

Hence f ( x) is an odd function.

1 x
 
1
f ( x)dx  0 or dx  0
1 1 x

(c) Let f ( x)  x3 sin 4 x

Then f (  x)  ( x)3 sin 4 (  x)   x3 (  sin x) 4

  x3 sin 4 x   f ( x) .
Hence f(x) is an odd function
/4
  / 4 f ( x)dx  0

Illustration 1 6

a ax
 f ( x2 )dx  2 f ( x2 )dx 
a a
(a) Show that (b) Evaluate dx
a 0 a ax
Solution :

(a) f [( x)2 ]  f ( x2 ) . Hence f ( x2 ) is an even function.

a a
  a
f ( x2 )dx  2 f ( x2 )dx
0

a ax a ax
(b) I  dx   dx
a ax  a
a 2  x2

a dx a ax
 a  dx
a a
a x
2 2
a 2  x2

a dx x
 a .2  0 [ is an odd function]
0
a 2  x2 a 2  x2

a
 x
 2a . sin 1   2a [sin 1 (1)  sin 1 0]
 a 0

 
 2a   0    a
2 

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
24 QUIZRR

2 a f ( x)dx;
f ( x)dx   0
2a if f (2a  x)  f ( x)
Property-7 
0, if f (2a  x)   f ( x)
0

 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx  
2a a 2a
Proof. f ( x)dx
0 0 a

Put x  2a ă t in 2nd inetgral ( dx   dt ) when x  a then t = a

when x  2a then t = 0

 f ( x)dx   f (2a  t )dt   f (2a  t )dt   f (2a  x)dx

2a 0 a a
 a a 0 0

 f ( x)dx   f (2a  x)dx

2a a
 0 0

If f (2a  x)  f ( x)

 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x) dx  2  f ( x) dx
2a a a a
then 0 0 0 0

and if f (2a  x)   f ( x)

 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x)dx  0
2a a a
then 0 0 0

Illustration 1 7
Evaluate

2  xdx
(a) 
0
cos 5 xdx (b) 
0 1  cos 2 x
Solution :
(a) We will first check for the property-7 conditions. For that let

f ( x)  cos5 x

then f (2  x)  cos5 (2  x)

 cos5 x  f ( x)

 f ( x)dx  2  f ( x)dx
2a a
 0 0
if f (2a  x)  f ( x)

applying the rule.


I  2 cos 5 xdx ...(i)
0

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 25

Now applying property-4


I  2 cos 5 (  x)dx
0


 2  cos5 xdx
0


 2 cos 5 xdx ...(ii)
0

adding (i) and (ii)

2I  0
 I 0

 xdx
(b) I  ...(i)
0 1  cos2 x
This is an interesting problem, because here. Property-7 is not visible at first. So the tip that
we can derive from this question is that approach the question as given rather than going
by a fixed mind.
Here we can see that property-4 is applicable so without thinking anything else I will use
it first

 (  x) dx  (  x)dx
 I  ...(ii)
0 1  cos (  x) 0 1  cos 2 x
2

adding (i) and (ii)

 xdx   x
2I    dx
0 1  cos x
2 0 1  cos2 x

 
 dx
0 1  cos 2 x
Now if I apply property-4 back then I will have no advantage as I will get the same integral.
Hence no use. But if I apply Property-7.

1   /2  dx 
I   2 as f (2a  x)  f ( x)
2  0 1  cos 2 x 

 /2  dx
 I 
0 1  cos2 x

1   dx
2 0 1  cos 2 x
 I

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
26 QUIZRR
MISTAKE : Common mistake at this step, is to take it as a normal substitution integral.

  sec2 x
2 0
i.e. I dx (dividing by cos 2 x )
sec 2 x  1
Now the common substiution
x  tan x
dx  sec2 xdx
But wait this is a wrong step, as per the rule of substitution the function which is substituited
should be continuous in the interval.

But there for x  tan x , tan x is not continuous over interval [0,  ] . It is discontinuous at x  .
2
Therefore, it is not possible to substitute tan x in the interval [0,  ] .
So next thought should be to brea k the interval so tha t we c a n a ply the tra nsforma tion.

Illustration 1 8

 /2  /2 
Prove  0
log sin xdx  
0
log cos xdx  
2
log 2

 /2
Solution : Let I  0 log sin xdx ...(i)

clearly property-4 is applicable here,

 /2    /2
 I  log   x  dx   log cos xdx ...(ii)
0
2  0

adding (i) and (ii)

 /2
2I  
0
 log sin x  log cos x dx

 /2  /2  sin 2 x 
  log sin x cos x dx  log   dx
0 0
 2 

 /2

0
 log sin 2 x  log 2  dx
 /2  /2
 log sin 2 xdx   log 2dx
0 0

 /2
log sin 2 xdx  log 2  x0
 /2

0

 /2  
 2I   logsin 2 xdx   log 2    ...(iii)
0
2

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 27

Now let us solve the integral part separately.

 /2
I  
0
 log sin 2 x dx
See if I apply property-4 again here I will again get I  , which becomes futile as I am struck
here. So what should I do ?

There are only 2 options

1. I  gives a definite value, which does not seems to be the case here.
2. express I  in terms of I to solve the question.
Now, let
2x  t
 2dx  dt
1 
 I   log  sin t  dt ...(iv)
2 0

Now (iv) is almost similar to I with the only difference being in the upper limit.
 applying property -

 1   /2  /2
I     2  logsin tdt  log  sin t  dt  I
2 0 0

Putting this value back in (iii)


2I  I  log 2
2
 /2  /2 
 I  log sin xdx  
log 2 cos xdx  
0 2 0

Now solving it as we would have done in indefinite integral case.

 /2 sec2 xdx
I 
0 1  sec2 x

 /2 sec 2 xdx

0 2  tan 2 x
Now obvisously we will substitute tan x  t
as x0 tan x  t  0

x tan x  t  
2

  dt  t
I   tan 1
0 2  t2 2 2 0

    
 tan   tan 1 0  
2
1
   0 
2 22  2 2
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
28 QUIZRR

 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx  
a a /2 a /2
Property 8 f (a  x)dx
0 0 0

Geometrical Proof :
Y f(x) Y f(x) Y
f(aăx)

X X X
O a O a O a
a a/2 a/2
 f ( x)dx  f ( x) dx
 f (a  x) dx
0 0 0
= +

Y
f(x) If f (a  x)  f ( x)  x  (0, a )

a
i.e. f ( x) is symmetrical about x  .
2
then  2
X a a/2
O a/2 a 0 f ( x) dx 0 f ( x) dx

Illustration 1 9

 /2  /2  /4
Show that 
0
f (sin 2 x)sin xdx  
0
f (sin 2 x) cos xdx  2 
0
f (cos 2 x) cos xdx

Solution :
 /2
Let I  f (sin 2 x) sin xdx ...(i)
0

 /2      
 I  f sin 2   x   sin   x  dx (using property-4)
0
 2   2 

 /2
 I  f sin(  2 x) cos xdx
0

 /2
 I  f (sin 2 x) cos xdx ...(ii)
0

Hence the first part is proved.

 /2
I  f (sin 2 x) sin xdx
0

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 29

 /4  /4      
 f (sin 2 x)sin xdx   f sin 2   x   sin   x  dx (using Property-5)
0 0
  2   2 

 /4  /4
 f (sin 2 x) sin xdx   f (sin 2 x) cos xdx
0 0

 /4
 f (sin 2 x)(sin x  cos x) dx
0

 /4          
 f sin 2   x   sin   x   cos x   x  x dx (using property-4)
0
 4    4  4  

 /4  1 1 1 1 
 f (cos 2 x)  cos x  sin x  cos x  sin x dx
0
 2 2 2 2 

 /4
 2 f (cos 2 x) cos xdx
0

Hence the second part is also proved.

Some mor e algeb r aic p r op er t ies :

 f ( x) dx  (b  a )  f ((b  a ) x  a )dx
b 1
Property-9 a 0

for the proof of this property we will approach from R.H.S.

Put z  (b  a ) x  a in R.H.S.

 dz  (b  a )dx
& when x0 , za
x 1 , zb
 new integral becomes
dz
   f ( x)dx =L.H.S.
b b
(b  a ) f ( z)
a (b  a ) a
some other properties.
b c
 f ( x)dx  
b
1. a a c
f ( x)dx

bc
 f ( x)dx  
b
2. f ( x  c) dx
a a c

bc
 f ( x)dx  
b
or f ( x  c )dx
a ac

b 1 b  x
3.  a
f ( x) dx 
c a
f   dx
c
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
30 QUIZRR

Illustration 20

2
 2
5 2/3 9 x 
 dx  3
( x 5) 2  3
Evaluate e e dx
4 1/3

Solution :


2
N ot e : Here we know e x dx cannot be evaluated by idefinite integral

5
I 1   e ( x 5) dx
2
Thus,
4

 ( 5  4)  e (( 5 4) x 4 5) dx
1 2

I1    e ( x1) dx
1 2

 0
...(i)

again, let

I2  
2/ 3
e9( x 2/ 3) .dx
2

1/3

2
 2 1  1 2
 2 1  1 9    x  
     e  3 2  3 3  .dx
 3 3 0

1 1 ( x1)2
3 0
 e .dx

1
 ( I1 ) ...(ii)
3

where, I  I 1  3I 2

 I 
 I1  3   1 
 3

 I1  I1

I 0
5
 e( x 5) dx  3
2/3
e 9( x 2/3) dx  0
2 2

 4 1/3

PROPERTIES RELATED TO PERIODICITY

 f ( x) dx  n  f ( x)dx
nT T
Property-10 : I f ( x) is a periodic function with period T then
0 0

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 31

The proof of this property is really easy one.

Geometrical Proof.
If f ( x) is periodic then it will repeat (the curve also) after an interval of T.

O T 2T 3T nT

Since the area under the curve for an interval of T is same everytime.
Total area = n  (curve under one interval)

 f ( x) dx\  n  f ( x)dx
nT T
 0 0

a T
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
T
Property-11 a 0

Let us see the proof using geometry


T
if 0
f ( x) dx

O T 2T

now

a a+T

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
32 QUIZRR
so observation only we can say
a T
 f ( x)dx  
T
f ( x) dx
0 a

Property-12 : Generalization of the above property is

a  nT
 f ( x) dx  n  f ( x)dx
T

a 0

a  nT
 f ( x)dx   f ( x) dx  n  f ( x) dx
nT T

a 0 0

We can also use gemoetrical proof here.

 f ( x) dx  (n  m)  f ( x) dx ,
nT T
Property-13 : mT 0
n, m I

Geometrical Proof.

mt nt

We can write,

 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx  
nT nT mT
f ( x) dx
mT 0 0

i.e. area of curve between = area of curve uptil nT - area of curve uptil mT

 f ( x)dx  n  f ( x)dx  m f ( x) dx
nT T T
 mT 0 0

 ( n  m)  f ( x)dx
T

Some other properties deduced from earlier properties

a  nT
 f ( x) dx   f ( x)dx
a
1. nT 0

a  nT
 f ( x)dx  
nT
2. a  mT mT
f ( x) dx

b  nT
 f ( x) dx   f ( x)dx
b
3. a  nT a

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 33

Illustration 21

400
  
10 100
(a) Prove that ( x  [ x]) dx  5 . (b) e x[ x] dx  100(e  1) (c) 1  cos 2 xdx  800 2
0 0 0

Solution :
(a) Since x  [ x] is a periodic function with period one unit. Therefore

 ( x  [ x]) dx  10  ( x  [ x]) dx  10   xdx   [ x]dx

10 1 1 1

0 0  0 0 

  x2 1  10
 10     0    5
  2  0  2

(b) Since x  [ x] is a periodic function with period one unit, therefore so is e x[ x ] , and hence

 e x  [ x]dx  100  e x[ x] dx  100 e x 0 dx

100 1 1

0 0 0

 100 e x .dx  100(e  1)

1

400 400
(c) 
0
1  cos 2 x  
0
2 sin x dx


 2  400  sin x dx [ sin x is periodic with period  ]
0


 400 2  sin xdx  400 2   cos x0  800 2

0

Illustration 22

4 32 / 3
(a) Evaluate  0
cos x dx (b) Evaluate  0
1  cos 2xdx

Solution :

(a) Note that cos x is a periodic with period  .

Hence the given integral,

I  4 cos x dx
0

4   /2

0

cos xdx   cos xdx
 /2 

 4  sin x0   sin x /2  4(1  1)  8 .
 /2 

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 34 QUIZRR
32 / 3 10 32 /3
(b)  0
1  cos 2 xdx  2 
0
cos x dx  2 
10
cos x dx

 2 / 3
 10 2  cos x dx  2  cos x dx
0 0

 /2   /2 2  /3
 10 2   cos xdx   cos xdx  2   cos xdx    cos xdx 
 0  /2   0  /2 

 3 
 10 2 1  1  2 1   1
 2 

 3 3
 20 2  2  2    22 2 
 2  2

Illustration 23

n V
Show 0
sin x dx  (2n  1)  cos V , where n is positive integer. and 0  V   . [IIT-1994]

Solution :
n V n V
 sin x dx   sin x dx  
V
sin x dx
0 0 V


  sin xdx  n  sin x dx
V

0 0
(Using Property-IX)


   cos x0  n  sin xdx
V
0

 (  cosV  1)  n( cos x)0

 (cosV )  1  n(1  1)

 (2n  1)  cosV
n V
 0
sin x dx  (2n  1)  cos V

where n is positive integer and 0  V   .

PROPERTIES INCLUDING INEQUALITIES :

1. If f ( x)  0 on an interval [a , b] , then


b
f ( x)dx  0
a


b
or if f ( x)  0 , then f ( x)dx  0
a

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 35

The reason is very obvious because if f ( x)  0 the area will be above x-axis i.e. positive & for
f ( x)  0 it will be negative.

2. Property-14 : If f ( x)  g ( x) on [a , b] , then

 f ( x )dx   g( x )dx
b b

a a

The proof is similar to the reasoning given in the above case.

3. Property-15 : If m and M are the smallest & largest values of function f ( x) defined on an
interval [a , b] then

m( b  a )   f ( x )dx  M (b  a )
b

Proof. It is given that

m  f ( x)  M
integrating both sides

 mdx   f ( x)dx   Mdx

b b b

a a a

m(b  a )   f ( x)dx  M (b  a )
b
 a

Property-16 : If f ( x) is defined over [a , b] then

 f ( x )dx   f ( x ) dx
b b

a a

This is very straight forward result.

C

a B
A o b

b
So a
f ( x) dx  area OBC - area OAD ...(i)

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 36 QUIZRR
whereas

D C

A B
a o b


b
 f ( x) dx  area OBC + area OAD ...(ii)
a

compare (i) and (ii) to get to the result.

Property-17 : If f 2 ( x) & g 2 ( x) are integrable over [a , b] then

   g ( x)dx 
b b b 1/ 2

 f ( x ) g ( x )dx  f 2 ( x )dx 2
a a a

Illustration 24

sin x 1  1 dx 

19
(a) Show that 10 1 x8
dx  7
10
(b) Prove that
6 0
4 x  x
2

4 2
Solution :

19 sin x 19 sin x
 dx  
b b
(a) 10 1  x8 10 1  x8
dx [ a
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx ]
a

19 sin x
 dx
10 1  x8

1 19 1
 dx   8 dx
19

10 1  x8 10 x
[ sin x  1 ]

19
 1  1 1

1 1
 7
  7    7
 7 x 10 7.(10) 7.(19)
7 7
7.(10) 10

(b) 0  x 1
 4  x2  4  x2  x3  4  x2  x2 [ x2  x3 ]

 4  x2  4  x2  x3  4  2 x2  1

 4  x2  4  x2  x3  4  2 x2

 4  x2  4  x2  x3  4  2 x2
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 37

1 1 1
  
4 x 2
4 x  x 2 3
4  2 x2

1 dx 1 dx 1 1 dx
 0
4 x 2

0
4 x  x
2 3

2 0 2  x2

1 1
 1 x  1  1 x 
 sin 2   I  2 sin 
 0  2 0

 
 I
6 4 2

Illustration 25

1 15
 (1  x)(1   3 ) dx 
3
(a) Prove that 4   3  x3 dx  2 30 (b) Prove that .
1 0 8
Solution :

dy 3x2
(a) Let y  3  x , then  0 3
dx 2 3  x3

 y is an increasing function
 1 x  3

 3  13  3  x3  3  33

 2  3  x3  30


3
2dx  
3
3  x3 dx  30  dx
3
 1 1 1

4 
3
 3  x3 dx  2 30
1

(b) Let f ( x)  1  x and g ( x)  1  x3

If f 2 ( x) and g 2 ( x) and f ( x) g ( x) are integrable functions on [a , b] , then


a
b
f ( x) g ( x)dx   b

a
f 2 ( x)dx   g (x)dx
b

a
2

 0
1
(1  x) (1  x2 ) dx    (1  x)dx  (1  x )dx
1

0
1

0
3

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 38 QUIZRR

1 1
 x2   x4 
  x   x  
 2 0  4 0

3 5 15
 . 
2 4 8

1 15
Thus, 0
(1  x)(1  x3 ) dx 
8
.

L eib nit z’s R ule for d iffer ent iat ion

Case-I. If the limits are function of the variable whose derivative is taken.

d  h( x )
 f ( t )dt   f  h ( x )  h ( x )  f  g( x )  g ( x )

 
i.e. dx  
g ( x )

independent of x

a very common case is

d x
dx 0
f (t ) dt  f ( x)

Case-2. If the integrand is the function of variable whose derivative is taken, i.e.

d  b
f ( x, t ) dt   
b d

dx  a  a dx
f ( x, t )dt

taking t as a constant while differentiating.

Case-3. General Case :

d h( x ) h( x ) d
 f ( t , x )dt   f ( t , x )dt  f  h( x ) h ( x )  f  g ( x )  g ( x )
dx g ( x ) g ( x ) dx

You can see that its a combination of both the results.

TIP :
Learn the formulas by variable of differentiation, integrand & limit of the integral not
by cases.

Property-18. Let a function f ( x, a ) be continuous for a  x  b and c    d . Then for any  [c, d ] ,

I ( )   f ( x,  ) dx , then
b
if a

dI ( ) b  ( f ( x ,  ))
 dx
d a 

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 39

Illustration 26
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x
x2 x
(a) 0
(cos t 2 ) dt (b) 
1/ x
sin t 2 dt

Solution :

d  x2 
I  0 cos t dt 
2
(a) We have to find
dx  
This is an example of case-1 where only limits are a function of x.

I   cos( x2 ) 2  
d 2
 ( x ) ă cos(0).0
dx

 I  2 x cos x4

d x
dx 1/ x
(b) I sin t 2 dt

This is again an example of case-1

I  sin   x 
2

d
dx
 
  1 2  d  1 
x   sin      
  x   dx  x 
 

1  1  1 
 sin x   sin  2   2 
2 x  x  x 

1 1  1 
 sin x  sin  2 
x 
2
2 x x

Illustration 27
x2 t 2  5t  4
Find the points of maxima / minima of 0 2  et
dt .

Solution. We will apply the normal rules of maxima/minima & for maxima/minima we differentiate
x2 t 2  5t  4
 if f ( x)   dt
0 2  et

d x2  t 2  5t  4 
dx 0  2  et 
then f ( x)    dt

again case-1 example, only limit is a function of x.

( x2 ) 2  5( x2 )  4 d 2
 f ( x)  . (x )  0
2  ex
2
dx

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 40 QUIZRR

 ( x2 )2  5( x2 )  4 
 2x  
2  ex
2
 

2 x( x2  4)( x2  1)

2  ex
2

2 x.( x  2)( x  2)( x  1)( x  1)


2  ex
2

equality it to zero.

· + · + · +

ă2 ă1 0 1 2

Hence the points of maxima (i.e. where sign = -1, 1 changes from +ve to -ve) & points of minma
(where sign changes from -ve to +ve) = -2,0,2

Illustration 28

x2 cos x.cos  dy
(a) If y( x)   2 /16 d , find at x   .
1  sin 
2
dx

 /2
(b) Evaluate  0
log(1  sin  sin 2 x)cosec 2 xdx .

Solution :

x2 cos 
(a) y (cos x). d
 2 /16 1  sin 2 
here cos x is a constant in integration, so it can be moved out of integral & this is the trick here.

x2 cos 
y  cos x. d

1  sin 2 
2
/16

now differentiate using product rule.

dy d x2 cos  d x2 cos  d
 (cos x)   2
dx  2 /16 1  sin 2 
 cos x.
dx dx  /16
1  sin 2 
the derivative of integral is an example of our case-1 i.e. integrand is not the function of
x, only limits are

dy x2 cos  cos x2
  sin x. 2 d   (2 x)  (cos x) 0
dx  / 16
1  sin 2  1  sin 2 x2

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 41

2 x cos 2 x x2 cos 

1  sin x
2
 sin x /16
2
1  sin 2 
d (i)

now solving the integral by substituting

  t2
 d  2tdt
& limits at   x2 tx

2 
 t
16 4

cos t
I 
x
 Integral 2tdt
 /4 1  sin t

dy
But stop, we are solving in futile. We need to find the value of at x   & ahead of this
dx
integral is sin x which is 0 at x   , so no need of solving the integral

dy  2 cos 2 ( )
   2 cos 2 ( )  2
dx  x 1  sin 2 ( )

 /2
(b) I  log(1  sin  sin 2 x)cosec 2 xdx
0

now this is question based on property-18.

H er e I is a function of  , so according to property

 /2 
dI
d

0 
 log (1  sin  sin 2 x cosec 2 xdx

 means differentiating the function containing  only & taking all other variables as
constant while differentiating.

I  /2 1
   sin 2 x cos  .cosec2 xdx
 0 (1  sin  sin x)
2

 /2 cos  dx  /2 cos  sec2 xdx


(1  sin  sin 2 x) 0 cos ec2 x  sin  tan 2 x

0

 /2 cos  sec2 xdx


0 1  (1  sin  ) tan 2 x

Put tan x  t

sec2 xdx  dt

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
42 QUIZRR
& limits at x0 t0


x t 
2

dI  cos  dt

d 0 1  (  sin  )t 2

cos   dt
 
(1  sin  ) t 2  1
0

sin 


cos 

1  sin 
tan 1 t 1  sin 
0
 1  sin  
cos  

1  sin 
  2

1  sin    0 


 .cos 
 1  sin 
2(1  sin  )

 cos 

2 1  sin 

 (cos 2  / 2  sin 2  / 2)

2 sin  / 2  cos  / 2

    
as 1  sin    sin 2  cos 2  2 cos sin 
 2 2 2 2

  
  cos  sin 
2 2 2

dI ( )    
   cos  sin 
d 2 2 2
now integrating to get the value of I
   
2
I  cos  sin  dx
 2 2

  
I  2 sin  2 cos   C
2 2 2

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 43

  
I    sin  cos   C ...(i)
 2 2

for value of C put   0 in the equation

I (0)   (sin 0  cos 0)  C

... (ii)
 C
& I (0) can be found out using the original function.
 /2
& I (a )   log(1  sin  sin 2 x) cos ec2 xdx
0

 /2
I (0)   (log(1)).cos ec2 xdx  0
0

Putting this in (ii)

I (0)    C
 0  C
 C  
putting this value in (i)

  
I ( )    sin  cos   
 2 2

g ( x)   f (t ) dt is an even function.
x
Property-19 : If f (t ) is an odd function, then
a


x
Property-20 : If f (t ) is an even function, then g ( x)  f (t ) dt is an odd function.
0


x
NOTE : For f (t )dt might not be an odd function. So apply the above property
a

taking special care of limits.

Property-21 : If f ( x) is a continuous function on [ a , b] then there exists a point c  ( a , b) such
b
that  a
f ( x)dx  f (c)(b  a ) . This is known as Mean Value Theorem of Integration.

f ( x)  0 then the equation f  x  0 has

b
Property-22 : If f ( x) is continuous in [ a , b] & 
a

atleast one root in ( a , b) .

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
44 QUIZRR
Proof of this property is very simple.

b
a

The area can be zero only iff there is some part of f ( x) below the x-axis (i.e.
negative area). And for that to happen for a continuous function f ( x), f ( x) must
cross the y  0 line at atleast one point.

IMPROPER INTEGRAL

If f ( x) is continuous on [ a ,  ] , then a
f ( x)dx is called as improper integral and

 b
 a
f ( x)dx  lim  f ( x)dx
b  a

If the Right Hand Limit of integral exists then the improper integral is convergent otherwise it
is divergent.

GAMMA FUNCTION


It is defined by the improper integral, by 0
e  x xn1dx and is denoted by  n


 n   e  x xn 1dx where x is a positive rational number.
0

Pr op er t ies of G amma funct ion

1. 1  1, 0   and ( n  1)  nn
2. if n  N , ( n  1)  n !

3. (1/ 2)  

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 45

Useful ext ensions of gamma funct ion :

 /2  /2
1. 
0
sin 2 xdx  
0
cosn xdx

 n 1 n  3 n  5 3 1 
 n . n  2 . n  4 ... 4 . 2 . 2 , if n is even

 n  1 . n  3 . n  5 ... 4 . 2 .1, if n is odd
 n n  2 n  4 5 3

 /2  /2
2. 
0
sin m x cos n xdx  
0
sin n x cosm xdx

(m  1)(m  3)...(1)( n  1)(n  3)...(1) 

 . when both m & n belong to even integer
(m  n)( m  n  2)...2 2

(m  1)(m  3)...(1 or 2)(n  1)( n  3)...(1 or 2)

 when either of m or n belong to odd integer
(m  n)(m  n  2)...1 or 2


3. 
0
sin m x cosn xdx  0 , if n is odd

 /2
 2 sin m x cosn xdx , if n is even
0

Illustration 29

 dx
Evaluate the integral 0 1  x2
Solution :
y
y 1
1 y=
y=
1+x2 1+x2

x x
O b b O 
dx dx
1+x2 1+x2
0 0
By the defintion of an improper integral we find

 dx b dx b 
 
1
 lim  lim tan x  lim tan 1 b  .
0 1  x b  0 1  x b 
2 2
0 b  2

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
46 QUIZRR

Illustration 30

dx
Evaluate  1  x2

Solution :
 dx dx  dx
 
0

 1 x2  1 x 2 0 1  x2

The second integral is equal to . Compute the first integral :
2
 dx 0 dx 
 1  x    1  x2  lim
2
 lim

tan 1 x |0  lim (tan 1 0  tan 1  ) 
  2
Therefore
 dx  
 1 x 2
  
2 2
In many cases, it is sufficient to determine, whether the given intergal converges or diverges, and
to estimate its value.

T he I nt egr al of a Discont inuous funct ion :

A function f ( x) is defined and continuous when a  x  c , and either not defined or discontinuous
c
when x  c . In this case, one cannot speak of the integral  a
f ( x)dx as the limit of integral sums,

because f ( x) is not continuous on the interval [ a , c] , and for this reason the limit may not exist.


c
The integral f ( x)dx of the function f ( x) discontinuous at the point c is defined as follows :
a

 
c b
f ( x)dx  lim f ( x)dx
a b c 0 a

If the limit on the right exist, the integral is called an important convergent integral, otherwise
it is divergent.
If the function f ( x) is dicsontinuous at the left extremity of the interval [ a , c] (that is, for

 
c c
x  a ), then by defintion f ( x)dx  lim f ( x)dx
a b  a 0 b

if the function f ( x) is discontinuous at some point x  x0 inside the interval [ a , c] , we put

 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx

c x0 c

a a x0

if both imporper integral on the right side of the equation exist.

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 47

Illustration 31

1 dx dx

1
(a) Evaluate 0
1 x
. (b) Evaluate the integral 
1 x2

Solution :

1 dx b dx
(a) 
0
1 x
 lim 
b 1 0 0
1 x
  lim 2 1  x |b0
b 1 0

  lim 2
b 1 0
 
1 b 1  2

(b) Since inside the interval of integration there exists a point x  0 where the integrad is
dicsontinuous, the interal must be represented sum of two terms :

dx 1 dx 1 dx

1
 lim  2  lim  2
1 x 2 1 0 1 x  2 0  2 x

Calculate each limit separately :


dx1 1 1 1 1 
lim  2   lim   lim     
1 0 
a 0 1 x 1 0 x
1  1 1 

Thus, the integral diverges on the interval [ 1, 0]

dx
1  1
1 0 1 x2
lim   lim  1  
1 0
 2 
And this means that the integral also diverges on the interval [0,1]. Hence, the given
integral diverges on the entire interval [ 1,1] . It should be noted that if we had begun to
evaluate the given integral without paying attention to the discontinuity of the intgerand
at the point x  0 , the result would have been wrong.

1
y
dx
1 1 1 1 
Indeed 1 x2   x 1    1  1   2
which is impossible (fig.)

y = 12
x

x
ă1 0 1

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
48 QUIZRR
SUMMATION OF SERIES USING DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS A LIMIT OF SUM

If f ( x) is an integrable function defined on [ a , b] then

lim  h  f (a )  f (a  h)  f (a  2h)  ...  f (a  (n  1)h

h 0

is called the definite integral of f ( x) between limits a and b.

 f ( x)dx  lim h  f (a )  f (a  h)  f (a  2h)  ...  f (a  (n  1)h

b
 a h 0

n
 lim
h 0
 f (a  rh)
r 0
y
f(x)

It should be noted that as b  0, a  

băa
h=
n
nh  b  a
x
1 O a b
Putting a  0, b  1 , so that h  h
n (b ă a)

1 n 1 r 

t
We get 0
f ( x)dx  lim
n  n
r 0
f 
n

WORKING RULE

1  r 
Step-1. n  
Express the series in the form, lim
n
 f  
 n 

Step-2. Replace  by  ,

r
by x and
n

1
  by dx
n

r 
Step-3. Obtain the lower & upper limits of the integral by computing nlim   for the least &

n
greatest value of r respectively i.e. put the starting & ending values of r to get the
limits.

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 49

Illustration 32

 1 1 1 1 
Show that lim     ...    log 6 [IIT ă 81]
n 
 n 1 n  2 n  3 6n 
Solution :

 1 1 1 1 
lim     ...  
n  n  1 n2 n3
 6n 

 1 1 1 1 
 lim     ...  
n  n  1 n2 n3 n  5n 

[writing last term in the same form as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, ... terms are]
5n
1 5n
1 n 
 lim   lim   
r 1 n  r r 1 n  n  r 
n  n 

1 5n 1
 lim
n  n
 r
r 1
1
n
 lower limit of r  1

1
 lower limit of integration  nlim  0

n
 upper limit of r  5n

5n
 upper limit of integration  lim
n 
5
n
Hence from (i) required limit

dx
   log(1  x)0
5 5
0 1 x

 log 6  log1  log 6 [ log1  1 ]

Illustration 33

 n n n 1 
Evaluate lim   2  2 2  ...  
 n 1 n  2 n  3 2n 
n  2 2 2

 n n n n 
Solution : lim   2  2 2  ...  2 
 n 1 n  2 n  3 n  n2 
n  2 2 2

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
50 QUIZRR
[Writing last term in the same form as first, 2nd, 3rd,.... term are]

n
 n  1 n n2
 lim   2 2   lim  2 2
r 1  n  r  r 1 n  r
n  n  n

1 n 1
 lim  2
n  n
r 1 r  ...(i)
1  
n

 lower limit of r  1

1
 lower limit of integration = lim 0
n  n
 upper limit of r  n

n
 upper limit of integration = lim 1
n  n
Hence from (i), required limit

dx

1 1
  tan 1 x
0 1 x 2 0

 tan 1 (1)  tan 1 (0)

 
 0 
4 4

Illustration 34

 1 1 1 1 
Evaluate lim     ...  
 n n 2  12 n 2  22 n 2  (n  1) 2 
n  2

 1 1 1 1 
Solution : lim     ...  
n 
 n 2 n 2  12 n 2  22 n 2  (n  1) 2 
n 1
1 1 n 1 n
 lim   lim 
n 
r 0 n2  r 2 n  n
r 0 n2  r 2

1 n 1 1
 lim
n  n
 2
r 0 r 
1  
n

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 QUIZRR 51

y
 lower limit of r  0  lower limit of integration = lim 0
n  n
 upper limit of r  n  1

 n 1   1
 upper limit of integration = lim    lim 1    1
n 
 n  n   n 
 from (i), required limit
1 dx  

1
 sin 1 x  sin 1 (1)  sin 1 (0)  0 
0
1  x2 0 2 2

Illustration 35

r n
r2
Evaluate lim
n 

r 1 r  n
3 3 .

Solution :

n
r2 1 n r 2n
lim   lim 
r 1 r  n r 1 r  n
n  3 3 n  n 3 3

2
r 
 
1 n n
 lim  3
n  n
r 1 r ...(i)
  1
n

1
lower limit of r  1  lower limit of integration  lim
n 
0
n

n
upper limit of r  n  upper limit of integration  lim
n 
1
n

1 x2
 from (i), required limit   dx ...(ii)
0 x3  1
Let z  x3  1 , then dz  3 x2 dx

when x  0, z  1 and when x  1, z  2

1 2 dz 1 1 1
from (ii), required limit     log z1  (log 2  log1)  log 2 .
2

3 1 z 3 3 3

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 INDEFINITE
INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 3

INTRODUCTION
Differential Calculus is centred on the concept of the derivative. The original motivation for the
derivative was the problem of defining tangent lines to the graphs of functions and calculating
the slope of such lines. Integral Calculus is motivated by the problem of defining and calculating
the area of the region bounded by the graph of the functions.
If a function f is differentiable in an interval I, i.e., its derivative f Âexists at each point of I, then
a natural question arises that given f Âat each point of I, can we determine the function ? The
functions that could possibly have given function as a derivative are called anti derivatives (or
primitive) of the function. Further, the formula that gives all these anti derivatives is called
integration. Such type of problems arise in many practical situations. For instance, if we know the
instantaneous velocity of an object at any instant, then there arises a natural question, i.e., can
we determine the position of the object at any instant ? There are several such practical and
theoretical situations where the process of integration is involved. The development of integral
calculus arises out of the efforts of solving the problems of the following types : (a) the problem
of finding a function whenever its derivative is given, (b) the problem of finding the area bounded
by the graph of a function under certain conditions.
These two problems lead to the two forms of the integrals, e.g., indefinite and definite integrals,
which together constitute the Integral Calculus.
There is a connection, known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, between indefinite
integral and definite integral which makes the definite integral as a practical tool for science and
engineering. The definite integral is also used to solve many interesting problems from various
disciplines like economics, finance and probability.

An t id er iva t ive
In differentiation we considered the following problem : given a function F (x), find its derivative,
that is, the function f(x) = F´(x).
In this chapter we shall consider the reverse problem : given a function f(x), it is required to find
a function F (x) such that its derivative is equal to f(x), that is, F´(x) = f(x)
Definition 1 : A function F (x) is called the antiderivative of the function f(x) on the interval
(a, b,) if at all points of the interval F´ (x) = f(x).

Illustration 1
Find the antiderivative of the function f(x) = x 2
Solution :
x3
From the definition of an antiderivative it follows that the function F ( x)  is an antiderivative,
3
´
 x3 
since    x2 .
3 
 
It is easy to see that if for the given function f(x) there exists an antiderivative, then this
antiderivative is not the only one. In the foregoing example, we could take the following functions
as antiderivative :

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 4 QUIZRR

x x x
F( x)   1, F( x)  ă 7 or, generally, F( x)   C (where C is an arbitrary constant),
3 3 3

´
 x 

since   C   x2 .

 3 

I nt egr at ion, int egr and and int egr al

The process of finding integral of a function is called integration and the function which is
integrated is called the integrand. The function whose d.c. is the integrand is called the integral
of the integrand.

Indefinite Integral : If d {F( x)}  f ( x) then also d {F( x)  c }  f ( x) where c is an arbitrary

dx dx
constant.

Thus here general value of  f (x) dx is F(x) + c, where c is an arbitrary constant. c is called
constant of integration.
Clearly integral will change if c changes. Thus integral of a function is not unique and if one
integral of f(x) is F(x), then F(x) + c will be also an integral of f(x), where c is a constant.

Thus  f (x) dx will have infinite number of values and hence it is called indefinite integral of f(x).
Definition Particular Integral : If d[F( x)  c]  f ( x) then
dx

 f (x) dx = F(x) + c.  f (x) dx will have different values for different values of c.

For a definite value C1 of c,  f (x) dx will have a definite value F(x) + c1.

Hence F(x) + c1 is a particular integral of f(x).

G(x) = x2 + 2
Note: Because of constant of integration it is possible
that the same function may have different integrals
but the difference between two integrals of a function F(x) = x2
is a constant.
Thus, an indefinite integral is a family of functions
y = F(x) + C.
x1 O
From the geometrical point of view, an indefinite integral
is a collection (family) of curves, each of which is H(x) = x2 ă 4
obtained by translating one of the curves parallel to
itself upwards or downwards (that is, along the y-axis).
For example, if you graph the three antiderivatives of
f(x) = 2x, you will see that the all graphs have the same

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 5

shape because at any x-value, their tangent lines all have the same slope, as shown in figure.
A natural question arises : do antiderivatives (and, hence, indefinite integrals) exist for every
function f(x)? The answer is no. Let us note, however, without proof, that if a function, f(X) is
continuous on an interval [a, b], then this function has an antiderivative and hence, there is also
an indefinite integral).
This chapter is devoted to working out methods by means of which we can find antiderivatives
(and indefinite integrals) for certain classes of elementary functions.

T ab le of st and ar d element ar y int egr als

The table of standard integrals has been given below which is based on d.c. of elementry functions :

d
(i) ( x)  1   dx  x
dx

d  xn  1  x n 1

n
 x  x n dx  (n   1)
(ii) dx  n  1  n 1

d 1
 x dx  log | x |
1
(iii) (log| x|)  
dx x

d
(iv) (sin x)  cos x   cos dx  sin x
dx

d
(v) (cos x)   sin x   sin xdx   cos x
dx

d
(vi) (tan x)  sec 2 x   sec 2 xd x  tan x
dx

d
(vii) (cot x)   cosec2 x   cosec 2 xdx   cot x
dx

d
(viii) (sec x)  sec x tan x   sec x tan xdx  sec x
dx

d
(ix) (cosec x)   cosec x cot x   cosec x cot xdx   cosec x
dx

d x
(x) (e )  ex   e x dx  e x
dx

d 1

1
(sin 1 x)  dx  sin 1 x
(xi) dx  2
1  x2 1 x

1
d 1
(xii) dx (tan x) 
1
1  x2
  1 x 2
dx  tan 1 x

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 6 QUIZRR

d 1
x
1
(sec 1 x)  dx  sec 1 x
(xiii) dx  2
x x2  1 x 1

d ax
(xiv)
dx
(a x )  a x log e a   a x dx 
log e a
,a 0

Other trigonometric integrals

 tan x d x  log sec x  c

 cot x dx  log sin x  c
 x
 sec x dx  log sec x  tan x  c  log tan  4  2   c
 cos ec x dx  log cos ec x  cot x  c  tan x 2 c

We will do the proofs of these later.

The formulas should be by hearted.

Illustration 2
Find each antiderivative.
(a)  dx
Write dx as 1. dx, and using the fact that x0 = 1 for any nonzero number x,
1 1
 dx  1 dx   x
0
dx  x  C x c
1

 x dx
3
(b)
Use the power rule with n = 3.

 x dx  3 1 x
3 1 31 1 4
C x C
4

t
1
(c) 2
dt

1 1 t 1 1
First, write 1 / t2 as t2 . Then
t 2
dt 
 t2 dt 
 2 1
t21 
1
C
t
C

(d)  u du

 
1 1 2
Since u  u1 / 2 , u du  u1 / 2 du  uó 1  C  u3 / 2  u3 / 2  C
1/ 2  1 3/2 3
2 3/2 ó
To check this, differentiate u  C , the deriative is u , the original function.
3

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 7

Some Pr op er t ies of t he I nd efinit e I nt egr al

Rule
1. The indefinite integral of an algebraic sum of two or more functions is equal to algebraic
sum of their integrals.

[ f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x )] dx   f1 ( x ) dx   f 2 ( x ) dx
2. Constant factor may be taken outside the integral sign, that is, if a const, then

 af ( x ) dx  a  f ( x ) dx
When evaluating indefinite integrals it is useful to bear in mind the following rules.
Example :

 (2x   
3
 3sin x  5 x )  2x3 dx  3sin xdx  5 x dx

* Here we have divided the L.HS. into separate integrals on R.H.S. and also we have taken
constants outside the integration.

  x
3 1/ 2
= 2 x dx  3 sin x dx  5 dx

x31 xó 1
= 2  3 ( cos x)  5 C
31 1
1
2

1 4 10
= x  3cos x  x xC
2 3
Example :

 3 
  x x 
1 1 / 3 1 1 / 2
  x4 x   3 dx  dx  x5 / 4 dx
3
x 2 x  2

1 1 5
 1  1 1
x
1 x 2
3 x4 9 4 2
3    3x  x  x 4
x C
1 2 1 5 2 9
 1  1 1
3 2 4

3. If  f (x) dx  F(x) + C then  f ( x  b) dx  F(x  b)  C

1
4.  f (x) dx  F(x) + C then  f (a x  b) dx  a F(ax  b)  C
for example

sin(3 x  5)
(i) if  cos (3 x + 5) dx 
3

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 8 QUIZRR

x x 4 x 5 e4 x5
(ii)  e dx  e , then  e dx  4

1 1
n xn1 1 (2 x  3) 2 1 3
(iii)  x dx  n  1 , then  2 x  3dx 
2  1 2  1

3
(2 x  3) 2

dx
(iv)  x  3  ln|x  3|  C
1
(v)  cos 7x dx  7 sin 7 x  C
1
(vi)  sin (2x  6) dx   2 cos (2x  6)  C
METHODS OF INTEGRATION

There are various techniques or methods of finding the integrals by reducing them to standard
forms. Prominent methods among them are
1. Method of Transformation
2. Substitution
3. Integration by Parts
4. Integration of Irrational function

METHOD–I METHOD OF TRANSFORMATION

In this method of integration, given function is expressed as the algebraic sum of such functions
whose integral can be written down with the help of standard formulae.

T yp e 1. I nt egr at ion of Algeb r aic funct ions :

Rule :
Simplify the given function whose integral is to be found to express it as the algebraic sum of
functions of the following forms

1
(i) (ax + b)n (ii)
1  x2

1 1
(iii) (iv)
1  x2 x x2  1

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 9

Illustration 3

3 5 7
(a) Find  (4 x 3  3 x 2  2 x  4) d x . (b) Find
 x ( x 2  7 x 2  9 x 2 ) dx

(1  x )3
(c) Find  x
dx

Solution :
(a) As the rule says, we will break the integral into sum of different interals and will then use
standard formulas.

 (4x
3
 3 x2  2x  4) dx

 4x dx   3x dx   2xdx   4dx
3 2
=


 4 x3 dx  3 x2 dx  2
  xdx  4  x dx
0

x3  1 x2  1 x11 x01
= 4.  3.  2.  4. c
31 21 11 01

x4 x3 x2
= 4.  3.  2.  4. x  c
4 3 2

= x4  x3  x2  4 x  c

3 5 7
(b)
 x (x2 ă 7 x2  9 x2 ) dx

1 3 5 7 1 3 1 5 1 7
=
 x2 (x 2 ă 7x 2  9 x2 ) dx =
 x2 . x 2 ă 7 x2 . x 2  9 x2 . x 2 ) dx

 (x  x dx  7  x dx  9  x dx
2
=  7 x3  9 x4 ) dx = 2 3 4

x2  1 x3  1 x4  1
  7. 9. c
21 3 1 4 1

x3 x4 x5
=  7.  9. c
3 4 5

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 10 QUIZRR

(1  x)3
(c)  x
dx

1  3 x  3 x2  x3  1 3 x 3 x2 x3 
=  x
dx =  
 x

x

x
  dx
x 

1 1 1 1
 1 2 3
=
 (x 2  3x 2  3x 2 x 2 ) dx

1 1 3 5

=
x 2 dx  3
 x2 dx  3
 x dx 
2
 x 2 dx

1 3 5 7
3 5 7
x2 x2 x2 x2 6 2 2 2
=
 1
3
3
 3.
5

7
c = 2 x  2 x2 
5
x  x c
7
2 2 2 2

Illustration 4

( x 3  8) ( x  1) sin 3 x  cos3 x dx
(a) Ev al u at e  2
x  2x  4
dx (b)  2
sin x cos x 2
dx (c)  x  x 1

Solution :

( x3  8) ( x  1) ( x3  23 ) ( x  1)
(a)  x2  2 x  4
dx 
 x2  2x  4
dx

( x  2) ( x2  2 x  4)( x  1)
=  x2  2 x  4
dx

 (x  2) (x 1) dx   (x
2
=  x  2) dx

 x dx   xdx  2  x dx
2 0
=

x3 x2
=   2x  c
3 2

sin 3 x  cos3 x sin3 x cos3 x

(b)  sin 2 x cos2 x
dx 
 sin 2
x cos2 x
dx 
 sin 2
x cos2 x
dx

sin x cos x

 cos 2
x
dx 
 sin 2
x
dx 
 tan x sec xdx   cot x cosec xdx = sec x ă cosec x + c.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 11

dx
(c)  x x1

( x x  1)
= ( x x  1) ( x  x  1)
dx

( x  x  1) ( x  x  1)
=  x  ( x  1)
dx 
 1
dx

3 3
3 3
( x  1) 2 x2 2 2
=  c = ( x  1) 2  x2  c
3 3 3 3
2 2

Illustration 5
For what values of c and a is the following equation satisfied ?


1
(sin 2 x  cos2 x )dx  sin(2 x  c )  a
2
Solution :
For this question, we will evaluate L.H.S. first & then will equate if to R.H.S. and will then find
the values of c & a

 (sin 2x  cos2x)dx   sin 2xdx   cos2xdx

cos2 x sin 2 x
=    k, where k is an arbitrary constant
2 2

1  1 1 
=  sin2 x  cos2 x   k
2 2 2 

1   
=  sin 2 x cos 4  cos2 x sin 4   k
2  

1  
= sin  2 x    k
2  4

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
12 QUIZRR
According to question

 (sin 2x  cos2x) dx 
1
sin (2x  c)  a
2

1   1
 sin  2 x    sin (2 x  c)  a
2  4  2


 c and a  k = an arbitrary constant.
4

Illustration 6

5
If f ´( x )  1  x and f(1) = , then what is f(x) ?
x 2

Solution :
Given,

1
f ´( x)  x
x

Integrating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

1 
 f ´(x)dx    x  x  dx
x2
 f ( x)  log x  c (i)
2

Now we need to find the value of c. For that, we are given with the value of F(1)

1
Putting x = 1, we get f (1)  log 1  c
2

5 1
 0 c  c = 2
2 2

Putting the value of c in (i), we get

x2
f ( x)  log x  2 .
2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 13

T yp e 2 : E xp r essing numer at or in t er ms of d enominat or

Illustration 7

x4  1
(a) x 2
1
dx

Here we will transform the numerator, such that it can be expressed in terms of denominator.
x + 1 = (x4 ă 1) + 2 = (x2 ă 1) (x2 + 1) + 2
4

x4  1 ( x2  1) ( x2  1)  2
 x 2
1
dx =
 ( x2  1)
dx

dx
 (x  (x
2
=  1) dx  2 2
 1)

x3
=  x  2 tan 1 x  c
3

ax  b
(b)  cx  d dx
Linear
This is a general form of type , you should follow this example very closely.
Linear
Again we will express numerator in terms of denominator.

a  bc 
ax + b =
c  ( cx  d )  ( d  a 
 

 bc 
ax  b ( x  d)   d 
a 
  cx  d
dx = a
c 

cx  d
dx

a   bc 
   cx  d 
1
= c  dx   d  a  dx
  

a   d  bc  1 
= x    log cx  d   c
c   a  c 

x7
(c)  x 1
dx

Now here, only x7 is in numerator, somehow we have to express it in terms of denominator.

x7 = (x7 + 1) ă 1
= (x + 1) (x6 ă x5 + x4 ă x3 + x2 ă x + 1) ă 1

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 14 QUIZRR
7
(using expansion of x + 1)

x7 dx
  (x x1
6
 =  x5  x4  x3  x2  x  1) dx 
x1

x7 x6 x5 x4 x3 x2
=       x  log x  1  c
7 6 5 4 3 2

x
(d)  (2 x  1) 2
dx

1
x
2
(2 x  1)  1

x  
dx = 1  2 x  1 dx  dx
  (2x  1) 2 
2  (2 x  1)2  (2 x  1) 2 


1 1 1  1  1 
=  2 log 2 x  1  2   2 x  1  = log 2 x  1  
   4  2 x  1

Type III :  f ( x ). g ( x )d x
E xp r essing one funct ion in t er ms of ot her funct ion

Illustration 8

3x  5
(a) Find  7x  9
dx . (b)  ( x  1) x  1 dx

Solution :
(a) [Here we will write 3x + 5 in the form a(7x + 9) + b]
Let 3x + 5 = a (7x + 9) + b
or 3x + 5 = 7ax + 9a + b
Equating the coefficients of similar powers of x from both sides,
3
we get 7a = 3      a
7

3 8
and 9a + b = 5     b  5  9a  5  9. 
7 7

Hence from (i), 3 x  5  3 (7 x  9)  8

7 7

3 8
(7 x  9) 
3x  5
Now
 7x  9
dx 
 7
7x  9
7 dx

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 15

3 7x  9 8 dx
=
7
.
 7x  9
dx 
7  7x  9

1
3 8 
=
7
.
 7 x  9 dx 
7  (7 x  9) 2 dx

1 1
1  1 3 1
3 (7 x  9) 2 8 (7 x  9) 2 2 16
= .
7  1 
 .
7  1 
c =
49
(7 x  9) 2 
49
(7 x  9) 2  c
  1  .7    17
2   2 

2 2
= 7 x  9 (7 x  9  8)  c = (7 x  17) 7 x  9  c .
49 49
(b) 4 + x ă 1 = a (x + 1) + b
or (x ă 1) = ax + a + b
Equating the co-efficients of similar powers of x, we get
a = 1 and a + b = ă 1  b = ă 1 ă a = ă 2
 from (i), x ă 1 = (x + 1) ă 2

Now  (x 1) 
x  1 dx  [( x  1)  2] x  1 dx

3
=
 
(x  1) 2  2 x  1] dx  [(x  1)  2] x  1 dx

5 3
(x  1) 2 (x  1) 2
=  2. c
5 3
2 2

5 3 3
2 4  x 1 2 
= ( x  1) 2  (x  1) 2  c  2 (x  1) 2   c
5 3  5 3

5 3
2 (3 x  3  10) 2
= ( x  1) 2 . c ( x  1) 2 (3 x  7)  c
5 15 15

T yp e I V I nt egr at ion of E xp onent ial Funct ions :

Working Rule :
Express amx + n as bekx and then find the integral.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
16 QUIZRR

Illustration 9

a
3x  3
Evaluate dx , a  0

Solution :

a 
3x  3
dx  a3 x .a3 dx

 
3x 3 x log a
3 3
= a a dx  a . e dx [ a x  ex log a ]

3 e
(3log a) x  ekx 
= a
3
 e(3 x log a) x dx = a .
3 log a  
 c  ekx dx  
k 

3 e
(3log a) x  ekx 

kx
= a .  c   e dx  
3log a  k 

a3 x  3
= c
3 log a

ax (a 3 ) x a3 x
Note :  a x dx 
log e a 
 a3 x dx 
 (a3 ) x dx 
log a3
c
3 log a
c

T yp e V. I nt egr at ion of T r igonomet r ical funct ions using t r ansfor mat ion met hod

Working Rule
1. Whenever the expression is given in terms of powers of sin or cos or tan etc, convert it to
the form sin k, cos k, tan  etc using following formulas

1  cos2 x 1  cos2 x
(i) sin 2 x  (ii) cos2 x 
2 2

3sin x  sin 3x 3 cos x  cos3 x

(iii) sin 3 x  (iv) cos3 x 
4 4

(v) tan2x = sec2x ă 1 (vi) cot 2 x  cosec 2 x  1

2. For the expressions of type sin mx cos nx, use the following formulas to get 2 separate
functions & then so we the question.
(i) 2 sinA sinB = cos (A ă B) ă cos (A + B)
(ii) 2 cos A cos B = cos (A ă B) + cos (A + B)
(iii) 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A ă B)
(iv) 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) ă sin (A ă B)
(b) Then find the integral by using the standard formulae.
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 17

Illustration 1 0

sec2 x
 cosec x dx  sin  cos
3 4
(a) Find 2 (b) xdx (c) xdx

Solution :

sec 2 x
 cos 
1
(a)  cosec x2
dx = 2
x
 sin2 xdx  tan2 xdx

 (sec   dx = tan x ă x + c
2
= x  1) dx  sec 2 xdx 

(b) sin3x = 3sin ă 4 sin3x

3sin x  sin 3 x
 sin 
3
Now xdx = dx
4

 sin xdx  4  sin 3xdx

3 1
=
4

3 1  cos3 x 
( cos x)    c
3 
=
4 4

3 cos 3x
= ă cos x  c
4 12

(c) We know, cos2 x  1  cos 2 x

2

2
 1  cos2 x  1 2
  4 (1  2cos2 x  cos 2 x)
4
 cos x = 
 2 

1 1  cos 4 x 
1  2cos2 x 
4  
=
2 

1 1 1 
=  1  2cos2 x   cos4 x 
4 2 2 

13 1  3 1 1
=   2cos2 x  cos4 x    cos2x  cos 4 x
42 2  8 2 8

3 1 1 
Now  cos
4
xdx =   8  2 cos2x  8 cos4 x  dx

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 18 QUIZRR

3 1 1
=
8  dx  2  cos3xdx  8  cos4 xdx
3 1 sin 2x 1 sin 4 x
= x .  . c
8 2 2 8 4

3 sin 2x sin 4 x
= x  c
8 4 32

Illustration 1 1

dx dx
(a) Find  1  sin  d  (b)  1  cos x (c)  1  sin x
Solution :

 
(a)  1  sin  d 
 1  cos     d
2 

 /2     2 x
=  2cos2 
 2
 d

 1  cos x  2 cos 2 
 

 
= 2
 cos  4  2  d
sin( / 4   / 2)  
= 2  c   2 2 sin     c
1 4 2

2

 
= 2 2 sin     c [ sin ( )   sin ]
2 4

      1   
Note : sin     sin cos  cos sin   sin  cos 
2 4 2 4 2 4 2  2 2

  
 1 = 2  sin  cos   c
 2 2 

dx dx
(b)  1  cos x   2cos 2
x/ 2

1 x 1 tan x / 2 x
=
2  sec 2
2
dx  .
2 1
 c  tan  c
2
2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 19

2nd Method :

dx 1  cos x
 1  cos x =  1  cos x 1  cos x dx
1  cos x 1  cos x
=  1  cos 2
x
dx 
 sin 2 x
dx

 1 cos x 
=   sin 2
x
  dx
sin2 x 

 (cosec x  cosec x cot x) dx

2
=

 cosec xdx  cosec x cot xdx

2
=

= ă cot x ă (ă cosec x) + c = ă cot x + cosec x + c.

dx dx
(c)  1  sin x   1  cos    x 
 
2 

dx  2 
=
 2sin ( / 4  x / 2)
2  1  cos   2sin 2 
 

= 1  x x
 cosec
2
   dx
2 4 2

1   cot ( / 4  x / 2)    x
= .  c  cot     c
2 1 4 2

2

Note : This problem can also be solved by multiplying numerator and denominator by 1 + sin x.

Illustration 1 2

(a) Evaluate  sin 3 x cos5 xdx

What should be the value of the constant o integration so that the integral is zero
when x = 0.

(b) Evaluate  sin x sin2x sin3xdx

dx
(c)  a sin x  b cos x
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
20 QUIZRR
Solution :

1
(a) Let I =  sin 3x cos5xdx  2  2cos5xsin 2 xdx
1 1
=
2  
(sin 8 x  sin 2 x) dx  [ sin 8 xdx  sin 2xdx]
2 
1  cos8 x  1  cos2 x 
   c
2  8  2  2 
=

cos8 x cos2 x
=   c
16 4
Given when x = 0, I = 0

cos0 cos0 1 1
 0=   c  c
16 4 16 4

1  4 3 3
= c  c;  c  
16 16 16

 sin x sin 2x sin 3xdx  2  (2sin 2x sin x)sin 3x dx

1
(b)


1
= (cos x  cos3 x) sin 3 xdx
2

1
=
4 
[ 2sin 3 x cos xdx 
 2cos 3x sin 3 xdx]
1
=
4 
[ (sin 4 x  sin 2x) dx 
 sin 6 xdx]
1
=
4 
[ (sin 4 xdx 
 sin 2xdx   sin 6 xdx]
1  cos4 x  cos 2x   cos6 x  
=        c
4  4  2   6  

cos 4 x cos2 x cos6 x

=    c
16 8 24
(c) This is a common type of question. In fact this method should be by hearted as you will
encounter this trigonometric problems also.

dx dx
I=
 a sin x  b cos x    a b cos x 
a 2  b2
 sin x 
 a 2  b2 a 2  b2 


INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 21

why we did this will become clear in the following steps

dx
=  a 2  b2
sin x cos   cos x sin  

a b
letting cos   , sin  
a 2  b2 a2  b2

why this ? we know cos2 + sin2 = 1

2 2
 a   b  a2 b2
      1
  a2  b2   a2  b2  a 2  b2 a2  b2
   

where tan  = a/b   = tană1 a/b

1 dx 1 dx
I
a 2  b2
 sin x cos   cos x sin    a 2  b2

 sin (x  )
1
=
a 2  b2
 cosec (x  a) dx
1
= log cos ( x  a)  cot ( x  )  c
a  b2
2

TRY IT YOURSELF : 1

dx x1
(a)  5  3x  4  3x (b)  x  1 dx
x3
(c)  cos x cos 2x cos3x dx (d)  (x  1) 2
dx

 elog x 
(e)  sin2 x cos 2 x dx (f)  
 x

 dx



INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 22 QUIZRR
METHOD–II : INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION (CHANGE OF VARIABLE)
Let it be required to find the integral

 f (x) dx;
we cannot directly select the antiderivative of f(x) but we know that it exists.
Let us change the variable in the expression under the integral sign, putting
x =  (t) ... (1)
where  (t) is a continuous function (with continuous derivtive) ha ving a n inverse
function.
The dx = ´ (t) dt, we shall prove that in this case we have the following equation :

 f (x) dx   f [ (t)] ´ (t) dt ... (2)

The following are some instances of integration by substitution.

M et hod of Sub st it ut ion

f ´( x)
Type 1 :  f (x) dx
This is a very common type of substitution.
put f (x) = t, then
   f´(x) dx = dt, so the integral becomes

f ´( x) dt
 f (x) dx   t  log t  c

f ´( x)
  f (x) dx  log f ( x)  c

You can also remember this by the following method

derivative of denominator
 denominator
 log denominator  c

Let us prove sum standard results using this property.

Illustration 1 3
Find :

(a)  tan x dx (b)  cot x d x

(c)  sec x dx (d)  cosec x dx
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 23

Solution :
Though we have already learnt the formulas for the above integrals, let us now prove them

tan x sec x
(a)  tan x dx   sec x
dx

d
and we know  sec x  tan x sec x
dx

f ´( x)
hence f ( x) form

  tan x  log sec x  c

cos x
(b)  cot x dx   sin x dx
d
(sin x)  cos x
dx

  cot x dx  log sin x dx

sec x (sec x  tan x)
(c)  sec x dx   sec x  tan x
dx

sec2 x  sec x  tan x

=  tan x  sec x
dx

d
(tan x  sec x)  sec 2 x  sec x tan x
dx

  sec x dx  log|sec x  tan x| c

cosecx (cos ec x  cot x)

(c)  cosec x dx   (cosec x  cot x)
dx

cosec 2 x  cosec x cot x

=  cosec x  cot x
dx

d
(cos ec x  cot x)   cosec x cot x  co sec 2 x
dx

  cosec x dx  log cos ec x  cot x  c

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
24 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 4
Evaluate the following :

1  tan x sec x
(a) 1  tan x
(b) log  sec x  tan x 

1 a
(c) (d)
x  x log x b  ce x

Solution :

f´
All the above question are of the type . Let us see how
f

1  tan x
(a)  1  tan x dx
Right now it is not in f´/f form. But if we put tan x = sin x / cos x

sin x
1
1  tan x cos x  sin x
  1  tan x
dx 
 1
cos x 
sin x  cos x  sin x
cos x
Now take another look at the last integral, do you see f´/f form
d
Bingo, yes we can  cos x  sin x  cos x  sin x
dx

1  tan x
  1  tan x dx  log cos x  sin x  c
sec x
(b)  log  sec x  tan x dx
d
dx
 log (sec x  tan x 
1
(sec x  tan x)

sec x tan x  sec 2 x = sec x 
sec x dx
 int egral
 log (sec x  tan x)  log log (sec x  tan x)  c
1
1 1 dx /x
(c)  x  log x

 x 1  log x

 1  log x dx
d 1
Now, 1  log x   x
dx  

dx
 x  x log x  log x  x log x  c
1


INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 25

a a
(d)  b  ce   e  be
x x x
c  (taking ex common)

ae x  a be x  a  be x

=   be x
c
 
 b   be
x
 
c  b   be x
c

Now
d
dx

be x  c   be x 
a
  b  ce x
 log be x  c

Illustration 1 5
Evaluate :

x2  1 x e 1  e x  1
(a)  xx 2
1 
dx
(b)  x e  ex
dx

sin 2 x dx dx
(c)  a cos 2
x  b sin x 2 (d) x x
dx

Solution :

x2  1
(a)  x (x 2
 1)
dx

f´
at first sight you will not be able to judge that its a type question.
f

1
1
x2  1 x2  1 2
 x(x 2
 1)
dx 
 1
x2 ( x  )
dx 
  x  x1  dx
x  
 x

now f´/f type is evident

d 1 1
(x  )  1  2
dx x x

x2  1 1
  x(x 2
 1)
dx  log x 
x
c

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
26 QUIZRR

xe1  ex1
(b)
xe  ex

dex
at first look this gives the feel of f´/f type but  ex1 , this is a block ade here.
dx

d
( xe  ex )  exe1  ex
dx
which we can get by multiplying the numerator e, thus integral becomes

ex  exe1  1  1
  x e  e
e x  
dx  log ex  xe  c
e

sin 2 x
(c)  a cos 2
x  b sin 2 x
dx

d
dx

a cos2 x  b sin 2 x  = 2a cos x (ă sin x) + 2b sin x (cos x)

= ă a (2 sin x cos x) + b (2 sin x cos x)

= (b ă a) sin 2 x
& we have sin 2x in numerator, for (b ă a) multiplying & dividing by (b ă a).

sin 2 x dx 1
  a cos 2
x  b sin x 2

b  a
log a cos2 x  b sin 2 x  c

dx
(d) x x

In this question students start substituting values like x = t2 etc., which is though also correct.
But let us see how without substituting such values we can cover this in f´/f type directly.

dx 1 1/2 x
x x

 x ( x  1)
dx  2
 x 1 
dx

now
d
dx
 x 1   1
2
x

dx
x x
 2 log x 1 c

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 27

  f ( x )
n
Type II f ´( x ) dx

if we put f(x) = t, then

f´(x) dx = dt, hence integral converts to

tn1
 tn dt 
n1
c

f ( x )n 1
  f ( x )
n
 f ´( x ) dx   c
n 1

Let us take some examples.

Illustration 1 6

(a)  sec 4
x tan x dx (b)  x cos 3
x 2 sin x 2 dx

1
(c)
2 x
tan x sec 2 x (d)  sin 3
x cos x d x

(e) x 2
( x 3  1)10 dx

Solution :

 sec
4
(a) x tan x dx

d
 sec
3
We can write this as x (sec x tan x) dx and (sec x)  sec x tan x
dx
hence applying the above formula

sec 4 x
 sec 4 x tan x dx 
4
c

 x cos x sin x dx
3 2 2
(b)

=   x sin x  cos x
2 3 2
dx

d
(cos x2 )  (sin x2 ) (2 x)
dx

1  cos4 x2 
  x cos3 x2 sin 2 dx 
2

 4
  c

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
28 QUIZRR

2
1
(c) tan x sec 2 x dx
x

d
dx
(tan x )  sec 2 x  
 1 

2 x

tan2 x
2
1
 tan x sec 2 x dx 
x 2

 sin
3
(d) x cos xdx

d
(sin x)  cos x
dx

sin 4 x

 sin3 x cos x dx 
4
c

3
( x3  1)10 (3x2 dx) Sustitution u  x 21,
 
(e) 1
x2 ( x3  1)10 dx 
3 du  3 x dx

1 1 u11 1
=
3  u10 du  .
3 11
C
33
( x3  1)11  C

Typeă3  f  g ( x ) g´( x)dx

In this type, we substitute g (x) = t, then
g´(x) dx = dt

Hence integral reduces to  f (t) dt

NOTE : For this substitution g(x) should be continuous & differentiable function.

Illustration 1 7
Evaluate :

x2 x
(a) 1 x 6
dx (b)  a  x3
3
dx

1 x
 x 24  e a tan
(c)   10  dx
 x  1
(d)  1  x2
dx

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 29

Solution :

x2
(a) 1  x 6
dx

see here (1 + x6) can be written as (1 + (x3)2) and we know

dx
 
d 3
x  3 x2

which is present in numerator.

 Substituting x3 = t
 3x2 dx = dt

dt
 x2 dx =
3

1 dt 1
 integral is,   3  1  t 2

3
tan 1 t  c

1
= tan 1 x3  c
3

x x1 / 2 dx
(b)  a 
dx 

a   x 
3 3
x 3/2 2 3/2 2

now here let x3/2 = t

3 1/2
 x dx  dt
2

2
 x1 / 2 dx  dt, which is numerator only.
3

 2 dt
 
 integral is  3 
a 
2
3/ 2
 t2

using standard formula for sină1 t

2 1 t  2  x3 / 2 
= 3 sin 3/ 2
   sin 1  3 / 2   c
a  3 a 

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
30 QUIZRR

x24  x  x dx
x24 dx
54 4
(c)
x 10
1
dx 
 x   1  x   1

5
2
5
2

Now let x5 = t
 5x4 dx = dt;  integral becomes

t4 dt 1  t4  1 t4  1  1
 5 t 2
1 

5   2  dt 
t  1 5  t2  1
dt

1  t4  1 1  1  (t2  1) (t2  1)  1  
= 5 2 
 t  1

 dt  
t2  1  5  
t2  1
dt 
  2  dt
 t  1  

1  2 1  1  t3 1 



= 5  (t  1) dt   2
dt     t  tan t
t  1  5  3 

putting the value of t in the integral

1  x15 5 1 5 
= 5  3  x  tan x   c
 

1 x 1
(d) [Here ea tan is a function of tană1x and d.c. of tană1x = = second function.
1  x2

Hence put z = tană1x]

1
Let z = tană1x, then dz  dx
1  x2

ea tan 1 x eaz 1 1
Now  1  x2
dx   eaz dz 
a
 c  ea tan x  c
a

Type 4 : Integration of algebraic functions which are of the form

P ( x)
P( x).(ax  b) n or
(ax  b)n
where P(x) is a polynomial in x and n is a positive rational number.

Working Rule :
Put z = ax + b

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 31

Illustration 1 8

Evaluate  (5x  3) 2 x  1 dx .

Solution :

[Here P( x)  5 x  3 and 2x ă 1 is of the form (ax  b)n ].

dz dz
Let z  2 x  1 then  2,  dx 
dx 2

z1
Again  z  2 x  1; x
2

Now  (5x  3) 2 x  1dx

  z 1  dx
=  5    3 z
2   2

5 z  11 5 3 11 
=  4 4 
z dz   z 2 
4
z  dz


5 z  11  5 2 11 
=  4 4


z dz   z 3 
4
z  dz



3
5 11
=
4  z 2 dx 
4  z dz

5 3
5 3
5 z2 11 z 2 1 11 2
=  .  c  z2  z  c
4 5 4 3 2 6
2 2

3 3
z2  11   3 z  11  z2
= z  c  c
2  3 2  3 
Now putting back the value of z in terms of x.
3

= (2 x  1) . [3(2 x  1)  11]  c
2

3 3

= (2 x  1) 2 (2 x  1) 2 . (3x  4)
. (6 x  8)  c  c
6 3
Note : This problem can also be solved by the method of transformation.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
32 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 9

x2
Evaluate  (a  bx ) 2
dx [I.I.T. 79]

Solution :
[Here P(x) = x2 and (a + bx)2 is of the form (ax + b)n]

dz dz
Let z = a + bx   b  dx 
dx b

za
Again  z  a  bx  x 
b

2
 z  a
x2   z2  2az  a2 1
 b  . dz 
Now
 (a  bx) 2
dx 
 z2 b  b2 z2 b
dz

1  z2 2az a2  1  2a 2 2
=
b3   z2  z2  z2  dz  b3
 
  1  z  a z  dz
 

1  dz 
=   dz  2a
b3  z  a2  z2 dz


1  2 z 
1

= 3  z  2a log| z|  a c
b  1 

1  a2 
=  z  2 a log| z|  c
b3  z 

1  a2 
= 3  a  bx  2a log| a  bx|  c
b  a  bx 

1  a2 
= 3  bx  2 a log| a  bx|    c´
b  a  bx 

 a
 where c  c  3 
 b 

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 33

T yp e 5
W or king R ule :
If integrand contains any expression of the form sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, where  is a
function of x, then put z = .

W or ked out E xamp les

Illustration 20

e x 1  x 
(a) Find 
sin x
x
dx (b) 
cot  log x 
x
dx (c)  cos  xe  dx
2 x

Solution :
(a) [Here integrand contains sin x which is of the form of sin,

where   x which is a function of x, therefore, put z  x]

1
Let z = z  x then dz  dx
2 x

or dx  2 x dz  2 zdz  z  x 
 

sin x sin z
Now  x
dx   z
2 zdz  2 sin zdz

= 2   cos z   c   2cos x  c
(b) [Here integrand contains expression of the form cot,
where  = logx is a function of x, therefore, put z = logx]
1
Let z = logx then dz = dx
x

cot  log x 
Now  x
dx =  cot zdz
= log |sinz| + c [ cotxdx = log |sinx|]
= log |sin(logx)| + c.
(c) [Here integrand contains expression of the form cos,
where  = xex is a function of x, therefore, put z = xex]
Let z = xex, then dz = (1.ex + xex)dx = ex (1 + x)dx

ex 1  x 
Now  cos  xe  dx =  dzcos1 zx   sec
2 x
2
2
zdz

= tanz + c = tan(xex) + c.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 34 QUIZRR

Illustration 21

x3 x5
(a) Evaluate  x4  1
dx (b)  1  x3
dx

e2 x x
(c) 1 e x
dx (d)  x 2
dx

Solution :
1
(a) [Here  x4  1
is a function of x4 + 1 and d.c. of x4 + 1 = 4x3 = 4. second function.

Hence put z = x4 + 1.]

Let z = x4 + 1 = then dz = 4x3 = 4dx.

x3 1

  1  dz 1 
Now
x4  1
dx =   
 z 4

4  z 2 dz

1
1 z2
1 x4  1
. c zc c
= 4 1 2 2
2

x5 x3
(b) [Here integrand =  1 x 3

1 x 3
. x2

x3 1  x3  1
and  is a function of 1 + x3
1  x3 1  x3

and d.c. of 1 + x3 = 3x2 = 3. second function. Hence put z = 1 + x3]

Let z = 1 + x3, then dz = 3x2dx

x5 x3  z  1  dz
Now  1 x 3
dx 
1 x 3
x2 dx 
  
z  3

1 z 1 1  z 1  1   
1

= 3  z
dz 
3  
 z
  dz 
z 3   z  z 2  dz





 3 1 
1  2 2 
3

1 z 2 z2 
    c  z  2 z  c
= 3 3 1  3 3 
 2   
2 

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 35

=
2
9
z  z  3  c 
2
9
1  x3 1  x3  3  c  
=
2
9

1  x3 x3  2  c 
e2 x ex .ex  1  ex  1  x 1  ex  1
(c) [Here integrand = 1  e x
  
1  ex  1  ex 
 e and
1  ex
is a function of 1 + ex

and d.c. of 1 + ex = second function. Hence put z = 1 + ex]

Let z = 1 + ex then dz = exdx

e2 x ex z1
Now 1  e x
dx 
1  e x
ex dx 
 z
dz

 1
=   1  z  dz  z  log z  c
= 1 + ex ă log |1 + ex| + c
= ex ă log |1 + ex| + c´, where c´ = c + 1

x x  x2  1
 .
1
  x2
(d) [Here integrand = x 2 x2 x  x  2  x and is a function of x
x 2

1 1
and d.c. of x  . second function. Hence put z  x .]
2 x 2

1
Let z  x , then dz = dx
2 x

x x dx
Now  x2
dx =  x2
.
x

 z2  z2
=
   2 dz  2
 z  2
 z2
dz ...(i)

Let y = z + 2, then dy = dz

z2  y  2 2 y2  4 y  4
Now  z2
dz 
 y
dy 
 y
dy

 4 y2
=  

y  4  
y
dy 
2
 4 y  4 log y  c

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 36 QUIZRR

=
 z  22  4  z  2   4 log z  2  c
2

z2  4  4 z
=  4 z  8  4 log z  2  c
2

x44 x
=  4 x  8  4 log x2 c
2

x
 from (i),  x2
dx

= x  4  4 x  8 x  16  8log  
x  2  2c

= x  4 x  8log  
x  2  c´, where c´ = 2c ă 12

T yp e 6 : T r igonomet r ic I nt egr al
I nt egr at ion of t he for m :

 sin m x cos n xdx

W or king R ule :
(i) If power of sin x is odd positive integer, put z = cos x
(ii) If power of cos x is odd positive integer, put z = sin x
(iii) If powers of both sin x and cos x are odd positive integers, put z = sin x or z = cos x.
(iv) If power of neither cos x nor sin x is odd positive integer, see the sum of powers of sin x and
cos x.
(a) If the sum of powers is even negative integer, put z = tan x.
(b) If the sum of powers (m + n) is even positive integer and m, n are integers, express
the integrand as the algebraic sum of sines and cosines of multiple angles.
For this use the following formulae whichever is needed.
In this case method of transformation is used in place of method of substitution

1  cos2 x 1  cos 2 x
sin2x = , cos2 x 
2 2

3sin x  sin 3 x 3cos x  cos 3 x

sin3x = , cos3 x 
4 4
2sinxcosx = sin2x

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 37

Illustration 22

 sin  cos
5 3
(a) Find xdx (b) x sin x dx

dx
(c)  sin x cos3 x (d)  sin
4
xdx

Solution :
(a) [H er e power of sin x is 5 which is odd positive integer, therefore, put z = cosx]
Let z = cosx then dz = ă sinxdx

 sin xdx  sin 4 x sin xdx   (sin 2 x)2 sin xdx

5
Now

 1  cos 
2
2
= x sin xdx

 (1  z )   dz
2 2
= [ z = cosx]

 z3 x5 
 1  2 z 
2
=  z4 dz    z  2  c
 3 5 

2 3 z5
= z .z  c
3 5
2 cos5 x
=  cos x  .cos3 x  c
3 5

(b) [Here power of cosx is 3 which is odd positive integer, therefore, put z = sinx]
Let z = sinx, then dz = cosxdx

 cos x sin x dx   cos2 x sin x cos xdx

3
Now

 1  sin 
2
= x sin x cos xdx

 5

=  1  z2  z dz    z  z 2  dz
 
 

3 7
3 7
z2 z2 2 2
  c  z2  z2  c
= 3 7 3 7
2 2

3 7
2 2
= sin 2 x  sin 2 x  c
3 7

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
38 QUIZRR
(c) [H er e power of sin x is ă 1 and that of cosx is ă 3. Since sum of powers of sinx
and cosx is ă 4 which is even and negative, therefore, put z = tanx.]
Let z = tanx, then dz = sec2xdx

dx sec 2 x sec 2 x
Now  sin x cos3 x  sin x cos3 x.sec2 x
 dx   sin x cos x dx [ sec2xcos2x = 1]

sec 2 x
 tan x sec
2
= xdx

 z 2 
1  z2  tan x  z  1 and sec xdx  dz
=  dz  
z 2 2
& sec x  1  tan x 

1  z2 1 
=  dz    z  z  dz
z

z2
= log z  c
2

tan 2 x
= log tan x  c
2
(d) [Here power of sinx is 4 and that of cosx is 0 and sum of their powers is 4 which is even
positive integer.
Therefore, we will have to express sin4x as sines and cosines of multiple angles.]
2

  sin x
2  1  cos 2 x 
 sin xdx  
4 2
Now dx    dx
 2 

 1  2 cos 2x  cos 
1 2
= 2 x dx
4

1 
dx  2  cos 2 xdx   cos2 2 xdx
4 
= 

1  sin 2 x 1  cos 4 x 
=  x  2. 2   dx
4  2 

1  1  sin 4 x 
=  x  sin 2 x  2 x 
4 
 c
4  

1 3 sin 4 x 
 x  sin 2 x  c
8 
=
4 2

3 sin 2 x sin 4 x
= x  c
8 4 32
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 39

T yp e 7 : I nt egr als of t he for m :

m
 tan x sec n xdx or  cot
m
x co sec n xdx

W or king R ule :
m
I. For  tan x sec n xdx :

(i) If power of secx is even positive integer, put z = tanx.

(ii) If power of secx is not even positive integer, then see the power of tanx.
(a) If power of tanx is odd positive integer, put z = secx.
(b) If power of tanx is even positive integer, then put sec2x ă 1 in place of tan2x and then
substitute z = tanx.
(iii) If power of tanx is zero and power of secx is odd positive integer greater than 1, then method
of integration by parts is used.

 sec xdx,  sec 5 xdx etc.

3
For example :

m
II. For  cot x cosec n xdx

(i) If power of cosecx is even positive integer put z = cotx.

(ii) If power of cosecx is not even positive integer, see the power of cotx.
(a) If power of cotx is odd positive integer, put z = cosecx.
(b) If power of cotx is even positive integer, put cosec2x ă 1 in place of cot2x and then
substitute z = cotx.
(iii) If power of cotx is zero and power of cosecx is odd positive integer greater than 1, then
method of integration by parts is used.

 cosec xdx,  cosec 5 xdx

3
For example :

Illustration 23

(a) Find  tan

n
x sec 2 xd x ,  n   1 (b)  sec
4
xdx

 tan  cos ec
3 4
(c) xdx (d) xd x

 tan
6
(e) xd x

Solution :
(a) [Here power of secx is 2 which is even positive integer, therefore, put z = tanx]
Let z = tanx, then dz = sec2xdx

n n zn  1
c
 tan x sec xdx   z dz
2
Now = [ n  ă 1]
n 1

tan n  1 x
=  c.
n 1
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
40 QUIZRR
(b) [H er e power of secx is even positive integer, therefore, put z = tanx]
Let z = tanx, then dz = sec2xdx

 1  tan 
4 2 2
Now  sec xdx =  sec x.sec 2 xdx = x sec 2 xdx

  z3 tan3 x
= 1  z2 dz  z   c  tan x  c.
3 3
(c) [Here power of secx is not even positive integer and power of tanx is odd positive integer
therefore, put z = secx]
Let z = secx, then dz = secxtanxdx

tan 2 x sec x tan x

 tan xdx  
3
Now dx
sec x

sec 2 x  1 z2  1
=  sec x sec x tan xdx   z dz

 1 z2
=  

z  
z
dz 
2
 log z  c

sec 2 x
=  log sec x  c
2
(d) [Here power of cosecx is even positive integer therefore, put z = cotx]
Let z = cotx, then dz = ă cosec2xdx

 cosec  co sec
2
Now 4
xdx = x.cos ec 2 xdx

 1  cot 
2
= x cosec 2 xdx

 1  z    dz    1  z  dz
2 2
=

 z3  cot3 x

=  z    c   cot x   c.
 3  3

(e) [Here power of tanx is even positive integer therefore, change tan2x into sec2x ă 1
and then put z = tanx]

  tan    sec 
3 3
 tan
6 2 2
Now xdx  x dx  x  1 dx

  sec 
6
= x  3sec 4 x  3sec 2 x  1 dx

 sec xdx  3  sec 4 xdx  3  sec 2 xdx   dx

6
=

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 41

 sec xdx  3  sec 4 xdx  3 tan x  x

6
= ...(i)

Let z = tanx then dz = sec2xdx

 sec xdx  3  sec 4 xdx

6
Now

 sec x sec 2 xdx  3  sec 2 x sec 2 xdx

4
=

 1  tan   1  tan 
2
2
= x sec 2 xdx  3 2
x sec 2 xdx

 1  z   
2
= 2
dz  3  1  z2 dz

 1  2 z   
2
= 2
 z4 dz  3  1  z2 dz

z3 z5 z3
= z  2.   3 z  3.
3 5 3

z5 z3 tan5 x tan3 x
=   2z    2 tan x
5 3 5 3
Putting in (i), we get

tan 5 x tan 3 x
 tan 6 xdx  5

3
 2 tan x  3 tan x  x  c,

tan5 x tan 3 x
=   tan x  x  c.
5 3

Some st and ar d sub st it ut ions

Function of the form Substitution

1
1. a 2
 x 2 or x = a sin  or a cos 
a2  x2

dx
Example : I Let x = a sin   dx = a cos  d
a2  x2

a cos  d  x
So I     d    C  sin 1 C
2
a  a sin  2 2 1

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 42 QUIZRR
Function of the form Substitution

1 1
2. or x = a tan  or a cot 
a 2
 x 2
 a2  x2

dx
Example : I   Let x = 3 tan   dx = a sec2  d
9  x2

3sec 2  d 1  1 x
So I  
2
  d   C  tan 1  C
9sec  3 3 3 3

Function of the form Substitution

1
3. or x2  a 2 x = a sec  or a cosec 
x  a2
2

dx
Example : I  
x x4  1

x 
2
Here x4  1  2
1

Put x2 = sec
 2x dx = sec tan  d

I
sec  tan  d 1  1
  d    C  sec 1 x2  C  
 
So
2 sec  sec . sec 2   1 2 2 2

Function of the form Substitution

a  x a  x
4. or x = a cos 2
a  x a x

1x
Example : I   dx Let x = cos 2  dx = – 2 sin 2  d
1 x

1  cos 2 sin 
So I =   2 sin 2  d   2  .2sin  cos  d
1  cos 2 cos 

= 2  2sin 2  d   2  1  cos 2  d

=  2  sin 2  C   cos 1 x  1  x2  C

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 43

Function of the form Substitution

x a  x
5. or x = a sin2  or x = a cos2 
a  x x

x9
Example : Evaluate  dx
2 x8  x9

x9
I=
 2 x8  x9
dx

x
=  2x
dx

putting x = 2 sin2
dx = 2 (2 sin  cos ) d

2sin 2 
 I
 2  2 sin 2 
2  2sin  cos   d 

sin 
= 4  cos  sin  cos  d
 
2 2
= 4 sin  d  2 2sin  d 

= 2  1  cos2 d
 sin 2 
= 2   c
 2 

= 2 ă sin 2 + c

Function of the form Substitution

x 1 x
6. or x = a tan2  or x = a cot2 
a  x x

x
Example : Evaluate  dx
9 x

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 44 QUIZRR

x
I
 9x
dx

putting x = 9 tan2
dx = 9 (2 tan  sec2) d

9 tan 2 
 I
 9  9 tan 2 
9 (2 tan  sec 2 ) d

tan 
=  1  tan  2
(18) tan  sec 2  d

tan 2  sec 2  d
= 18
 sec 


= 18 tan   tan  sec   d

put sec  = t
 sec  tan  d = dt

& then tan  = t2  1

 I  18  t2  1 dt

We will using this type later on, so we are leaving it here only. Once you have read this type do
come back to solve this.

Function of the form Substitution

 x  a
7.   or x  a  b  x  x = a cos2  + b sin2 
b  x 

1
Example : Evaluate  dx
 x  a  .b  x 
3

1
  x  a 3
 b  x
dx

putting x = a cos2  + b sin2 

dx = (b ă a) sin 2 d

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 45

2  b  a  sin  cos  d 
 I

 a cos   b  a cos 
2 3
  b sin 2  2
  b sin 2 

2  b  a  sin  cos  d
= 
b sin    b 1  sin   a cos 
3
2
  a 1  cos2  2 2

2  b  a  sin  cos  d
=
 
 
3
2
  2
  2 2 
 b sin a sin  b cos   a cos 
 

2  b  a  sin  cos  d 
= 
 sin 
3
 b  a 3 2
 b  a  cos2 

sin  cos  d
= 2 b  a  b  a  2
cos  sin3 

2 2
 cosec  d  b  a cot   c
2
=
b  a 

Function of the form Substitution

x  a
8.
 x  b or x  a   x  b x = a sec2  ă b tan2 

xa
Example : Evaluate  xb
dx

xa
I
 xb
dx

put x = a sec2 ă b tan2

dx = 2 (a ă b) sec2 tan d

 
a sec 2   1  b tan 2 
 2  a  b sec 2
 I  tan  d
a sec 2
  b 1  tan   2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 46 QUIZRR

 a  b tan2 
=   a  b  sec 2

2  a  b sec 2  tan  d 

tan 
 sec   a  b sec
2
= 2  tan  d


= 2  a  b tan   sec  tan  d 

let sec  = t

sec  tan  d = dt & tan  = t2  1

 I = 2 (a ă b)  t2  1 dt

We are leaving this integral here as we will cover this type in the following segments.

Function of the form Substitution

1
9. x ă a = t2 or x ă b = t2
x  a   x  b

1
Example : Evaluate  dx
 x  1 x  2 

dx
I
  x  1  x  2 

putting x ă 2 = t2  dx = 2t dt

2t dt dt
I
 t 2
 1 t2
2
 t2  1

2
= 2 log t  t  1  c {do not worry about this result, we will do this one in

topic some special integrals later}

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 47

dx
Example :  ( x  1)( x  2)

putting x = a sec2  ă b tan2

dx = 2 a sec  (sec  tan ) ă 2b tan  sec2 
= 2 (a ă b) sec2 tan  d
also note that a = 1 & b = 2 here, so putting these values also

 2 sec 2  tan  d
I
  sec 2
  2 tan 2   1   sec 2
  2 tan 2   2 
 2 sec 2  tan  d
=    tan    sec 
2 2

 2 sec 2  tan 
=  tan  sec 
d


=  2 sec  d    2 log sec   tan   c

METHOD 3 : INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Integral of product of two functions

= (1st function) ï (Integral of 2nd function) ă Integral of {(differential of 1st function) ï Integral
of 2nd function}

In symbols :

d 
 f ( x). g ( x) dx  f ( x).  g ( x) dx    f ( x).  g( x) dx dx
 dx 

or  u.vdx  u  vdx ă  u´( vdx)dx

W or king R ule :
(i) Integrals of functions of the form uv may be found by method of integration by parts when
u and v are two different functions not connected by their derivatives.
In finding integrals by this method proper choice of functions u and v is essential. Although
there is no fixed law for taking u and v and their choice is possible by practice, yet following
rule is helpful in the choice of functions u and v.
If the two functions are different types, take that functions as, u which comes first in the
word ILATE.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 48 QUIZRR
where I stands for Inverse circular function
L stands for Logarthmic function
A stands for Algebraic function
T stands for Trigonometrical functions
and E stands for Exponential function
(ii) If both the functions are trigonometrical, take that function as v whose integral is simpler.
(iii) If both the functions are algerbraic take that functions as u whose d c is simpler.

Note :
1. Integral can be used by the method of integration by parts if the integrand is the product
of two functions u and v, where d c of u is not a factor of v and d.c. of v is not a factor
of u.
2. If logarithmic or inverse circular function occurs in the numerator and its d.c. is not a factor
of the integrand use integration by parts.
3. Sometimes integration by parts may be used by taking integrand as u and 1 as v.

Illustration 24

(a) Find the value of  x 3 . log x dx (b)  x sin 3 xdx

(c)  x cos 2
xdx (d)  x sin 2 x . cos 3 x dx

Solution :

x3 . log
 x dx
(a) (integrating by parts)
II I

d 
  dx log x.  x
3 3
= log x .  x dx  dx dx


x4 1 x4 x4 x4
= log x .  . dx  .log x  C
4 x 4 4 16
(b) [Here x is an algebraic function and sin 3x is a trigonometric function and
A occurs before T in ILATE, therefore, we take x as u and sin3x as v]

 cos3 x   cos3 x 
 x sin 3xdx = x  
 3    1.  
 
3 
dx

x cos 3 x 1
= 
3

3  cos 3xdx
x cos3 x 1 sin 3 x
=   . c
3 3 3
x cos 3 x sin 3 x
=   c
3 9
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 49

 1  cos 2 x 
 x cos  x 
2
(c) I xdx   dx
2 

 xdx  2  x.cos 2xdx

1 1
=
2
[Here x is an algebraic function and cos2x is a trigonometric function therefore,
we take x as u and cos2x as v.]

1 x2 1  sin 2 x  sin 2 x  
= .
2 2
  x.
2 2

  1 . 2  
 dx

x2 1 1
=
4
 x sin 2 x 
4 4  sin 2xdx  c
x2 x 1
=  sin 2 x  cos 2 x  c
4 4 8

1 1
(d) I   x sin 2 x .cos 3 x dx   2 x cos3 x sin 2 x dx   x  sin 5 x  sin x dx
2 2

1 1
=  x sin 5 x dx   x sin x dx ...(1)
2 2

 cos 5 x   cos 5 x 
Let I1   x sin
I
5x dx  x   5  
II
 1.  5 
dx

x cos 5 x sin 5 x
=  
5 25

& I2 =  xsin
x dx  x   cos x    1.   cos x  dx   x cos x  sin x
I II

Put I1 & I2 in equation (I)

x cos 5 x sin 5 x x cos x sin x

 I    C
10 50 2 2

Illustration 25

Evaluate x 2
sin xdx

Solution :
[Here x2 is an algebraic function and sinx is a trigonometric function therefore, we take x2 as u
and sinx as v.]

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 50 QUIZRR

 x sin dx = 
x2   cos x   2 x ( cos x) dx
2

 x cos xdx
2
=  x cos x  2

using by parts again to solve the question


 1.sin x dx
2
= x cos x  2  x.sin x 


= x2 cos x  2  x sin x    cos x    c

= x2cosx + 2x sinx + 2cosx + c

Illustration 26

Evaluate  cos xd x [I.I.T. 77]

Solution :
[Here integral contains cos x and x is a function of x therefore, first we put z = x .]

1
Let z= x, then dz  dx
2 x

1
or, dz  dx  dx = 2z dz
2z

Now,  cos xdx =

  cos z 2zdz  2  z cos zdz

= 2  z sin z 
  1.sin z dz  2z sin z  2   cos z  c
= 2zsinz + 2cosz + c

= 2 x sin x  2cos x  c  z  x
 

Illustration 27

(a) Evaluate  log xdx (b)  (log x) dx2

(c)  x log(x  1)dx (d) x

3 x2
e dx

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 51

(a) I =  log xdx   1.log x dx

[Here logx is logarithmic function and this is second letter, in ILATE,
therefore take logx as u and 1 as v.]

1 

=  log x  x   . x  dx  x log x 
x   dx
= xlogx ă x + c.

  log x 
dx  1.  log x dx
2 2
(b) I =

 1 
= (logx)2 . x ă   2 log x. x . x  dx
= x (logx)2 ă 2  log xdx
= x (logx)2 ă 2  1.log xdx
 1  

= x  log   2  log x  . x   . x  dx
2

 x  

= x  log x  2 x log x  2 dx  c 
2

= x  log x 2  2 x log x  2 x  c

x2  1 x2 
(c) I =  x log  x  1 dx  log  x  1  .
2
 


 x  1 2 
.

dx

x2 x2

1
= log  x  1  dx ...(i)
2 2 x1

x2
Now to evaluate  x1
dx

Let z = x + 1, then dz = dx, also x = z ă 1

x2 ( z  1) 2 z2  2 z  1
  x1
dx =
 z
dz 
 z
dz

 1 z2
=   z  2   dz 
 z 2
 2 z  log z

=
 x  12  2  x  1  log x  1
2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
52 QUIZRR

 x  12 
From (i), I  x log( x  1)  1  
2
 2  x  1   log x  1   c
2 2 2 
 

=
x2
log  x  1 
 x  1  x  1  1 log x  1  c
2

2 4 2

=
x2
log  x  1 
 x  1   x  1 log x  1  c´
2

2 4 2
(d) Let x2 = z, then 2xdx = dz

x e x e
3 x2 2 x2
Now, I = dx  xdx

 ze dz  2  ze   1.e  dz

dz 1
 ze
z z 1 z z
= 
2 2

1 z 1 z 1 2 1 2
= ze  e  c  x2 ex  ex  c
2 2 2 2

Illustration 28

x  sin x
Evaluate
 1  cos x dx
Solution :

x  sin x x sin x
I =  1  cos x dx   1  cos x dx   1  cos x dx
x x
2sin cos
x
=  2 cos 2 x
dx 
 2
2cos 2 x
2 dx

2 2

1 x x
 x. sec  tan 2 dx
2
= dx 
2 2

 x x 
tan tan
1 2 dx  x
=  x.
2 1
2  1.
1


  tan 2 dx
 2 2 

x x x x
= tan
2 2 
 tan dx 
 tan
2
dx  x tan  c
2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 53

Illustration 29

Evaluate  sin 1
xdx

Solution :

 sin  1.sin x dx
1 1
I = xdx 

 1 
ă1
= (sin x).x ă   x  dx
 1  x2 
 

x
= x sin x ă ă1  1  x2
dx
...(i)

x
To evaluate  1  x2
dx

Let z = 1 ă x2, then dz = ă 2xdx

x

1
dx 1  dz  

1
Now
1  x2
= 
z 2

 2  z 2 dz

 1
1  z2 
=    z   1  x2
2  1 
 
 2 

 from (i), I = xsină1x + 1  x2  c

Illustration 30

Evaluate  sec 1
x dx

Solution :

 sec 
1
I = x dx  (1.sec 1 xdx)

 1  
= sec 
1
x x    x
1
.  . x dx
x  1 2 x  


1
1
  x  1 2 Tdx
1 
= x sec x
2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 54 QUIZRR

1
1 1  x  1 2
= x sec x . c
2 1
2

1
= x sec 1 x   x  1  2  c

= x sec 1 x  x1  c

Illustration 31

x sin 1 x
Evaluate  1  x2
dx

Solution :

x 1
. sin 1 x sin1 x 
[Here integrand = 2 and d.c. of which is a factor of the function
1 x 1  x2

1
therefore, first of all we will substitute z = sină1x.]
1  x2

1
dz  dx
Let z = sină1x then and sinz = x
1  x2

x sin 1 x
Now, I =  1  x2
dx 
 sin z. z dz   z sin zdz


= z   cos z   1   cos z  dz   z cos z   cos zdz
=  z cos z  sin z  c   sin 1 x   1  x2  x  c [ sinz = x]

=  1  x2 sin 1 x  x  c

T wo st and ar d for ms of int egr al

(i) e x
 f ( x )  f ´ x   dx  e x f ( x )  c

e  f ( x)  f ´( x) dx   ex f ( x)dx   ex f ´( x) dx
x


e e
x x x
= e f ( x)  f ´( x) dx  f ´( x) (on integrating by pats) = ex f(x) + c

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 55

(ii)  [ xf ´( x )  f ( x )]d x  x f ( x )  c
 [ xf ´( x)  f (x)]dx   xf (x)dx   f (x) dx
= x f ( x)   f (x)dx   f (x)dx  x f (x)  c
Illustration 32

xe x  x2  1 
(a) Evaluate  1  x  2
dx (b)
 ex   dx
  x  1 2 
 

x2  x  1
  [log log x   log x 
2
(c) 3
e x dx (d) ]dx is
x 2
1  2

 1 1 
(e)
    dx
 log x  log x  2 
 

Solution :

xex 1 x1
 1  x   1  x  e dx
x
dx 
(a) I = 2 2

 
 1 x 
  x 1
e   dx
=
 1  x 
2 2
 1  x2 
 

   
1 1
=  ex    dx
 1  x  1  x 2  
  

1
=  ex [ f ( x)  f ´( x)]dx , where f ( x) 
1 x

x x 1 ex
= e f ( x)  c  e . c c
1x 1 x

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
56 QUIZRR

 x2  1   2 x  x
 ex 
 ex  1 
 e dx  2 e
 dx x x
(b) = dx  dx
  x  1 2    x  1  2
 x  12
   

x11
ex  2
 e .  x  1
x
dx
= 2

  1 
x  1

x
= e  2 e   2
dx
 x  1  x  1  

Now using the formula for ex[f + f´], as

d  1  1 ex
=     ex  2 c
dx  x 1  ( x  1)2 x1

 
2  2 
x  x1 x 1 x
(c) I =  3
ex dx 
 ex 
 3
 dx
3
 x2  1  2

 x2  1 2
 
x2  1   2


  
  x 
1  
=  ex 
 2
 3 
dx

 x  1  x2  1
    
2 
 

e
x
as [ f ( x)  f ´ ( x)]dx, = exf(x) + c

1 1 2x
where f ( x)  & f ´  
2
x 1  2  ( x  1)3 / 2
2

1 ex
 c c
x2  1 x2  1

(d) Put log x = t

 x = et and dx = et dt

 1 t 1 t 1  1
e
t
 I log t  2   e  log t  t   e  t  2 
 t     t 

1
We have added and subtracted et . to give the form ex [f (x) + f´(x)]
t
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 57

1  x 
 I  et log t  et .   x log(log x) 
t  log x 

(e) Let z = logex  x = ez

 dx = ezdz

 1 
 dx     ez dz

1 1 1
 
Now I =  log x  log x  

2
  z z2 

 1  1 
e
z
=     2  dz
 z  z 

e
z 1
= [ f ( z)  f ´ ( z)]dz, where f ( z) 
z

z 1 x
= e f  z   c  e . z  c  log x  c
z

Note : If logarithmic or inverse circular function occurs in the denominator put it equal to z.

I nt egr als of
(i) eaz cos (bx + c) (ii) eaz sin (bx + c)
Applying the rule of integration by parts, we obtain

eaz eaz
=
a
cos  bx  c  
 
a
b sin  bx  c  dx

eaz b
cos  bx  c  
e sin  bx  c  dx
az
= ...(i)
a a

e sin  bx  c  dx
az
Similarly we have

eaz eaz
=
a
sin  bx  c  
 a
. b cos  bx  c  dx

eaz b
sin  bx  c  
e cos  bx  c  dx
az
= ...(ii)
a a

e cos  bx  c  dx be required, we substitute the R.H.S. of (ii) for the last term
az
If the value of

e sin  bx  c  dx be required, we substitute the R.H.S. of (i) for the

az
of (i) and if the value of
last term of (ii). In the former case we get

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
58 QUIZRR

e cos  bx  c  dx
az

eaz b b2
cos  bx  c   2 eaz sin  bx  c   2
e cos  bx  c  dx
az
=
a a a

 b2  az

 a  
 1  2  e cos  bx  c  dx

az a cos  bx  c   b sin  bx  c 
= e
a2

a cos  bx  c   b sin  bx  c 

az
 eaz cos  bx  c  dx = e
a 2  b2

Similarly we have

a sin  bx  c   b cos  bx  c 

az
eaz sin  bx  c  dx = e
a 2  b2

To put the results in another form, we determine two numbers r and a such that
a = r cos  and b = r sin 
These give

r= a 2

 b2 ,   tan 1  b / a 

r cos  bx  c  a 

az
 eaz cos  bx  c  dx = e
a 2  b2

 b
cos  bx  c  tan 1 
az  a
= e
a 2  b2

Similarly

 b
sin  bx  c  tan1 
 a
e sin  bx  c  dx = eaz
az

a 2  b2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 59

Illustration 32
Evaluate

(i) e 3x
sin 4 x dx , (ii) e 4x
cos 2 x cos 4 x d x ,

(iii)  xe 2x
cos x d x

Solution :
(i) From the formula proved above in we get

e3 z  4
 e3 x sin 4 x dx =
3 2
4 2

sin  4 x  tan 1 
 3

e2 x  4
= sin  4 x  tan 1 
5  3

1
(ii) Now, cos 2x cos 4x = [2cos 2x cos 4x]
2

1
= (cos 6x + cos 2x)
2

e
4x
 cos 2x cos 4 x dx

1 4x 1
 e
4x
= e cos 6 x dx  cos 2 x dx
2 2

1 e4 z  6 1 e4 x  2
= . cos  6 x  tan 1   . cos  2 x  tan 1 
2 2
4 6 2  4 2
4 2
 22   4

e4 x  1  3 1  1 
=  cos  6 x  tan 1   cos  2 x  tan 1  
2  52  2 20  2 

 xe
2x
(iii) To evaluate cos x dx, we apply the rule of integration by parts. Taking x and e2z cos

x as two factors, we have

using the formuala in this case also

 x e
I
2x

cosx  x e
II
2x
 
cos x dx  1. e2 x cos x dx

e2 z  1 e2 x  1
 x.
5
cos  x  tan1   1.
 2 5  
cos  x  tan1 dx
2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
60 QUIZRR
Again,

 1
e cos  x  tan 1  dx
2z
 2

 x  1 1  1 
 xe cos  x  tan 1   cos  x  2 tan 1  
2z
= cos x dx  e2 z 
 5  2 5  2 

Illustration 34

Evaluate  sin  log x  dx [I.I.T. 73]

Solution :
[Here integrand contains, expression of the form sin, where  = logx which is a function of x;
therefore, put z = logx.]

1
Let z = logx; then dz  dx
x

dx
or dz  or ezdz = dx as logex = z  ez = x
ez

 sin  log x dx   sin z e dz

z
Now, I =


z z
= sin z.e  cos z.e dz

   sin z e dz]
z z z
= e sin z  [ e cos z 

 e sin zdz
z z z
= e sin z  e cos z 

 I = ez (sinz ă cosz) ă I
 
 ez sin zdz  I 

or, 2I = (ez (sinz ă cosz)

ez
 I =  sin z  cos z   c
2

x
= [sin(logx) ă cos(logx)] + c
2
[ ez = x and logx = z]

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 61

METHOD 4 : INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTION

We have divided this method into 2 types, depending upon the denominator.
1. If denominator has non repeated factors
2. If denominator has repeating factors

T yp e 1 : For non-R ep eat ing r oot s

When denominator can be expressed as non repeating factors
i.e. D(x) = (x ă 1) (x ă 2)... (for linear factors)
2
= (ax + bx + c) (px + qx + r)... (for quadratic factors)
Note that 1  2  3
let us understand the concept with illustrations.

Illustration 35
(for linear factors)

6 2x  3 x  1 dx
(a)  x  1  x  1 (b) x 2
9
dx (c)   2 x  1  x  2   x  3 
Solution :

 (x  1) (x  1) dx
6
(a)

for partial fraction method, we write the function as

6 A B
 
( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1)

we have taken A & B as constants as the factors in denominator are linear.

Now we find the values of A & B by solving the R.H.S. & equating the coefficients of L.H.S. &
R.H.S.
Numerator in R.H.S. = A (x + 1) + B (x ă 1)
= (A + B)x + (A ă B)
we know there is no term of x in numerator on L.H.S.
this, equating
A +B =0&
A ă B = 6
 B = ă 3, A = 3

6 3 3
  
( x  1)( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1)

now solving the integral

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 62 QUIZRR

3 dx 3 dx
 (x  1) (x  1) dx   x  1   (x  1)
6

= 3 log |x ă 1| ă 3 log |x + 1| + c

2x  3 2x  3
(b) x 2
9
dx 
 ( x  3)( x  3)
dx

applying partial fractions

2x  3 A B
I
 (x  3)(x  3) dx    x  3   x  3 dx ...(i)

using the method

(2x ă 3) = A (x ă 3) + B (x + 3)
= (A + B)x + 3 (B ă A)
 A +B = 2

3 1
 A ,B=
2 2
putting these values in equation (i)

3 1
/ 2 dx / 2 dx
I =  x3

 (x  3)
3 1
= log x  3  log x  3  c
2 2

T r ick
We can also solve the partial fractions by the following easier method.
Note : This method is valid only for linear factors in denominator.

2x  3 A B
 
( x  3) ( x  3) ( x  3) ( x  3)

for A

2x  3 2( 3)  3  9 3
A   
x3 x3 33 6 2

this means remove the term under A from denominator & put that root (i.e. x +  = 0) in the term
to get the value of A.
Similarly B

2x  3 2(3)  3 3 1
B   
x 3 x3 33 6 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 63

2x  3 3 1  1 1 
     
( x  3) ( x  3) 2  x  3  2  x  3 

which the same result as we got by the previous method.

( x  1) dx
(c)  (2 x  1) (x  2)(x  3)
now by partial fraction

( x  1) A B C
  
(2 x  1) ( x  2) ( x  3) 2 x  1 ( x  2) ( x  3)

since there are linear factors, we can use the trick discussed in the previous part.

1
x1 /2  1 6
A  
( x  2) ( x  3) x   1 /  1   1  35
2   2  2  2  3 
  

x1 21 1
B  
(2 x  1) ( x  3) x  2  2(2)  1 2  3  5

x1 31 2
C  
(2 x  1) ( x  2) x  3  2(3)  1 3  2  7

Hence the integral becomes

6 dx dx dx
 (2 x  1)  5  x  2  7  (x  3)
1 2
=
35

6 1 1 2
=  2  log 2 x  1  5 log x  2  7 log x  3  c
35  

Illustration 36
(quadratic factors)

x dx dx x2  1
(a)
( x  1) (1  x )2 (b) x 3
1
(c)  (x 2
 2) (2 x 2  1)
dx

Solution :
By quadratic factors we mean that some (not all) factors of the denominator are quadratic, which
cannot be factorized further into linear factors and also they are non repeating.

x dx
(a)  (x  1) (x2
 1)

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
64 QUIZRR
2
see here x + 1 cant be broken further, for quadratic factor we represent the function as follows.

x A Bx  C
  2
2
( x  1) (x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1)

Note here that Bx + C is linear in nature because the denominator has quadratic factor.
TIP : We heep the degree of numerator one less than that of the denominator. The reason being
to be able to use the formula type f´/f
 x = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
= (A + B)x2 + (B + C)x + A + C
Equating powers on both side we get
A +B = 0 ...(i)
B +C = 1 ...(ii)
A +C = 0 ...(iii)
Solving (i), (ii) & (iii)
1 1
A   1/2 , B  ,C
2 2
 integral becomes

x 1
1  / 2 dx
/ 2 dx
I =
 ( x  1)

 2
( x2  1)

1 1 1 x  1 dx
= 2  x  1 dx  2  x2  1

1 1  x 
 x
1
= log x  1   2 dx  2
dx
2 2  x  1  1 

1 1 1 
= log x  1   log x2  1  tan 1 x  C
2 2 2 

dx
(b) I
x 3
1
here x3 ă 1 can be further factorized, so factorizing it.
x3 ă 1 = (x ă 1) (x2 + x + 1)
now it cant be further factorized.
dx
 I=
 (x  1) (x2
 x  1)
 using partial fraction
1 A Bx  C
  2
2
( x  1) (x  x  1) ( x  1) x  x  1

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 65

 1 = A (x2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C) (x ă 1)
1 = (A + B)x2 + (A + C ă B) + (A ă C)
equating powers
A +B = 0 ...(i)
A +B = 0 ...(ii)
A ă C = 1 ...(iii)
Solving (i), (ii) & (iii)

1 2
A  1/3 , B  /3 & C 
3

1
1 dx / 3 x  ( 2 / 3 ) dx
 I = 3  x1

 x2  x  1

1 dx 1 x2
= 3 x1  3 x 2
 x1
dx

1 1 1 (2 x  1  3) 
=
3
log x  1  
3  2  x2  x  1 
 dx {we will try to break it into f´/ f form}

1 2x  1 3 dx 
x 
1 1
= log x  1   2
dx  
3 3  2  x1 x2  x  1 

1 1 1  1 3dx
x
2
= log x  1   2 log x  x  1  6 2
3 3    x1

Leave the last integral, we learn how to solve this type of integral shortly.

x2  1
(c)  (x2
 2) (2 x2  1)
dx

here both factors in denominator can not be factorized further.

x2  1 Ax  B Cx  D
 2 2
 2

( x  2) (2 x  1) ( x  2) (2 x2  1)

note here that both numerators are linear because denominator in both factors is quadratic.
x2 + 1 = (Ax + B) (2x2 + 1) + (Cx + D) (x2 + 2)
x2 + 1 = (2A + C)x3 + (2B + D)x2 + (A + 2C)x + B + 2D
equating terms on both sides
2A + C = 0 ...(i)
2B + D = 1 ...(ii)

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 66 QUIZRR
A + 2C = 0 ...(iii)
B + 2D = 1 ...(iv)
A = 0, B = /3, C = 0, D = 1/3
1

1 1
/3 / 3 dx
 I = 2
( x  2)
dx 
 (2x 2
 1)

1 dx 1 dx
= 3 x 2
2

3  2 (x 2
 1/2 )

tan 1
1 1 
=  
3 2 
x
2

1
6
 2  tan 1 x 2 C

Note : In quadratic factor part we have not used the trick method as it is applicable only when
all factors are linear.

T yp e 2
When repeating factors are present i.e. when denominator is of the form
k1
D(x) = (x ă ) (x ă )k2 ... {for linear factor}
= (ax2 + bx + c)k1 (px2 + qx + c)k {for quadratic
(1) If function is linear.

N( x)
i.e. we write it as following
( x  a) ( x  b)2 ( x  c)3

A B1 B2 C1 C2 C3
= ( x  a)  ( x  b)  2
 
( x  c) ( x  c) 2

( x  b) ( x  c)3

i.e. if (x ă b) has power 2 then there will be two terms for it, (x ă b) & (x ă b)2
& if (x ă c) has power 3, then 3 terms i.e. (x ă c), (x ă c)2 & (x ă c)3

First Method
It is the normal method of equating coefficients of equal degree on both sides. Though it might
become complicated as the degree of factors increase.

Second (Trick) Method

By this method we can find the values of A, B2 & C3 as we did in the Trick method in case of
linear factors.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 67

N(x) N(a)
A 2 3

( x  b) ( x  c) xa
( a  b) 2 ( a  c)3

N(x) N(b)
B2  2 3

( x  a) ( x  c) xb
(b  a)2 (b  c)3

N(x) N( c)
C3  2 3

( x  a) ( x  b) xc
( c  a) (c  b)2

The values of B1, C1 & C2 are found as in the previous method ie., by comparing the coefficients
on both sides.

(2) If function has quadratic factors

N( x)
i.e of the form etc.
(ax  bx  c) ( px2  qx  c)2
2

we represent this function as following

Ax  B P1 x  Q1 P2 x  Q2
=  
2
ax  bx  c  px 2
 qx  r   px 2
 qx  r 2 
There is no trick method for this type, use the standard method of equating coefficients.

Illustration 37

1 ( x 2  1) x d x
(a) x 3
( x  1)2 ( x  1)
dx (b)  (x 2
 1)2 ( x  3)

Solution :

dx
(a) I
x 3
( x  1)2 ( x  1)

as stated in formula part

1 A1 A 2 A 3 B1 B2 C
     
3
x ( x  1) ( x  1) 2 x x2
x3 ( x  1) ( x  1) 2 ( x  1)

by trick method we can find the values of A3, B2 & C

1
A3  3
1
( x  1) ( x  1) x0

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
68 QUIZRR

1 1
B2  3

x ( x  1) x 1
2

1 1
C 3 2

x ( x  1) x1
4

for A1, A2, B1 we have to use normal method

1  A1 (x2) (x ă1)2 (x + 1) + A2 x (x ă 1)2 (x + 1) +
A3 (x ă 1)2 (x + 1) + B1 (x3) (x ă 1) (x + 1)
+ B2 (x3) (x + 1) + c (x3) (x ă 1)2
equating powers on both side
A1 + B1 + C = 0 ...(i) by equating x5
ă A1 + A2 + B2 + 2C = 0 ... (ii) x4
ă A1 ă A2 + B1 ă B2 + B3 + C = 0 ... (iii) x3
Solving them by putting the values of A3, B2 & C

7
We get A1 = 2, A2 = 1, B1 
4

7 1 1
2 dx dx /4 / 2 dx /4
 I
 x

x x 
2
 3

( x  1)

 (x  1)  x  1
2


1 1 7 1 1 1
= 2 log x   2  log x  1   log x  1
x 2x 4 2 ( x  1) 4

( x2  1) xdx
(b) I
 (x 2
 1)2 ( x2  3)

first of all we can see here that if we substitute x2 = t here the xdx gets removed
2xdx = dt.

(t  1) dt
I =  2 (t  1)2 (t  3)

1 (t  1) dt
= 2  (t  1)2 (t  3)

now it becomes the normal question of Type 2 linear factors.

t1 A1 A2 C
  
2
(t  1) (t  3) (t  1) (t  1) 2 (t  3)

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 69

finding A2 & C by trick method

t1 11
A2 = (t  3)   1
t1
13

t1 4
C = (t  1)   1
t3
4

for A1 equating powers

t + 1 = A1 (t ă 1) (t ă 3) + A2 (t ă 3) + C (t ă 1)2
equating coefficients of t2
A1 + C = 0
 A1 = ă 1
 integral becomes

1   dt  1 dt 1 
I = 2    dt
 t  1 (t  3) 
2
(t  1)

1  1 
=   log t  1   log t  3   C
2  t1 
putting back the value of t

1  2 2 1 
I =   log x  1  log x  3  C
2  t  1

 x2  3 
1 1 
= 2 log  C
x2
 1 t  1
 

Illustration 38

dx
(a)  ( x  1)2 ( x  2)( x 2  4)
Solution :
Tip : For type where denominator is a combination of linear (repeating/non repeating) factors
and quadratic, (non-factorizable) factors, we can find some values by trick method.
For example, here

1 A1 A2 B ( x  D)
    2
2 2
( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  4) ( x  1) ( x  1) 2 ( x  2) ( x  4)

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 70 QUIZRR
we can find the values of A2 & B by trick method.
How do determine whether A1 or A2 will be given by trick method ?
The answer is, the numerator of highest degree of that particular linear factor can be determined
by trick method.
for ex., in t he quest ion 1 degr ee of (x ă 1) is 2. Hence in partial fractions the term with (x ă 1)2
in denominator can be determined by trick method.

1 1
 A2 = ( x  2)( x2  4) 
5
x1

1 1
B = ( x  1)2 ( x2  4) 
8
x2

for A1, C & D we have to equate coefficients of x4, x3 & x2, to get
A1 + B + C = 0 ...(i)
ă 3A1 + A2 ă 2B ă 2C + D = 0 ...(ii)
6A1 ă 2A2 + 5B + 4C ă 2D = 0 ...(iii)
Solving (i), (ii), (iii) we get

3 1 7
A1  ,C ,D
25 200 100

3 dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 2x 7 dx
 I
25  x  1  5  ( x  1)2 
8  x  2  400  x2  4 dx  100  x2  4

3 1 1 1 1 7 1 x
= log x  1   log x  2  log x2  4    tan 1  C
25 5 ( x  1) 8 400 100  2  2

Sp ecial T yp e
When integrand consists of even powers of x only

Illustration 37

x 2

 1 x2  2 
Integrate
x 2
 3  x 2
 4

Solution :
For these kind of question, we can put x2 = t for making partial fractions & then put the value
back for finding integrand.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 71

x 2

 1 x2  2   (t  1) (t  2)
x2  t

x 2
 3  x 2
 4 (t  3) (t  4)

since the term is not in proper rational form, we will first convert it into that.

(t  1) (t  2)
1 1
(t  3) (t  4)

(t  1) (t  2)  (t  3) (t  4)
= 1
(t  3) (t  4)

now degree of denominator is greater than numerator making it a proper fraction (as t2 term will
cancel out).

( 4 t  10)
= 1  now using partial fraction for this part.
(t  3) (t  4)

4 t  10 2t  5
Let, I1  2 dt
(t  3) (t  4) (t  3) (t  4)

2t  5 A B
 
(t  3) (t  4) t  3 t  4

2t  5
A = t4  1
t3

2t  5
B = t3 3
t4

 Net function becomes

2 6
1 
t3 t3

putting back the value of t

2 6
1 2
 2
x 3 x 4
integrating it

dt dt
I =  dx  2 x2  3  6  x2  4

2 x 6 x
= x tan 1  tan 1  C
3 3 2 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
72 QUIZRR
Some Sp ecial int egr als

dx 1 xa dx 1 a  x
Set-I 1.  x2  a 2 
2a
log
xa
c 2.  a 2  x2 
2a
log
a x
c

dx 1 x
3.  x2  a 2  tan 1 c
a a

Illustration 40

dx dx dx
(i)  1  4x 2 (ii)  1  25 x 2 (iii)  9x2  1
Solution :

dx 1 dx
(i) I =  1  4 x2 
4 1
 x2
4

 x
1 dx 1 1 1 1
  . tan 1 1
   c  tan (2 x)  c
= 4 1
2
2
4 1 2
  2
  x 2  
2

dx 1 dx
(ii) I =  1  25 x2 
25  1
 x2
25

1
x
1 dx 1 1 5 1 1  5x

= 25  1  2
 .
25  1 
log
1
c
10
log
1  5x
c
2 2 5  x
  x   5
5

dx 1 dx 1 dx
(iii) I =  9 x2  1  9  1

9  1
2
x2  2
x  
9
3

1
x
1 1
log 3  c  1 log 3 x  1  c
= 9 1 1 6 3x  1
2  x
3 3

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 73

Illustration 41
Evaluate :

3x 2x 2x 3
(i)  1  2x4 dx (ii)  1  4x dx (iii)  4  x8 dx
Solution :

3x
(i) I =  1  2 x4 dx

1
Putting x2 = t  2x dx = dt  dx  dt
2

3 dt 3 1 dt 3 dt
  . 1  
1 / 2 
2 2
I = 2 1  2t 2 2  t2 4  t2
2

3 1
= 4.
1/ 2
tan 1
t
1/ 2
c
3
2 2
tan1  
2t  c 
3
2 2
tan1  
2 x2  c

2x 2x 2x
(ii) I  1  4x dx   1  (22 ) x
dx   1  (2 x )2 dx

dt
Putting 2x = t  2x log 2 dx = dt  2x dx = log 2

1 dt 1 1t 1 1  2x
I
log 2  1  t2

2 log 2
log
1t
c
2 log 2
log
1  2x
c

2 x3
(iii) I  4  x8 dx

1
Putting x4 = t  4x3 dx = dt  2x3 dx = dt
2

1 dt 1 dt
I = 2 2
 
2 2  t2
2
4t

1 1 t 1 x4
= . tan 1  c  tan 1 c
2 2 2 4 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 74 QUIZRR

dx x dx
Set-II 1.   sin 1
a
c 2.  2 2
 log x  x 2  a 2  c
a 2  x2 x a

dx dx 1 x
3.  2 2
 log x  x 2  a 2  c
4.  
a
sec 1
a
c
x a x x a2 2

Illustration 42

dx dx dx
(i)  4  9x 2 (ii)  2
5x  2
(iii)  4x2  1
Solution :
dx
(i) I =  4  9 x2

dx

 4 
9   x2 
9 

dx 1 x 1 3x
=  2
2

3
sin 1  c  sin 1
2 3 2
c
3    x2 3
3

dx dx 1 dx
(ii) I =  5x 2
2

  2

5   2
2
5  x2   2
 5 x   
 5

2
1  2
2 1 2
log x  x  c log x  x2  c
= 5  5  5 5
 

dx dx
(iii) I =  4x 2
1

  1
4  x2  
 4

2
1 dx 1 1 1 1
=
2  1
2

2
log x  x2   
 2
c
2
log x  x2 
4
c
x2   
 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 75

Illustration 43

dx dx
Evaluate : (i) x 2
(log x )  25
(ii)  1 e 2x (iii) 
a  x
a  x
dx

Solution :

dx
(i) I = x (log x)2  25

1
Putting log x = t  dx  dt
x

dt
=  2
t  25
 log t  t2  25  c  log x  (log x)2  25  c

dx dx dx e x
(ii) I =
 1  e2 x

 2x  1 

e x
e 2 x  1

 e 2 x  1
dx
e  2x  1
e 

Putting eăx = t  eăx dx = dt  eăx dx = ă dt

dt
I =

 2
t 1
  log t  t2  1  c   log e x  e2 x  1  c

ax ax ax

(iii) I =  ax
dx 
 
ax ax
dx

( a  x)2 ax a x
=  a x2 2
dx 
 2
a x 2
dx 
 2
a x 2
dx 
 a  x2
2
dx

x x
= a sin
1
a

 a 2  x2
dx

Putting a2 ă x2 = t2  ă 2x dx = 2t dt  xdx = ă t dt

1 x t dt x x
I = a sin a   t2
 a sin 1
a 
 1 dt  a sin 1  t  c
a

1 x
= a sin  a2  x2  c
a

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
76 QUIZRR

x a2 x
Set-III 1.  a 2  x2dx  a 2  x2  sin 1  c
2 2 2

x a2
2.  x2  a 2 dx 
2
x2  a 2 
2
log x  x2  a2  c

x x a2
3.  x 2  a 2 dx 
2
x2  a 2 dx 
2
x2  a2 
2
log x  x2  a 2  c

Illustration 44

x2
Evaluate : (i)  16  9x 2 dx (ii)
 4
 1 dx (iii)  3 x 2  2 dx

Solution :
 16 
(i) I =  16  9 x2 dx 
 9
 9
 x2  dx


 4
2 
2  2 3 
4
  x  4   x2    .sin 1 x   c
2
= 3    x dx = 3
3  2  3  2 (4 / 3) 
 
 

3 x  16  16 3x 3x  16  8 3x
=  x2  sin 1 c =   x2   sin 1 c

2  9   6 4 2  9  3 4

x2 x2  4 x2  4
(ii) I =
 4
 1 dx 
4
dx 
 2
dx

1 1 x (2)2 
= 2  x2  (2)2 dx 
2

 2
x2  (2)2 
2
log x  x2  (2)2   c

x
= x2  4  log x  x2  4  c
4
2
 2  2
  
2
3 x  2 dx  3  x2   dx  3 2
x  dx
(iii) I =
 3  3 
 

  2
2 
   
3 
2 2
x 2  2   2
2

3 x   log x  x  c
   3 
= 2  3 2   
 
 

3 2 1 2
= x x2   log x  x2  c
2 3 6 3

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 77

Illustration 45

x2
Evaluate : (i) 3 x x
9  1 dx (ii) x 3
1 x 8
dx (iii)  x2  1
dx

Solution :

3  3
x
(i) I = 9 x  1 dx  3 x (32 ) x  1 dx = x
(3 x )2  1 dx

dt
Putting 3x = t  3x log 3 dx = dt  3x dx =
log 3

1 1 t 1 
I =
log 3  t2  1 dt 
log 3  2
t2  1 
2
log | t  t2  1|  c


1  3x 1 
= log 3  32 x  1  log |3 x  32 x  1   c
 2 2 

3x 1
= 9x  1  log 3 x  9 x  1  c
2 log 3 2 log 3

x
3
(ii) I = 1  x8 dx

1
Putting x4 = t  4x3 dx = dt  x3 dx = dt
4

1 1 t 1 t
I =
4  1  t2 dt  
4 2
1  t2  sin 1   c
2 1

t 1 x4 1
= 1  t2  sin 1 t  c  1  x8  sin 1 x4  c
8 8 8 8

x2 x2  1  1
(iii) I =  x2  1
dx 
 x2  1
dx

x2  1 1
    
1 1
 dx  x2  1  dx x2  1 dx  dx
= =
x2  1 x2  1 x2  1 x2  1

x 1 x 2 1
= x2  1  log x  x2  1  log x  x2  1  c = x  1  log x  x2  1  c
2 2 2 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
78 QUIZRR
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL & IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS

dx dx
Integral of the form
 ax 2
 bx  c
,
 2
a x  bx  c
and
 ax 2  bx  c dx

For evaluating such integral we make the coefficients of x2 in ax2 + bx + c as one. Complete the
square by adding and subtracting the square of half of the coefficient of x to get the form

 b 
2 c b2  
a  x      
2a  2
  a 4 a  

Illustration 46
Evaluate :

dx dx
(i) x 2
 4x  7
(ii)  1  6x  9x 2

dx dx
(iii)  9  8x  x2
(iv)  2 x 2  3x  2

(v)  1  4x  x 2 dx (vi)  2 x 2  3 x  4 dx

Solution :

dx dx
(i) I = x 2
 4x  7

 (x 2
 4 x  4)  (7  4)

[Adding and subtracting square of half of coefficient of x]

dx dx
=  (x  2) 2
3

 (x  2)   3 
2 2

1  x  2
= tan1  c
3  3 

dx dx
 1  6x  9x x
1
(ii) I = 
2 9 2 2 1
 x
3 9

1 dx
= 
9  22 1 1 1
2
x  x    
 3 9 9 9

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 79

[Adding and subtracting square of half of coefficient of x]

1 dx 1 dx
=
9  1 2
2

9  1
2
 2
2
x     x     
 3 9  3  3 

2 1
x
1 dx 1 1
=
9  2
2
 1
2
 .
9 2 2
log 3
2
 x
3 c
1
    x   3 3 3
 3   3

1 2  3x  1
= log c
6 2 2  3x  1

1 1
=  
dx  dx
(iii) I
9  8 x  x2  [ x2  8 x  9]

1 1
=   [( x2  8 x  16)2  9  16]
dx 
  [(x  4) 2
 25]
dx

1 1  x  4
=  25  ( x  4)2
dx 
 (5)2  ( x  4)2
dx  sin 1 
 5 
c

dx dx
(iv)  2
2x  3x  2
=
  3 
2  x2  x  1 
 2 

dx dx

1
2 
= =
 3   2 3 9  9
2  x2  x  1   x  2 x  16   1  16
 2   

1 dx
2 
=
2
 2 3 25
x   
 4 16

1 dx
2 
=
2 2
 2 3 5
x     
 4 4

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
80 QUIZRR

2 2
1 3  3 5 1 4x  3 3
= log x   x      c = log  x2  x1  c
2 4  4 4 2 4 2

(v)  1  4x  x2 dx

=   [ x2  4 x  1] dx 
  [ x2  4 x  4  1  4] dx

=   [ x  2)2  5] dx 
 5  ( x  2)2 dx

x2 5  x  2
= 5  ( x  2)2  sin 1  c
2 2  5 

x2 5  x  2
= 1  4 x  x2  sin 1  c
2 2  5 

 3 
(vi) I =  2 x2  3 x  4 dx 
 2  x2  x  2  dx
 2 

3
=  2 x2 
2
x  2 dx

 2 3 9  9
= 2
 x  x 
 2
2
16  16
dx

2 2 2
 3  3  23 
 
23
= 2 x    dx  2  x     
dx
 4  16  4  4 

  23 
2 
 3   
x  4 4 
2 2
 3
2
 23   3  3
2
 23  
2 x      log x    x     c
= 
 4   4  4 
 2  4  2 4   
 
 

4x  3 3 23 3 3
= x2  x1  log x   x2  x3 c
4 2 2 16 2 4 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 81

Illustration 47
Evaluate :

x2  x  1 ex 2(log x )2  3 (log x )  4
dx
(i) 2
x  x 6
dx (ii) x
5  4e  e 2x (iii)
 x
dx

Solution :

x2  x  1 1
(i) I = x 2
 x6
dx 2
x + xă 6 ) x + xă 1 2

x2 + x ă 6
ă ă +
5
5 1
I =
1  x 2
 x6
dx 
 1 dx  5  2
x x6
dx

1 1
= x5
 1
2
25
dx  x  5
 1
2
 5
2
dx
x  2  4 x  2   2
     

1 5
x 
1 2 2  c  x  log x  2  c
= x5 log
2.
5 1 5
x  x3
2 2 2

ex
(ii) I =  5  4 ex  e2 x
dx

Putting ex = t  ex dx = dt

dt
I = 
5  4t  t2

dt dt
I =   [t2  4t  5]

 1  [(t  2)2  5  4]

dt dt
=   [(t  2)  9]2

 9  (t  2)2

dt  t  2  ex  2 
=  sin 1    c  sin
1
  c
 3   3 
(3)2  (t  2)2  

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 82 QUIZRR

2 (log x)2  3 (log x)  4

(vi) I =
 x
dx

1
Putting log x = t  dx  dt
x

 3  3
I =  2t2  3t  4 dt 
 2  t2  t 
 2
2  dt 
  2 t2 
2
t  2 dt

2
 3
 
3 9 9 23
= 2 t2  t 2 dt  2 t    dt
2 16 16  4 16

2 2
 3  23 
= 2
 

t    
4  4 
 dt

  23 
2 
 3   
t  4
2 2
 3
2
 23   4  3  3
2
 23  
= 2
 
 2
 t  4    4 
   

2
log t  
4  t  4    4 
   
 c

 
 

3
t
4 3 23 3 3
= t2  t2  log t   t2  t2  c
2 2 16 2 4 2

4 log x  3 3 23 3 3
= (log x) 2  log x  2  log log x   (log x)2  log x  2  c
4 2 2 16 2 4 2

I nt egr als of t he for m

px  q px  q
 ax 2
 bx  c
dx ,
 a x 2  bx  c
dx
and ( px  q ) a x 2  bx  c d x

For evaluating such integrals we choose suitable constants A and B such that

d 
px  q  A  ( ax2  bx  c)   B
 dx 

A and B can be determined by equating the coefficient of x and the constant terms on both sides.
This enables us to separate the given integral into two integrals.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 83

Illustration 48

x3 x 2  5x  3
dx
(i)
x2  4x  5
(ii)  (3 x  2) x 2  x  1 (iii)
x2  3x  2
dx

Solution :

x3
(i) I =  x2  4 x  5
dx

d 
Putting x + 3 = A  ( x2  4 x  5)   B
 dx 

 x + 3 = A (2x + 4) + B
Comparing the coefficient of x, we get
I = 2A  A = 1/2
Comparing the constants, we get
3 = 4A + B  3= 2 + B  B = 1

1 / 2 (2 x  4)  1
 I =
 x2  4 x  5
dx [Using (i)]

1 2x  4 1
=
2  x2  4 x  5
dx 
 x2  4 x  5
dx

Putting x2 + 4x + 5 = t in 1st integral  (2x + 4) dx = dt

1 1 1
I = 2  t
dt 
 (x  2) 2
1
dx

1
= .2 t  log | x  2  ( x  2)2  1|  c
2

= x2  4 x  5  log | x  2  x2  4 x  5|  c

(iii) I =  (3x  2) x2  x  1 dx

 d 
Let 3x ă 2 = A  ( x2  x  1)   B
 dx 
 3x ă 2 = A (2x + 1) + B

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
84 QUIZRR
Comparing the coefficient of x, we get

3
3 = 2A           A 
2
Comparing the constant terms

3 7
ă 2 = A + B      ă 2  B  B
2 2

3 7
 I =   2 (2x  1)  2  x2  x  1 dx

 (2 x  1) 
3 7
= x2  x  1 dx  x2  x  1 dx
2 2
Putting x2 + x + 1 = t in 1st integral
 (2x + 1) dx = dt

2 2 2
 1 3 2 3/2 7  1  3
  
3 7 1
2 
I = t dt   x    1  dx = . .t   x     dx
2 2  2 4 2 3 2   2 

 1 
 x 2
 3
2 2
 3
2

7
= ( x2  x  1)3 / 2   2  1 3 1  1
x      x   x    c
 2 
  3 / 8 log  
2 2  2   4  2
 2  2   
 2 

2 3/2 7 (2 x  1) 21 1
= ( x  x  1)  x2  x  1  log x   x2  x  1  c
8 16 2

x2  5 x  3 1
(iii) I = 2
dx 2 2
x  3x  2 x + 3x + 2 ) x + 5x + 3
x2 + 3x + 2
ă ă ă
2x + 1

2x  1 2x  1
I = 1  x 2
 3x  2 
dx  1 dx 
x 2
 3x  2

2x  1
= x  2
x  3x  2
dx

d 
Let 2x + 1 = A  ( x2  3 x  2)   B
 dx 
 2x + 1 = A (2x + 3) + B

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 85

Comparing the coefficient of x, we get

2 = 2A             A = 1
Comparing the constant terms, we get
1 = 3A + B  B = ă 2 [ A = 1]

1 (2 x  3)  2 2x  3 1
 I = x  2
x  3x  2
dx  x 
x2
 3x  2
dx  2
x 2
 3x  2
dx

1

2
= x  log x  3 x  2  2 2 2
dx
3 1
x  2   2
   

3 1
x 
2 1 2 2 c
= x  log x  3 x  2  2. log
1 3 1
2. x 
2 2 2

x1
= x  log x2  3 x  2  2 log c
x2

px 2  qx  r
Integrals of the Form :  a x 2  bx  c
dx

For evaluating such integrals we choose suitable constants, A, B and C such that

 d 
px2 + qx + r = A (ax2 + bx + c) + B  ( ax2  bx  c  C
 dx 
A, B and C can be determined by equating the coefficients of x2, x and constant terms respectively
on both sides.
This enables us to separate the given integral into three integrals which are easily integrable.

Illustration 49
Evaluate :

x2  3x  6 5  4x  2 x 2
(i)  x2  x  1
dx
(ii)  1  x  x2
dx

x2  2
(iii)  3  x2
dx

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
86 QUIZRR
Solution :

x2  3 x  6
(i) I =  x2  x  1
dx

 d 
Let x2 + 3x + 6 = A (x2 + x + 1) B  ( x2  x  1   c
 dx 
 x2 + 3x + 6 = A (x2 + x + 1) + B (2x + 1) + c
Comparing the coefficient of x2, we get
1= A
Comparing the coefficient of x, we get
3 = A + 2B      2B = 2  B = 1
Comparing the constant terms, we get
6 = A + B + C      C = 4

( x2  x  1)  (2 x  1)  4

I
 x2  x  1
dx

x2  x  1 2x  1
  
1
dx  dx  4 dx
=
x2  x  1 x2  x  1 x2  x  1

1 1
=  x2  x  1 dx 
 t
dt  4
 x2  x  1
dx
[where t = x2 + x + 1]

2 2
 1  3 1
=   x  2    2  dx  2 t  4
   
  1
2
 3
2
dx

 x  2    2 
   

2
 3
1  
x 2
 3
2
2  2
 3
2
2  1  1  1
=  x       log x    x     
2  2  2  2 2  2  2 

3 1
2 x2  x  1  log x   x2  x  1 + c
8 2

2x  9 35 1
= x2  x  1  log x   x2  x  1  c
4 8 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 87

5  4 x  2 x2
(ii) I =  1  x  x2
dx

 d 
Let 5 ă 4x ă 2x2 = A (1 ă x ă x2) + B  (1  x  x2 )   C
 dx 
 5 ă 4x ă 2x2 = A (1 ă x ă x2) + B (ă 1 ă 2x) + C
Comparing the coefficients of x2, we get
ă 2 = ă A  A = 2
Comparing the coefficient of x, we get
ă 4 = ă A ă 2B    ă 2 = ă 2 B  B = 1
Comparing the constant terms, we get
5 = A ă B + C    C = 4

2 (1  x  x2 )  ( 1  2 x)  4
 I =  1  x  x2
dx

1  x  x2  1  2x
  
1
2 dx  dx  4 dx
=
1  x  x2 1  x  x2 1  x  x2

 1  2x 1
=
2
 1  x  x2 dx 
 1  x  x2
dx  4
 1  x  x2
dx

2 2
 5  1 1 1
=
2
  
 2 
 

x 
2 
dx 
 t
dt  4
  5
2
 1
2
dx
[where t = 1 ă x ă x2]
    x  
 2   2

  5
2 
 1    1   1
x  2 2   x   x 
2 2
 5  1  2   2 1  x  x2  4 sin 1 2 c
2  x    sin 1  
=  2      5 

 5 
 2  2 2
    
 2   2 
 

2x  1 5  2x  1  1  2 x  1 
= 1  x  x2  sin 1  2
  2 1  x  x  4 sin  c
2 4  5   5 

2x  5 21  2x  1 
= 1  x  x2  sin 1  c
2 4  5 

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
88 QUIZRR

x2  2
(iii) I
 3  x2
dx

 d 
Let x2 ă 2 = A (3 ă x2) + B  (3  x2 )   c
 dx 
 x2 ă 2 = A (3 ă x2) + B (ă 2x) + c
Comparing the coefficients of x2, we get
1 = ă A  A = ă 1
Comparing the coefficient of x, we get
0 = ă 2B        B = 0
Comparing the constant terms, we get
ă 2 = 3A + C    C = ă 2 ă 3 (ă 1) = 1

 (3  x2 )  1  (3  x2 )
  
1
 I = dx  dx  dx
2 2
3x 3x 3  x2

1
=  3  x2 dx 
 3  x2
dx

 
1
 ( 3)2  x2 dx  dx
 3
= 2 2
 x

x 3  x  1 x
=  3  x2  sin 1     sin c
2 2  3  3

x 3  x  1 x
=  3  x2  sin 1    sin c
2 2  3 3

x 2 1 1  x 
=  2 3  x  2 sin  c
 3

x2  1
Integrals of the form : x 4
 kx 2  1
dx

For evaluating such integrals, divide the numerator and denominator by x2. Complete the square
2 2
 1  1
of denominator to get the form  x    a or  x    a
 x   x

Then the integral can be evaluated by using the method of substitution.

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 89

Illustration 50
Evaluate :

x2  1 1
(i) x 4
1
dx (ii) x 4
1
dx

x2  1 x2  3x  1
(iii) x 4
 x2  1
dx (iv) x 4
 x2  1
dx

Solution :

x2  1
(i) x 4
1
dx

Dividing numerator and denominator by x2, we get

1 1 1
1 2
1 2
1
x2
x x dx 
1  x 1 
x dx 
 2
dx
 2
I = 2
 2
  2  2 1 2
x2

 x2
 x   
 x

1  1 
putting x   t   1  2  dx  dt
x  x 

 1
dt 1 t 1 x x
I = t 2
 ( 2) 2

2
tan 1
2
c
2
tan 1  c
 2 
 

1  x2  1 
tan 1  c
=
2  2 x 
 

1 1 2
(ii) I = x 4
1
dx 
2 x 4
1
dx

1 x2  1  x2  1 1 x2  1 x2  1
= 2  x4  1
dx 
2 x 4
1

x4  1
dx

1 x2  1 1 x2  1
= 2 x 4
1
dx 
2 x 4
1
dx

Now proceed as in part (i) to get

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
90 QUIZRR

1  x2  1  1 x2  1  2 x
I = tan 1    log 2 c
2 2  2x  4 2 x  1  2x
 

x2  1
(iii) I = x 4
 x2  1
dx

Dividing numerator and denominator by x2, we get

1 1 1
1 2
1 2
1
x2
I = x 2
1
x
1
dx 
x 2 1
x

 2  2  1
dx 
 1
2
dx

x2

 x  x   1
 x

1  1 
Putting x   t   1  2  dx  dt
x  x 

1
x 1
dt 1 t1 1 1 x2  1  x
I =   log
t2  1 2 t1
 c  log
2
x
1
x 1
 c  log
2 x2
 1  x
c

x2  3 x  1 x2  1 x
(iv) I = x 4 2
 x 1
dx 
x 4
 x 12
dx  3
x 4
 x2  1
dx

Dividing numerator and denominator by x2 in 1st integral and

Putting x2 = t
 2x dx = dt

1
 x dx  dt in 2nd integral.
2

1
1
x2 3 dt
I = x 2
1
1
dt 
2 t 2
 t1
2
x

1
1
x2 3 dt
=
 1
2
dx 
2  1
2
 3
2
x    3  t     
 x  2  2 

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 91

1
Putting z = x ă
x

 1 
 dz   1  2  dx in 1st integral
 x 

 1
dz 3 1 t  
I =  z   3
2 2

2 3
tan 1  2  c
 3 
2  2 

1 z  2t  1 
= tan 1  3 tan1  c
3 3  3 

 1
1 1
x x 1
 2 x2  1 
tan    3 tan  c
= 3  3   3 
 

1  x2  1   2 x2  1 
tan 1   3 tan 1 c
=
3  3 x  
3 
  

dx
Integrals of the form : P Q

where P and Q are linear or quadratic expression in x

Integrals of this form can be of three types :
1. Q is linear and P is linear or quadratic.
For evaluating such integrals, put Q = t2
2. Q is quadratic and P is linear.

1
For evaluating such integrals, put P =
t
3. Both P and Q are pure quadratic.

1
 For evaluating such integrals, put x  .
t

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
92 QUIZRR

Illustration 51
Evaluate :

dx dx
(i)  ( x  2) x 1 (ii)  1  x dx
x
(iii)  (x 2
 1) x

Solution :

dx
(i) I
 (x  2) x1

Here P is linear and Q is also linear i.e., type 1.

Putting x ă 1 = t2  x = t2 + 1  dx = 2t dt

2t dt t x1
 (t  t   3
2 2 2
I  dt  tan 1 c tan 1 c
2
2
 3) t 2 2 3 3 3 3

x x
(ii) I =  1  x dx   (1  x) x
dx

(1  x)  1 1 x 1
=  (1  x) x
dx 
 (1  x) x

(1  x) x
dx

1 1 1 1
=  x

(1  x) x
dx 
 x
dx 
 (1  x) x
dx

1
= 2 x  (1  x) x

Putting x = t2  dx = 2t dt

2t dt 2
I =
2 x
 1  t  2
t2
2 x
1  t 2
dt

= 2 x  2 tan 1 t  c  2 x  2 tan 1 xc

dx
(iii) I =  (x 2
 1) x

Putting x = t2  dx = 2t dt

2t dt 2 t2  1  t2  1
I =  t 4
1  t2

t 4
1
dt 
 t4  1
dt

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 93

1 1
1 1
t2  1 t2  1 2
t2 dt
= t t t t
dt  dt  t dt 
4
1 4
1 2 1 2 1
 2

t t2

1 1
1 2
1
t2
=  1
t
2
dt 
 1
2
dt
t    2 t    2
 t  t

1 1
Putting t   z in 1st integral Putting t   y in 2nd integral
t t

 1  1
to get  1  2  dt  dz to get  1  2  dt  dy
 t   t 

dz dy z y 2
 z   2   y   2
1 1
 tan 1  log c
2 2
I = 2 2 2 2 2 2 y 2

1 1
t t  2
1 1 t  1 t
tan log c
= 2 2 2 2 1
t  2
t

1 t2  1 1 t2  1  2 t
= tan 1  log c
2 2t 2 2 t2  1  2t

1  x  1 1 x  1  2x
= tan 1   log c
2  2x  2 2 x  1  2x

Illustration 52

dx
Evaluate :  ( x  2) x2  6x  7

Solution :

dx
I =  (x  2) x2  6 x  7

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
94 QUIZRR

1 1 1
Putting x  2   x   2  dx   2 dt
t t t

1 1
 dt 
dt
t2
I =
1 1  1
2


 1 4
t
6
  4   12  7
  2  6   2  7 t 2 t t
t  t   t 

1 1
dt  dt
dt
=   
t  t 
2
1 2
 1 1  2t  t 1  2t  t2
t2 t t

dt dt  t  1
= ă  2  (t  1)2

 ( 2)2  (t  1)2
  sin 1 
 2 
 c

 1 
 x  2  1   x1  1  x1 
=  sin 1    c   sin1    c = sin    c
 2   2 ( x  2)   2 ( x  2) 
 
 

Illustration 53

dx
Evaluate :  (3  4 x 2
) 4  3x 2

Solution :

dx
I =  (3  4 x ) 2
4  3 x2

1 1
Putting x   dx   2 dt
t t

1 1
 dt  dt
2
t2  t dt
I =  
t
4 3

 (3t 2
 4) 4t2  3

 (3t 2
 4) 4t2  3)
3  2  4  2
 t  t t2 t

2 1 2
Putting 4t2 ă 3 = z2  t  ( z  3)
4
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 95

1 1
 2t dt  (2z) dz       t dt  z dz
4 4

1  z dz  dz
I = 4   3 (z 2 
 3)  4  z2

 3z2
 9  16
4
 

dz 1 dz
= 
 3z 2
 25

3 z 2

25
3

1 dz 1  z 
= 
3   5 
2

3
tan 1   c
5/ 3 
z2   
 3

1 3 z 1  3 4t2  3 
1
=  3 tan  c   tan 1  c
5 3  5 
 

 12 
 12t2  9   9 
2
= 
1
tan 1    c   1 tan 1  x  c
3  5  3  5 
   
 
 

1  12  9 x2 
=  tan 1  c
3  5x 
 

V. I nt egr at ion of I r r at ional Funct ions

Types of functions (intergrand) Approach

  a x  b  a / n  ax  b
1. f x,     a , b , c , d , , n  R  Substitute :  tn
cx  d  cx  d
  

1/2
 x 2 

1
Example : Evaluate   . dx
 2x  3  x

x2 2
 3t2  2   2t dt
Solution : Substitute 2 x  3  t x
  1  2t2     dx 
 
1  2t 
2 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 96 QUIZRR

 1  2t2    2t dt 
t2 dt
 I2
 t.  2
 

 3t  2   1  2t 
2

4
   3t 2

 2 1  2t2 

Let t2 = y
y A B
Now using partial fraction 3 y  2 1  2 y  3 y  2  1  2 y , we get A and B and then
      
we evaluate the integration with respect to t after replacing y by t2.

Substitute :

2. 
f x,  a x  b 
a /n
, a x  b
/m
 a x + b = tp , where p is L.C.M. of m and n.

dx
Example : Evaluate   x  1   x  11 / 4

Solution : Substitute x + 1 = t4 (  p is 4)  dx = 4t3 dt

 4t3 dt   t2   t2  1  1 
 I =   2
t t
  4    dt  4
 t  1
 
 t1 
 dt

t2
 t  1 dt  4 
1
= 4 dt  4.  4t  4 log t  1  C
t1 2

T yp e V


  
n
4. f  x  a 2  x2  Workrule : x  a2  x2  t
 

x  
2
Example : Evaluate a 2  x2 dx

 a2  t2  1 a2 
x
  2t       dx    2  dt
Solution : Substitute x  2 2
a x t
   2 2t 

 t2 a 2 
 I 
2

   dt
2 

dx
;
5. p m + p  N, m + p > 1 Workrule : a + bx = tx
x m
a  bx 

dx
Example : Evaluate x 2/3
 2  3x
4/
3

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 97

2
Solution : Substitute 2 + 3x = tx  dx  dt
 t  3 2

2
dt
 t  3 2 dt
 I
 2t 
4/
3

 2. t 4/
3
 
  3
t

Now you can evaluate it easily.

dx
L1  x  L 2  x 
6. m n Work rule

L1 ( x)
(i) If n > m; L ( x)  t
2

L2 ( x)
(ii) If n < m; L ( x)  t
1

7. x m (a + bx n )p dx Work rule
(i) I f p  I, substitute x = ts
where s is L.C.M. of denominator of m & n.
m 1
(ii) If is an Integer, substitute a + bxn = ts
n
is the denominator of fraction p.
m 1
(iii) If  p substitute axăn + b = ts
n
s is denominator of rational number p.

Illustration 54
Find the value of
3 dx
x2 

6
x x
(a)
 
x 1 3
x 
dx (b)
 1
10

x .  x /4  1
 

dx
(c)
 4
 x  13  x  2 5

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 98 QUIZRR
Solution :
(a) Here L.C.M. of 3 and 6 is 6.
 we put x = t6
 dx = 6 t5dt

t
6
 t dt  6. t  t  1 dt  6. t
 t4  t 5 3
dt
Hence I = 6.  t 1  t 
6  1  t 
2
5
 2
3
dt  6.
1  t 2

3 4 3 4 1
= t  6 tan 1 t  C  x / 6  6 tan 1 x / 6  C
2 2
(b) Hence  is integer      put x = t4  dx = 4t3 dt

4t3 dt
I = t 2
 t  1 10

t  t  1  1 dt  4
  t  1   t  1   t  1   t  1
9 10
= 4 10
dt  4 10
dt  4 dt

=  4  t  1 8  4  t  1 9  C
8 9

1 1 4
=   C
   
2 8 9
4 4
x 1 9 x 1

dx
(c) I =  3/ 5/
 x  1 4 .  x  2 4

dx x1 3
=  x 1 3/
4
Put
x2
t  
 x  2 2
dx  dt

    x  2 2
 x 2

1/4
4  x 1

1 4 1/4
I = t3 / 4 dt  t C   C
3 3 3  x  2

Sp ecial I nt egr at ion

Type I : Integration of the form

x2  q
(I) x 4
 px2  q

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 99

Working Rule
Divide numerator & denominator by x2

q
1 2
i.e.
x 2
 p
x
q
dx

x2

 q
now substitute t   x  
 x 


 q
then dt   1  2  dx
 x 

 integral becomes
dt
t 2
2 q  p

 2 2 q 
because t  x  2  2 q 
 x 
now solve this integral as it is in standard form, so you can use direct formula also.

Type II

dx
x 4
 px2  q

1 x
2
  
q  x2  q 
q 
write this in form 4 2
2 x  px  q

break it


1 x2  q x2  q 
= 
2 q   x4  px2  q
dx 
 x4  px2  q
dx 


now solve both the integrals as in type I.

Type III

x2  r
x 4
 px2  q
dx

For this type, express x2 + r as

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
100 QUIZRR

x2 + r = l x 2

 q + m x2  q  
where l + m = 1

& q l  m  r

& then break fractions as in type 2 to solve it according to type 1.

VI . I nt egr at ion of T r igonomet r ic Funct ions

T ype I

Integrals of the form :

dx dx dx
 a  b cos x or  a  b sin x or  a  b cos x  c sin x
Working Rule :

x x
2 tan 1  tan 2
Put sin x  2 and cos x  2
x x
1  tan 2
1  tan 2
2 2

x
whichever is needed and then put z = tan
2

Illustration 55

dx
Evaluate  4  5sin x
dx dx
Solution : I =  4  5sin x   2 tan
x
4  5. 2
x
1  tan2
2

x
1  tan2
=  4  1  tan 2 x
2
x
dx
   10 tan
 2 2

x
sec 2
=  4 tan 2 x
2
x
 10 tan  4
dx
...(i)
2 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 101

x 1 2 x
Let z = tan , then dz  sec dx
2 2 2

2dz dz
From (i), I =  4z 2
 10 z  4

 2z2
 5z  2

dz dz
2 z z
1
= 
2 5  2 2 5 25 25
 2 z.   1
  z  1
 2  4 16 16

1 dz
=
2  5 3
2 2
...(ii)
z     
 4 4

5
Let y  z  , then dy = dz
4

1 dy 3
From (ii), I 
2 y 2
a 2
where a 
4

5 3
1 1 y a z 
1
c = . 1 4 4 c
= . log
2 2a y a 2 2. 3 log z  5  3
4 4 4

x
2 tan 1
1 2z  1 1 2
= 3 log 2 z  2  c = 3 log c
   x 
2  tan  2 
 2 

Illustration 56

1
Evaluate  3 sin x  cos x
dx

Solution :
Let 3 = r sin and 1 = r cos. Then

3 
r  32  12  2 and tan  
1

3

1 1
  3 sin x  cos x
dx 
 r sin  sin x  r cos  cos x dx
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
102 QUIZRR

 x 
  sec(x  )dx  r log tan  4  2  2   C
1 1 1 1
 dx 
r cos  x   r

1   x  1 x  
 log tan      C  log tan     C
2  4 2 6  2  2 12 

Type II

sin x cos x p sin x  q cos x

Integrals of the form  a sin x  b cos x dx ,  a sin x  b cos x dx , or  c sin x  b cos x d x
where a  0, b  0

W or king R ule :
Step ă 1 : Put Numerator = A (dinominator) + B (derivative of denominator.) where a  0, b  0
Step ă 2 : Then equate the coefficients of sinx and cosx to find A and B.

Illustration 57

3 sin x  2 cos x dx
(i)  3 cos x  2 sin x dx (ii)  3  4 cot x
Solution :

3 sin x  2 cos x
(i) I
 3 cos x  2 sin x dx
d 
Let 3 sin x + 2 cos x = A (3 cos x + 2 sin x) + B  [3 cos x  2 sin x 
 dx 
 3 sin x + 2 cos x = A (3 cos x + 2 sin x) + B (ă 3 sin x + 2 cos x)
Comparing the coefficient of sin x and cos x, we get
3 = 2A ă 3B and 2 = 3A + 2B
Solving them, we get

12 5
A= and B = 
13 13

12 5
(3 cos x  2sin x)  ( 3 sin x  2 cos x)
 I =
 13 13
3 cos x  2 sin x
dx

12 3 cos x  2 sin x  3 sin x  2 cos x

 3 cos x  2 sin x dx  13 
5
= dx
13 3 cos x  2 sin x

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 103

12 5 dt
=
13 
1 dx 
13 t 
where t = 3 cos x + 2 sin x

 dt = (ă 3 sin x + 2 cos x) dx

12 5 12 5
= x log t  c  x log 3 cos x  2 sin x  c
13 13 13 13

dx dx sin x dx
(ii) I
 3  4 cot x   3  4 cos x   3 sin x  4 cos x
sin x

 d 
Let sin x = A (3 sin x + 4 cos x) + B  (3 sin x  4 cos x 
 dx 
 sin x = A (3 sin x + 4 cos x) + B (3 cos x ă 4 sin x)
Comparing the coefficients of sin x and cos x, we get
1 = 3A ă 4B and 0 = 4A + 3B
Solving them, we get
3 4
A= ,B
25 25

4
(3 sin x  4 cos x)  (3 cos x  4 sin x)
3
 25
 I = 25
3 sin x  4 cos x

3 sin x  4 cos x 3 cos x  4 sin x

 3 sin x  4 cos x dx  25  3 sin x  4 cos x dx
3 4
= 25

3 4 dt
25
= 1 dx 
25 t 
where t = 3 sin x + 4 cos x

 dt = (ă 3 cos x + 4 sin x) dx
3 4 3 4
I = x log t  c  x log 3 sin x  4 cos x  c
25 25 25 25

Illustration 58

sin x
Evaluate  sin x  cos x
dx [I.I.T. 78]

Solution :
Let sinx = A(sinx ă cosx) + B d.c. of (sinx ă cosx)
or, sinx = A(sinx ă cosx) + B(cosx + sinx)

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
104 QUIZRR
or, sinx = (A + B)sinx + (B ă A)cosx ...(i)
Equating the coefficients of sinx and cosx, we get
A + B = 1 (i) and B ă A = 0 ...(ii)

1 1
Solving (i) and (ii) we get A  ,B
2 2

1 1
From (i), sin x   sin x  cos x   cos x  sin x
2 2

sin x
Now I =  sin x  cos x dx
1 1
 sin x  cos x   cos x  sin x
=
 2 2
sin x  cos x
dx

sin x  cos x cos x  sin x

 sin x  cos x dx  2  sin x  cos x dx
1 1
=
2

cos x  sin x
 dx  2  sin x  cos x dx
1 1
=
2

x 1
=  log sin x  cos x  c
2 2
[Putting, z = sinx ă cosx, so that dz = (cosx + sinx)dx]

a sin x  b cos x  c
T yp e 3. I nt egr als of t he for m
 p sin x  q cos x  r
Working Rule :
To evaluate this type of integrals, we use the following algorithm
(i) Write Numerator =  (Diff. of denominator) + ø (Denominator) + v
i.e. a sin x + b cos x + c =  (p cosx ă q sinx) + ø (psin x + q cosx + r) + v
(ii) Obtain the values of  and ø by equating the coefficient of sinx and cosx and the constant
terms on both the sides
(iii) Replace numerator in the integrand by  (p cosx ă q sinx) + ø (p sinx + qcosx + r) + v to
obtain

a sin x  b cos x  c
 p sin x  q cos x  r dx
p cos x  q sin x p sin x  q cos x  r
 p sin x  q cos x  r dx    p sin x  q cos x  r  v  p sin x  q cos x  r dx
1
= 

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 105

 p sin x  q cos x  r dx
1
=  log p sin x  q cos x  r  x  v

(iv) Evaluate the integral on RHS in step III by using the method discussed earlier.

Illustration 59

3 cos x  2
Evaluate  sin x  2 cos x  3 d x
Solution :

3 cos x  2
I
 sin x  2cos x  3 dx
Let 3 cos x + 2 =  (sinx + 2cosx + 3) + ø (cosx ă 2 sin x) + v
Comparing the coefficients of sinx, cosx and constant term on both sides, we get
 ă 2ø = 0, 2 + ø = 3, 3 + v = 2

6 3 8
  , and v  
5 5 5

  sin x  2 cos x  3     cos x  2sin x  v

 I =  sin x  2cos x  3

cos x  2sin x
  sin x  2 cos x  3 dx  v  sin x  2cos x  3 dx
1
 I =  dx  

 I =  x + ø log |sinx + 2cosx + 3| + vI1, where

 sin x  2cos x  3 dx
1
I1 

2 tan x / 2 1  tan 2 x / 2
Putting sin x  , cos x  , we get
1  tan 2 x / 2 1  tan 2 x / 2

1
 2 tan x / 2 
2 1  tan 2 x / 2 3
dx
I1 = 
1  tan 2 x / 2 1  tan 2 x / 2

1  tan 2 x / 2 sec 2 x / 2
=  2 tan x / 2  2  2 tan 2
x / 2  3(1  tan 2 x / 2)
dx 
 tan 2
x / 2  2 tan x / 2  5
dx

x 1 2 x 2 x
Putting tan  t and sec dx = dt, or sec dx = 2 dt, we get
2 2 2 2

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
106 QUIZRR

 x 
tan  1 
2dt dt 2 1  t  1  1 
I1 
t 2
 2t  5
2
  t  1 2
 tan 
 22 2  2 
  tan 

2
2


 

 x 
 tan 2  1 
Hence, I =  x + ø log |sinx + 2cosx + 3|+ v tan 1  C
 2 
 

8
Where   6 ,   3 and v  
5 5 5

T yp e 4. I nt egr als of t he for m

1 1 1 1 1
 a sin 2 2
x  b cos x
dx .
 a  b sin 2
x
dx ,
 a  b cos 2
x
dx,
  a sin x  b cos x 2
dx,
 a  b sin 2
x  cos2 x
dx

W or king R ule :
To evaluate this type of integrals we use the following algorithm :
(i) Divide numerator and denominator both by cos2x
(ii) Replace sec2 x, if any, in denominator by 1 + tan2 x
(iii) Put tan x = t so that sec2 x dx = dt

1
This substitution reduces the integral in the form
 at 2
 bt  c
dt

(iv) Evaluate the integral obtained in step III by using the methods discussed earlier.

Illustration 60

dx dx
(i)  3 sin 2
x  8 cos x  1 2 (iv)  3  2 sin 2
x

Solution :

dx
(i) I =  3 sin 2
x  8 cos2 x  1

Dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 x, we get

sec 2 x dx sec2 x dx
I =  3 tan 2
x  8  sec 2 x

 3 tan 2
x  8  tan 2 x  1

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 QUIZRR 107

sec 2 x dx
=  4 tan 2
x9

Putting tan x = t  sec2 x dx = dt

dt 1 dt 1 dt

I

= 4t
2
9

4 t 2

9

4  3
2

4 t2   
 2

1 1 t 1 2t
tan 1  c  tan 1 c
= 4 3 3 6 3
2 2

1  2 tan x 
tan 1  c
3 
=
6 

dx
(iv) I
 3  2 sin 2
x

Dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 x, we get

sec 2 x dx sec 2 x dx
I =  3 sec 2
x  2 tan 2 x

 3 (tan 2
x  1)  2 tan2 x
dx

sec 2 x dx sec 2 x dx
=  3 tan 2
x  3  2 tan 2 x
dx 
 tan 2
x3

dt 1 t 1  tan x 
I =  t   3
2 2

3
tan 1
3
c
3
tan 1 
 3 
c

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION
 APPLICATION
OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 3

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

T a n gen t s & Nor m a ls

A very useful application of derivatives is slope of tangent and normal at a point on a curve.

Slope of Tangent :
The slope of tangent to a continuous curve, y = f(x), is given by
y=f(x)
dy
slope = m  dx
P( x, y) nt
nge
at a point P (x1, y1) on the curve ta

 dy  P(x1,y1)
From the diagram  dx   tan 
 P

dy 
Tangent parallel to x axis : then, dx  0 normal
P

dy dx
Tangent perpendicular to axis : then dx approaches  or dy  0
P P

Slop e of Nor mal

We know normal & tangent are perpendicular to each other. Hence

1
Slope of normal = slope of tangent at P

1
=
 dy
/ dx 
P

 dx 
=  
 dy  P

E q uat ion of T angent & Nor mal

Now since we know the slopes, finding the equation of tangents & normals at a point is really
simple. As we have done it earlier also in chapter like Straight lines etc.

 dy 
Equation of tangent at a point (x1, y1)  y  y1     x  x1 
 dx  x1 y1

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 4 QUIZRR

 dx 
Equation of normal at a point (x1, y1)  y  y1      x  x1 
 dy  x1 y1

Angle of I nt er sect ion of C ur ves

Angle of intersection of 2 curves is defined as angle between
the tangents to the curve at their point of intersection. G
We require , as it is the angle between the 2 curves.
 = 2 1
also we know that tan 1 & tan 2 are the slopes of tangents
to the curve C1 & C2 respectively at point P (x1, y1). P C2
taking tan of the previous equation 
1 2
tan  = tan (2 1)

tan 2  tan 1 tangent 1 tangent 2

= 1  tan  tan 
2

 dy   dy 
    
 dx C1  dx C2
=  dy   dy 
1   
 dx C2  dx C1

Generally we take acute angle as the angle of intersection. We will get 2 answers  & 180 ,
& we select the smaller of 2.

O r t hogonal C ur ves
If 2 curves intersect at right angles i.e. the angle of intersection of 2 curves is a right angle, then
the two curves are said to be orthogonal curves.
i.e. the two tangents are perpendicular

 dy   dy 
      1
 dx C1  dx C2

L engt h of t angent , lengt h of nor mal and sub t angent and sub nor mal :

dy
Let y1   tan 
dx
1. Length of tangent at a point : The portion of the tangent which is intercepted between the
point of contact P and x-axis is called the length of the tangent at P.
In the given figure,

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 5

length of tangent at P

= PL = LM 2  PM 2
Y no
rm tangent
= ( y cot  )2  y2 al
90 P(x,y)
= y cot 2   1 y = f(x)


1 y
= y 1 [ tan  = y1] 
y12
O L M K X

y
= 1  y12
y1

2. Subtangent at a point : Projection of LP on the positive direction of x-axis is called the subtangent
at point P.

y
Subtangent at P = LM = y cot   , subtangent at a point may be positive or negative.
y1

Thus the subtangent at P is positive or negative according as M lies on the right or left side of L.

y
Length of subtangent at P = .
y1

3. Length of normal at a point : The portion of the normal at P intercepted between the point
P and x-axis is called the length of the normal at P.
In the given figure, length of normal at P

= PK = PM2  MK 2

= y2  ( y tan  )2

= y 1  tan 2   y 1  y12
4. Subtangent at a point : The projection of PK on the x-axis is called the subtangent at P.
Subtangent at P = MK = y tan  = y y1
subtangent at a point may be positive or negative. The subtangent at P is positive or negative
according as K lies on the right or left side of M.

Illustration 1
Find the slope of the curve y2 = x at point x = 1.
Solution :
Give curve is y2 = x ...(i)
Given point is x= 1

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 6 QUIZRR
2
from (i), when x = 1, y = 1  y = 1
 points are (1, 1) and (1, 1)
Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. x, we get

dy dy 1
2y 1  = ...(ii)
dx dx 2y

dy 1 1
 at (1, 1), = 
dx 2  1 2

dy 1 1
and at (1, 1), = 
dx 2( 1) 2

1 1
Hence slope of tangents at points (1, 1) and (1, 1) are and  respectively.
2 2

Illustration 2

1
Prove that the tangents to the curve y2 = 2x at the points where x  are at right angles.
2
Solution :
Given curve is y2 = 2x ...(i)

1
Given point is x=
2

1 1
From (i), when x = , y2 = 2 . = 1,  y = 1
2 2

1  1 
 given points are  , 1  and  ,  1 
2  2 
Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. x, we get

dx dy 1
2y  2.1;  = ...(ii)
dy dx y

 1  dy 1
 at  , 1  , = = 1 = m1 (say)
 2  dx 1

1  dy 1
and at  ,  1  , = = 1 = m2 (say)
2  dx 1
Since m1m2 = 1.( 1) = 1
hence the two tangents are at right angle to each other.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 3

ax
If the slope of the curve y  at the point (1, 1) be 2. Find the values of a and b.
bx

Solution :

ax
Given curve is y  ...(1)
bx

Since point (1, 1) lies on curve (1)

a
 1= ...(2)
b1

 dy  (b  x)a  ax( 1) ab
Now,   = 2

 dx  (b  x) (b  x)2

 dy  ab
   at (1, 1) =
 dx  (b  1)2

 dy 
But  dx  at (1, 1) = 2 (given)
 

ab b  a 
  2 or,  2   1 from (2) 
2
(b  1) b1  ba 
or, 2b 2 = b or, b = 2,  from (2), a = 1
Hence a = 1, b = 2

Illustration 4
Find the angle of intersection of the curves y2 = 4a x and x 2 = 4by.
Solution :
Given curves are
y2 = 4ax ...(i)
2
and x = 4by ...(ii)

dy dy 2a
from (i), 2 y  4a   ...(iii)
dx dx y

dy dy x
from (ii), 2 x  4b   ...(iv)
dx dx 2b

x2
Putting y  from (ii) in (i), we get
4b

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
8 QUIZRR

1 2
x4
 4 ax or x (x 3 2
64ab ) = 0  x  0, 4a 3 b 3
16b2

x2
From (iii), y   when x = 0, y = 0
4b

2 4
1 2 2 1
16a 3 b 3
and when x  4a 3 b3 , y  4 a 3 b3
4b

 1 2 2 1
 4a 3 b3 , 4 a 3 b3 
 Points of intersection of curves (i) and (ii) are (0, 0) and  
 

Angle of intersection of the curves at (0, 0) :

2a
From (iii), slope of the curve (i) at (0, 0) = (undefined)
0

0
From (iv), slope of the curve (ii) at (0, 0) =  0  tan 0
2b

 angle between of the curves at (0, 0) = 90  0  90

 1 2 2 1
Angle of intersection of the curves at  4 a 3 b 3 , 4 a 3 b3 
 
 

1
dy 2a a3
From (iii), = = = m1 (say)
dx 2 1 1
4 a 3 b3 2b 3

1 2 1
dy 4 a 3 b3 2a 3
From (iv), = = = m2 (say)
dx 2b 1
b3

If  be the acute angle between the two curves, then

1/ 1/
2a 3 a 3
1/
 1/
m1  m2 b 3 2b 3
tan  = 
1  m1 m2 1/ 1/
2a 3 a 3
1 1/
. 1/
b 3 2b 3

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 9

1/ 1/
3a 3 b 3

= 2  b 2 / 3  a 2 /3 
 
 

1/ 1/
3a 3 b 3
  tan 1
  2 2 
2  b /3  a /3 
 

Illustration 5
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve x 3 + y3 = 6xy at point (3, 3).
Solution :
Equation of the given curve is x3 + y3 = 6xy ...(i)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

3 x2  3 y2
dy
dx


dy 
 6  1. y  x 
dx 
or 3 y
2
 6x  dy
dx
2
 6 y  3x

dy 6 y  3 x2 2 y  x2
   ...(ii)
dx 3 y2  6 x y2  2 x

dy 2.3  32  3
at (3, 3), dx  2   1
3  2.3 3

 Slope of tangent at (3, 3) i.e. m = 1

 equation of tangent at (3, 3) will be
y 3 = 1(x 3) or x+ y 6= 0

1 1
Again slope of normal at (3, 3) =   1
m ( 1)

 equation of normal at (3, 3) will be

y 3 = 1 (x 3) or x y= 0

Illustration 6
Find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point t on the curve x = a sin3 t,
y = b cos3t.
Solution :
Given curve is x = a sin3t,
y = bcos3t. ...(i)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
10 QUIZRR

dy
From (1),  b3 cos2 t.( sin t)
dt

dy
and  a3 sin 2 t.cos t
dt

dy dy / dt  3 b cos2 t sin t  b cos t b

     cot(t)
dx dx / dt 3 a sin2 t cos t a sin t a

b
 slope of tangent at point ÂtÊ =  cot(t)
a

a
and slope of normal = tan t
b

Equation of tangent at point ÂtÊ i.e.

at point (a sin3t, b cos3t) is

b
y b cos3t=  cot (t) (x a sin3t)
a

b cos t 3
or y b cos3t=  a sin t ( x  a sin t)

or, ay sin t ab cos3t sin t = bx cos t + ab cos t sin3 t

or, bx cos t + ay sin t = ab cos t sin t (cos2t + sin2t)
or, ay sin t + bx cos t = ab sin t cos t

Equation of normal at point ÂtÊ is

y  b cos3 t 
a sin t
b cos t
x  a sin3 t 
or, yb cos t b2 cos4t = xa sin t a2 sin4 t
or, ax sin t by cos t = a2 sin4 t b2 cos4 t.

Illustration 7
Prove that the curves xy = 4 and x 2 + y2 = 8 touch each other.
Solution :
Equation of the given curves are
xy = 4 ...(i)
2 2
and x + y = 8 ...(ii)

dy dy y
from (i), 1. y  x  0,   =  ...(iii)
dx dx x

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 11

dy x
from (ii), 2 x  2 y dy  0,  =  ...(iv)
dx dx y

Putting the value of y from (i) in (ii), we get

16 x4 + 16 = 8x2
x2  2
8, or
x
4
or x 8x2 + 16 = 0 or (x2 4)2 = 0
or x2 4 = 0, or x2 = 4,  x=  2

4
from (i), when x = 2, y= 2
2

4
and when x= 2, y= 2
2

Hence points of intersection of the two curves are (2, 2) and ( 2, 2).
Slope of the tangent to the curve (i) at point (2, 2).

2
m1    1 [from (iii)]
2
Slop of tangent to the curve (ii) at point (2, 2)

2
m2       1 [from (iv)]
2
 m1 = m2, therefore, the two curves have a common tangent at (2, 2)
i.e. they touch each other at (2, 2).

At point (ă 2, ă 2) :

  2
Slope of tangent to curve (i), m3 =    = 1
  2

  2
Slope of tangent to curve (ii), m4 =    = 1
  2
Since m3 = m4, hence the two curves touch each other at ( 2, 2). Thus curves (i) and (ii) touch
each other.

Illustration 8
Find the condition that the curves a x2 + by2 = 1 and a 1x 2 + b 1y2 = 1 may cut each other
orthogonally.
Solution :
ax2 + by2 = 1 ...(i)
2 2
and a1x + b1y = 1 ...(ii)
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
12 QUIZRR

dy dy ax
From (i), 2ax + 2by  0,  =  by ...(iii)
dx dx

dy dy a1 x
From (ii) 2a1x + 2b1y  0,  = ...(iv)
dx dx b1 y

dy
Curves (i) and (ii) will cut each other at right angles if the product of the values of for the
dx
two curves is 1

 a x   a1 x  aa1 x2
i.e.     1 or, 1 ...(v)
 b y   b1 y  bb1 y2

From (i) and (ii), ax2 + by2 = a1x2 + b1y2

or, (a a1) x2 = (b1 b)y2

x2 b1  b
  ...(vi)
y 2 a  a1

x2 aa1  b1  b 
Putting the value of in (v), we get    1
y 2 bb1  a  a1 

a  a1 b1  b b  b1
or, = 
aa1 bb1 bb1

1 1 1 1
or  = 
a1 a b1 b

This is the required condition.

Illustration 9
Find the equation of the normal to the curve x 2 = 4y which passes through the point (1, 2).
Solution : [IIT 84]
Given curve is x2 = 4y
dy
Differentiating w.r. to x, we get 2x = 4
dx

dy x dy 
  at (, ), 
dx 2 dx 2


 slope of tangent at (, ), =
2

2
 slope of normal at (, ) = 


APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 13

2
Now equation of normal at (, ) is y     ( x  )

Since this normal passes through (1, 2)

2
 2 (1  ) or 2  = 2 + 2

or,  = 2 ...(ii)
Again since (, ) lies on curve (i),
 2 = 4 ...(iii)
Putting the value  from (ii) in (iii), we get

2
2  4  or 3 = 8   = 2


From (ii),   2  2  1
 2
Now from (A), required equation of normal is

2
y1 ( x  2) or x+ y 3= 0
2

Illustration 1 0
Show that the normal to the curve x = a (cos  +  sin ), y = a (sin  ă  cos ) at any point
 is at a constant distance from the origin. [IITă83]
Solution :

dy dy / d  a[cos    ( sin )  1.cos ]

   tan 
dx dx / d a[  sin   1.sin    cos ]

Hence the equation of the normal at any point  on the curve is given by

cos 
y a(sin   cos ) =  sin  [ x  a(cos    sin )]

or y sin  a (sin   cos ) sin  = x cos  + a cos  (cos  +  sin )

or x cos  + y sin  = a (cos2 + sin2) = a
or x cos  + y sin  a = 0 ...(i)
Now length of the perpendicular from the origin to normal (i)

0.cos   0.sin   a
=  a  constant.
cos2   sin2 

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
14 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 1
  x  2 that are parallel to the line
Find all the tangents to the curve y = cos (x + y), ă 2
x + 2y = 0 [IITă85]
Solution :
The given curve is y = cos (x + y) ...(i)
dy  dy 
 sin(x + y)  1 
dx 
= ...(ii)
dx 

dy sin ( x  y)
or =  1  sin ( x  y)
dx
The given curve is x + 2y = 0 ...(A)
1
its slope = 
2
Since tangent is parallel to line (A)
dy 1
 = slope of the tangent =  ...(iii)
dx 2

sin( x  y) 1
From (ii) and (iii),  
1  sin( x  y) 2
or 2 sin (x + y) = 1 + sin (x + y)
or sin (x + y) = 1 or 1 = sin (x + y) ...(iv)
2 2 2
From (i) and (iv), y + 1 = cos (x + y) + sin (x + y) = 1
or y2 = 0  y= 0

 from (i), cos (x + 0) = 0 or cos x = 0 = cos
2


 x = 2n  , where n = 0,  1 1,  2, ...
2
 values of x such that 2  x  2 are
 3  3
 , of which only and  satisfy equation (iv)
2 2 2 2

   3 
Hence points are,  , 0  and   , 0
2   2 

  1 
Equation of tangent at  , 0  is y 0 =  (x  )
2  2 2
or 2x + 4y  = 0

 3  1 3
Equation of tangent at   , 0  is y 0 =  (x  )
 2  2 2
or 2x + 4y + 3 = 0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 15

Illustration 1 2

a a  a 2  x2 
y  log e
  a 2  x2
Show that the segment of the tangent to the curve 2 a  2 2 
 a x 

contained between the y-axis and the point of tangency has a constant length.
Solution :
Given curve is

a a  a 2  x2 
y log   a 2  x2 ...(1)
2 a  a2  x2 


Let x = a sin , then from (1)

a  a  a cos  
y = log    a cos 
2  a  a cos  


= a log cot  a cos 
2
Thus parametric equation of given curve is

x  a sin  

  ...(2)
y  a log cot  a cos 
2 

dy a  2 
 =  tan  cosec   a sin 
d 2 2 2

a a cos2 
=   a sin   
sin  sin 

dx
= a cos 
d

dy dy / d  cos 
 = 
dx dx / d sin 

 a  
Let P  a sin , log cot  a cos   be a point on the curve (2).
 2 2 

a  cos 
Equation of tangent at P is y  log cot  a cos    ( x  a sin ) ...(3)
2 2 sin 
Let line (3) cut the y-axis at Q (0, k)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
16 QUIZRR

a  a 
then k  log cot  a cos   a cos     k  log cot ...(4)
2 2 2 2

a 
Now PQ2 = (0 a sin )2 + ( k  log cot  a cos )2
2 2
= a2 sin2 + a2 cos2  [from (4)
= a2
 PQ = |a| = constant

Illustration 1 3
Prove that the ordinate of any point of the curve 2x 2y2 ă x 4 = c is the mean proportional
between the abscissa and the difference between the abscissa and subnormal drawn to the
curve at the same point.
Solution :
Given curve is 2x2y2 x4 = c ...(1)
subnormal at P (x, y)
Y
dy
= yy1  y ...(2)
dx
y f(x)
2 dy J
From (1), 2( x .2 y  2 xy2 )  4 x3  0
dx P(x,y)
y 
dy x( x2  y2 )
  ...(3) 
dx x2 y O Q L R X
To prove, y  x ( x  yy1 )

or, y2 = x (x yy1) ...(4)

dy
Now x (x yy1) = x2 xy
dx
= x2 (x2 y2) [from (3)]
2
= y.

Illustration 1 4
Find the equation of tangent to the curve x 2/3 + y2/3 = a 2/3 at (x 0, y0). Hence prove that the
length of the portion of tangent intercepted between the axes is constant.
Solution :
Method 1 :
Differentiating wrt x,
1 1
2 3 2 dy
x  y3 0
3 3 dx
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 17

1
dy   y 3
   0
dx  ( x0 , y0 )  x0 

1
 y 3
 equation is y y0 =   0  ( x  x0 )
 x0 

 x10 / 3 y  y0 x01 / 3   x y10 / 3  x0 y01 / 3  x y10 / 3  yx01 / 3  x0 y01 / 3  y0 x01 / 3

xy10 / 3 y x01 / 3
   x02 / 3  y02 / 3
x01 / 3 y01 / 3 x01 / 3 y01 / 3

x y
 equation of tangent is :   a2 / 3
x01 / 3 y01 / 3
Length intercepted between the axis

Lenth = ( x.int .)2  ( y.int)2

= ( x10 / 3 a 2 / 3 )2  ( y01 / 3 a2 / 3 )2 = x02 / 3 a4 / 3  y02 / 3 a 4 / 3

= a 2 / 3 x02 / 3  y02 / 3 = a 2 / 3 a 2 / 3
= a i.e. constant
Method 2 :
Express the equation in parametric form
x = a sin3t, y = a cos3 t

3  3 a cos2 t sin t
Equation of tangent is : y  a cos t  ( x  a sin3 t)
2
3 a sin t cos t
 y sin t a sin t cos3 t = x cos t + a sin3 t cos t
x y
 x cos t + y sin t = a sin t cos t   a
sin t cos t

x y
in terms of (x0, y0) equation is :  a
 x0 / a  1/3
 y0 / a 1 / 3
Length of tangent intercepted between axes

=  xint 2   yint 2 = a 2 sin 2 t  a 2 cos 2 t  a

Note :
(1) The parametric form is very useful in these type of problems.
(2) Equation of tangent can also be obtained by substituting b = a and m = 2/3 in the result
of example 2.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 18 QUIZRR
ROLLE’S THEOREM
Statement : If a function f(x) is
(i) continuous in the closed interval [a, b] i.e. continuous at each point in the interval [a, b].
(ii) differentiable in an open interval (a, b) i.e. differentiable at each point in the open interval
(a, b) and
(iii) f(a) = f(b), then there will be at least one point c, in the interval (a, b) such that f´(c ) = 0.

G eomet r ical M eaning of R olle’s T heor em

Y Y
T´ P T
E
A B y = f´(x) C
fig (i) A B
fig (ii)
f(a) f´(b)
D
f´(a) f´(b)

O L M X O L M X
a b a b
If the graph of a function y = f (x) be continuous at each point from the point A (a, f (a)) to the
point B (b, f (b)) and tangent at each point between A and B is unique i.e. tangent at each point
between A and B exist and ordinates i.e. y co-ordinates of points A and B are equal, then there
will be at least one point P on the curve between A and B at which tangent will be parallel to
x-axis.
In fig. (i) there is only one such point P, where tangent is parallel to x-axis, but in fig. (ii) there
are more than one such points where tangents are parallel to x-axis.
Note : Converse of RolleÊs theorem is not true i.e, if a function f (x) is such that f´ (c) = 0 for at
least one c in the open interval (a, b) then it is not necessary that
(i) f (x) is continuous in [a, b]
(ii) f (x) is differentiable in (a, b)
(iii) f (a) = f (b)

Algeb r aic I nt ep r et at ion of R olle’s T heor em

for a function f (x) which is continuous & differentiable and follows RolleÊs theorem.
i.e. f (a) = f (b) = 0, where a, b are roots of the function then we say there exists c (a, b) such
that f´(c) = 0 or we can say c is the root of f´(x).
 Between any two roots of a polynomial function f(x) lies a root of its derivative f´(x).

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 19

L angr ange’s M ean Value T heor em :

For a function f (x) defined over [a, b] such that

(i) it is continuous on [a, b]
(ii) it is differentiable on (a, b)

f (b)  f (a)
then there exists a real number c (a, b) such that f ´( c) 
ba

Note : Rolle Theorem is a special case of this theorem, when f (b) = f (a) i.e. f´(c) = 0

G eomet r ical M eaning of L agr ange’s M ean Value T heor em

Let A (a, f (a) and B (b, f (b)) be two points on the curve y = f(x). T
Y
Then OL = a, OM = b, AL = f (a), BM = f (b).
B
Now slope of chord AB P

BK f (b)  f ( a)
tan    ...(i) 
AK ba A
K
T´ f(b)
f (b)  f (a)  f(a)
By LagrangeÊs Mean Value theorem  f ´(c) = slope of OH L M X
ba
a b
tangent at point P (c, f (c))
from (i), tan  = slope of tangent at P
 slope of chord AB = slope of tangent at P
Hence chord AB || tangent PT.
Thus geometrical meaning of mean value theorem is as follows :

Y E
T B
Y
P
T´ B C
D
A
A
f(a) f(b) f(a) f(b)

O L M X L OM X
a b
If the graph of a curve y = f (x) be continuous at each point from the point A (a, f (a)) to to the
point B (b, f (b)) and tangent at each point between A and B exists i.e. tangent is unique then
there will be at least one point P on the curve between A and B, where tangent will be parallel
to chord AB.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 20 QUIZRR
In fig. (i) there is only one such point P where tangent is parallel to chord AB but in fig. (ii) there
are more than one such points where tangents are parallel to chord AB.

Illustration 1 5
If a function f (x) is continuous in the closed interval [0, 1] and differentiable in the open
interval (0, 1) then show that there will be at least one c , where 0 < c < 1 such that f´(c ) =
f (1) ă f (0).
Solution :
Given,
(i) f (x) is continuous in the closed interval [0, 1]
(ii) f (x) is differentiable in the open interval (0, 1)
 by LagrangeÊs mean value theorem, there will be at least one c, 0 < c < 1 such that

f (1)  f (0)
f ´( c)   f (1)  f (0)
10

Illustration 1 6
Taking the function f (x) = (x ă 3) logx, prove that there is at least one value of x in (1, 3)
which satisfies x log x = 3 ă x.
Solution :
Given : f (x) = (x 3) log x ...(1)

1
 f´(x) = (x 3) .  1.log x ...(2)
x
Clearly f (x) is finite for all positive values of x and hence f (x) is differentiable for all x > 0
 f(x) is differentiable in [1, 3]
 f(x) is also continuous in [1, 3]
Also f(1) = (1 3) log 1 = 0 and f (3) = (3 3) log 3 = 0
 f(1) = f (3)
Therefore, by RolleÊs theorem, there will be at least one value of x in (1, 3) such that f´(x) = 0

x3
 from (2),  log x  0 or x log x = 3 x
x

Illustration 1 7
If functions f (x) and g (x) are continuous in [a , b] and differentiable in (a , b), show that
f (a ) f (b) f ´(a ) f ´(c )
there will be at least one point c , a < c < b such that g (a ) g (b)  (b  a ) g (a ) g ´( c )

f ( a) f ( x)
Solution : Let F(x) = g (a) g( x)  f (a) g ( x)  g ( a) f ( x) ...(i)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 21

 F´(x) = f(a) g´ (x) g(a) f´ (x) ...(ii)

Since f (x) and g (x) are continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b), therefore, from (i) and
(ii) it follows that F (x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b).
Also from (i), f(a) = f(a) g(a) g(a) f(a) = 0
and f (b) = f (a) g (b) g (a) f (b) = 0

such that F´(c)  F(b)  F(a)

ba

f ( a) g (b)  g( a) f (b)  0
 f (a) g´( c)  g ( a) f ´ (c) 
ba

or, f(a) g (b) g (a) f(b) = (b a) {f(a) g´ (c) g (a) f´(c)}

f ( a) f (b) f ( a) f ´( c)
or,  (b  a)
g (a ) g (b) g( a) g´(c)

Illustration 1 8

1
Verify RolleÊs theorem for the function f (x) = 2x 3 + x 2 ă 4x ă 2, where   x 2
2
Solution :
Given f(x) = 2x3 + x2 4x 2 ...(1)
2
 f´(x) = 6x + 2x 4 ...(2)
Clearly f´(x) is finite for all x and hence also f(x) is differentiable at all x, therefore,

 1 
(i) f(x) is continuous at all x and hence also continuous in   , 2 
 2 

 1 
(ii) f(x) is differentiable in   , ( 2) 
 2 

 1  1 1  1
(iii) Also from (1), f     2      4     2  0 and
 2  8 4  2

 1
f ( 2)  2.2 2  2  4 2  2  0  f     f ( 2)
 2
Hence all conditions of RolleÊs theorem are satisfied.
Now f´(c) = 0
 6c2 + 2c 4 = 0 or, 3c2 + c 2= 0
2
or, 3c + 3c 2c 2 = 0 or, (c + 1) (3c 2) = 0

2
or, c   1,
3

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
22 QUIZRR

1 2
But   c 2,  c
2 3

 2 1
Thus we get at least one c    , where   c  2 such that f´(c) = 0
 3  2
Thus RolleÊs theorem has been verified.

Illustration 1 9
Are all the conditions of RolleÊs theorem satisfied for the function f (x) = |x| in the interval
[ă 1, 1] ?
Solution :
Given f (x) = |x|
f(x) = |x| is differentiable at all x except x = 0, therefore f (x) may or may not be continuous at
x = 0 and will be definitely continuous at all other x.
Since 0 lies in the closed interval [ 1, 1] hence continuity of f (x) at x = 0 must be tested.
L.H. limit in this case x < 0  |x| = x

Lt f ( x) = Lt x  Lt ( x)  0
 x00 x0 x00

R.H. limit, x > 0  |x| = x

Lt f ( x) = Lt x  Lt x  0
 x00 x00 x00

and f(0) = |0|´ = 0

Thus Lt f ( x) = Lt f ( x)  f (0)
x00 x00

Hence f (x) is continuous at x = 0

Thus (i) f (x) is continuous in the closed interval [ 1, 1]
(ii) f(x) is not differentiable at x = 0 and hence it is not differentiable in ( 1, 1).
(iii) Also f ( 1) = | 1| = 1, f (1) = |1| = 1
 f( 1) = f (1)
Hence conditions (i) and (iii) of RolleÊs theorem are satisfied but condition (ii) is not satisfied.

Illustration 20

Are the conditions of LagrangeÊs mean value theorem satisfied for the function f ( x )  x 1
in the interval 1  x  3 ?
Solution : Given, f ( x)  x1 ...(i)

1
 f ´( x)  ...(ii)
2 x1

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 23

Clearly f´(x) is finite at all x > 1 and hence f (x) will be differentiable at all x > 1.
Therefore, f´(x) will be also continuous at all x > 1
Since 1  [1, 3], therefore, continuity of f (x) at x = 1 must be tested.

Now f (1)  1  1  0

R.H. limit : In this case x > 1  f ( x)  x1

Now Lt f ( x)  Lt x1  11 0

x 1  0 x1 0

Here Lt f ( x) is not needed

x 1  0

as f ( x)  x  1 is not defined when x < 1

Since Lt f ( x) = f (1)
x1 0

Hence f (x) is continuous at x = 1

Thus (i) f(x) is continuous in [1, 3]
(ii) f(x) is differentiable in (1, 3)
Therefore, all conditions of LagrangeÊs mean value theorem are satisfied for f (x) in [1, 3].

f (b)  f (a)
Now f ´( c) 
ba

1 f (3)  f (1) 20 1

   
2 c 1 21 2 2

 1 2 c1  1 = 2 (c 1)

1 3
 c 1  c
2 2

Illustration 21
Using RolleÊs theorem show that on the graph of y = x 2 ă 4x + 3 there is a point between
(1, 0) and (3, 0) where the tangent is parallel to x-axis. Also find that point.
Solution :
Given f (x) = x2 4x + 3 ...(i)
 f´(x) = 2x 4 ...(ii)
Clearly f´(x) is finite for all x and hence it is differentiable at all x, therefore
(i) f (x) is continuous at all x and hence also at all points from A (1, 0) to B (3, 0)
(ii) f (x) is differentiable at all points between A (1, 0) and B (3, 0) i.e. tangent at all points
between A and B exists.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
24 QUIZRR
Again f (1) = f(3) = 0
Hence by geometrical meaning of RolleÊs theorem, there will be at least one point C(c, f(c))
between A and B on curve
where tangent will be parallel to x-axis and x-co-ordinate c of this point C is given by f´(c) = 0
Now 2c 4 = 0 c= 2
 from (i), y = f (2) = 22 4.2 + 3 = 1
Hence required point is (2, 1)

Ap p licat ion of Der ivat ive in Det er mining t he Nat ur e of Root s of a Cubic Polynomial
Let f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c be the given cubic polynomial, and f (x) = 0 be the corresponding
cubic equation, where a, b, c  R
Now, f´(x) = 3x2 + 2ax + b
Let D = 4a2 12b = 4 (a2 3b), be the discriminate of the equation f´ (x) = 0.
Then the following cases arises,
Y
Case I : If D < 0  f´(x) > 0  x R.
y = f(x), if c > 0
That means f (x) would be an increasing function of x. (0,c)

Also lim f ( x)    and lim f ( x)  , f y = f(x), if c < 0

x x x0
x0 X
It is clear that graph of y = f (x) would cut the x-axis only once. O
That means we would have just one real root, (say x0).
(0,c)
Case II : Clearly x0 > 0 if c < 0 and x0 < 0 if c > 0
If D > 0, f´(x) = 0 would have two real roots (say x1 and x2, let x1 < x2)
 f´(x) = 3 (x x1) (x x2)
+ +
Clearly, f´(x) < 0, x  (x1, x2)
x1 x2
f´(x) > 0, x ( , x1)  (x2, )
That means f (x) would increase in ( , x1) and (x2, ) and would decrease in (x1, x2). Hence,
x = x1 would be a point of local maxima and and x = x2 would be a point of local minima.
Thus the graph of y = f (x) could have these five possibilities
(i) Y (ii) Y
f(x1) > 0, f(x2) < 0
f(x1) > 0 , f(x2) > 0

x2
X  x1 x2 X
0  x1   0

Here f(x) = 0 with three f(x) = 0 with one real root

distinct real roots x = , ,  x =  and two imaginary root

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 25

(iii) Y (iv) Y

f(x1) < 0, f (x2) < 0 f(x1) > 0 , f(x2) = 0

(o,c)
x1 x2 
X 
O x1 x2 X

f (x) = 0 with one real root f(x) = 0 with three roots

x =  and two imaginary roots x = , x2, x2 (x2 being repeated root)

(v) Y

f(x1) = 0, f(x2) < 0

x2
 X
O x1

f (x) = 0 with three real roots

x = x1, x1,  (x1 being repeated root)

Thus following results are obtained from above graphs,

(a) f(x1) f (x2) > 0, f (x) = 0 would have just one real root.
(b) f(x1) f (x2) < 0, f (x) = 0 would have three real and distinct roots.
(c) f(x1) f (x2) = 0, f (x) = 0 would have three real roots but one of the root would be repeated.

Case III : If D = 0, f´(x) = 3 (x ă x 1)2 where x1 is root of f´ (x) = 0

 f(x) = (x x1)3 + k
Then f(x) = 0 has three real roots, if k = 0
f(x) = 0 have one real root, if k  0

Illustration 22
Find all possible values of the parameter a so that x 3 ă 3x + a = 0 has three real and distinct
roots.
Solution :
Let f(x) = x3 3x + a
2
 f´(x) = 3x 3
= 3 (x 1) (x + 1)
Now, f (1) = a 2, f ( 1) = a + 2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
26 QUIZRR
We know the roots would be real and distinct if,
f(1) f ( 1) < 0  (a 2) (a + 2) < 0
 2 < a < 2 [using wavy curve method]
Thus the given equation would have real and distinct roots if a  (ă 2, 2).

Illustration 23
Let f (x) = a x5 + bx 4 + cx 3 + dx2 + ex, where a , b, c , d, e  R and f (x) = 0 has a positive
root , then
(a) f´ (x) = 0 has root a1 such that 0 < 1 < 
(b) f´´ (x) = 0 has at least one real root
(c) f´ (x) = 0 has at least two real roots
(d) all of the above
Solution :
It is given that  is a positive root of f (x) and by inspection, we have f (0) = 0
 x = 0 and x = a are roots of f (x) = 0
By RolleÊs theorem, f´ (x) = 0 has a root 1 between 0 and  i.e., 0 < 1 < 
 (a) is correct.
Clearly, f´ (x) = 0 is a fourth degree equation in x and imaginary roots always occurs in pairs.
Since x = 1 is a root of f´ (x) = 0
 f´(x) = 0 will have another real root, 2 (say)
Now, 1 and 2 are real roots of f´ (x) = 0
 By RolleÊs Theorem f´´ (x) = 0 will have a real root between 1 and 2 .
 (b) is correct.
We have seen that x = 0, x =  are two real roots of f (x) = 0. As f (x) = 0 is fifth degree equation,
it will have at least three real roots. Consequently by RolleÊs Theorem f´ (x) = 0 will have at least
two real roots.
 (c) is correct.
Hence (d) is the correct answer.

Illustration 24
f(x) is a polynomial of degree 4 with real coefficients such that f (x) = 0 is satisfied by
x = 1, 2, 3 only, then find the value of f´ (1). f´ (2). f´ (3)
Solution :
f(x) = has roots 1, 2, 3 only
 Any one of 1, 2 or 3 is a repeated root of f (x) = 0
 f´ (1) or f´ (2) or f´ (3) any one of them must be zero.
 f´ (1). f´ (2). f´ (3) = 0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 27

Illustration 25

If f (x) is a polynomial of degree 5 with real coefficients such that f(|x|) = 0 has 8 real roots
then f (x) = 0 has how many real roots :
Solution :
Given that f(|x|) = 0 has 8 real roots.
 f(x) = 0 has 4 positive roots.
Since f(x) is a polynomial of degree 5, f(x) cannot have even number of real roots.
 f(x) has all the five roots real in which four positive and one root is negative.

Illustration 26

Prove that if 2a 02  15a , all roots of x 5 ă a 0x 4 + 3a x3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 cannot be real. It is

given that a 0, a , b, c , d  R ?
Solution :
Let f(x) = x5 a0x4 + 3ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
f´(x) = 5x4 4a0x3 + 9ax2 + 2bx + c
f´´(x) = 20x3 12a0x2 + 18ax + 2b
f´´´(x) = 60x2 24a0x + 18a
or f´´´(x) = 6 (10x2 4a0x + 3a)

Now, discriminant = 16a02 4.10.3a

  
D = 8 2a02  15a  0 [as 2a02  15a  0 given]

Hence, the roots of f´´ (x) = 0 cannot be real.

And therefore, all the roots of f (x) = 0 will not be real.

MONOTONICITY
There are 2 types of functions according to their behaviour / monotonicity.
(1) Increasing function
(2) Decreasing function
We further divide them into 2 subcategories
(a) strictly increasing function
(b) increasing or non decreasing function / decreasing or non increasing function

1. Increasing functions
As the name suggests these functions are such that there value at a point on the curve keeps
increasing or stays constant as we increase the value of x.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 28 QUIZRR
i.e. if x  x2
f(x1)  f(x2)

Some examples :

Now let us talk about sub categories.

(a) Strictly Increasing function : Since we have used the word „strictly‰ here, the function is
always increasing i.e. its value increases as x increases.
i.e. as x1 > x2
f(x1) > f(x2)
Note, there is no equality sign in the second
inequality.
Necessary condition :
If we see by the adjacent diagram, the tangents
drawn to an increasing function always form acute
angles.
Hence the required condition is 1 2
f´(x) > 0 for all x  (a, b), for a function to be
strictly increasing in interval (a, b).

(b) Increasing or non decreasing : Here the functions value may be constant for some values and
then increase and this cycle continues. It is not necessary that value increases for every input.
For example :

a b c d

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 QUIZRR 29

the curve in the above figure is an example of this. The value of curve is constant for the period
(a, b) & (c, d)
Note : The value never decreases though it may remain constant.
 As x1 > x2
f(x 1) > f(x 2)
(2) Decreasing functions : As the same suggests the value of function keeps on decreasing as the
value of x increase.
(a) Strictly decreasing function : In this case the value of the function decreases continuously
as the value of x increase.
 As x1 > x2
f(x 1) < f(x 2)
note the change in equality sign.
Example :

 

dy
Also note the tangent to such curves always forms obtuse angles that means or f´(x) =
dx
tan  < 0 as  is obtuse.

Necessary Condition : Hence the necessary condition required is f´(x) < 0 for all x.

(b) Decreasing or non decreasing functions : Here the value of function might be constant
for some period & then will reduce and this cycle goes on, but remember never the value
of function starts increasing.
Example :

a b c d

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
30 QUIZRR
Notice that during the interval (a, b) & (c, d) the value remains constant whereas it has decreasing
values for other inputs.
So the required condition is
as x1 > x2
f(x 1) < f(x 2)
Note the equality sign.
In case we find out that f´(x) is greater than zero in some part of domain & less than zero in other,
then what can we say ?
i.e. for f (x) be continuous in [a, b] & differentiable in (a, b) & then
f´(x) > 0 for x  (a, c)
< 0 for x  (c, b)
where c  (a, b)
for example
for y = sin x curve, it is increasing function

   
from  0,  and decreasing function from  ,   .
 2  2 
0  
2
Pr op er t ies of monot onic funct ions :
(1) If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] such that f´ (c)  0 for each c  (a, b), then f (x) is
monotonically increasing function. Similar definition goes for monotonically decreasing
function.
1
(2) If f (x) is strictly increasing function on [a, b] then f (x) exists & is also strictly increasing
on [a, b].
Similar result follows for strictly decreasing functions.
(3) If f (x) & g (x) are two continuous & differentiable functions, then we can relate fog (x) &
gof (x) by the following table.
f(x) g(x) fog/gof
+ + +
+
+
+
+ denotes increasing function
denotes decreasing function

C omp ar ison of funct ions

Generally we come across questions where we are asked to compare two functions i.e. we need
to know which one is greater. So if we need to find the greater of two functions viz f (x) & g (x),
then follow the steps :

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 QUIZRR 31

Step 1 : assign  (x) = f (x) g (x)

Step 2 : find ´ (x)
Step 3 : If ´ (x) > 0  (x) is increasing function, which is only possible
if f(x) > g (x) for that domain
   ´ (x) < 0  (x) is decreasing function, which is only possible
if f(x) < g (x) for that domain

Illustration 27

 
Show that the function f (x) = cos2 x is decreasing in  0, 
 2
Solution :
Given function is f(x) = cos2 x
= f´(x) = 2 cos x ( sin x) = 2 cos x sin x = sin 2x

  
Now, x   0,   0x
 2 2

Multiplying by 2
 0 < 2x <   2x  ]0, [

 
sin 2x > 0 if 2x  ]0, [ i.e. x   0,  [ sin  is +ve in 1st & 2nd quadrant]
 2

 
 sin 2x < 0, if 2x  ]0, [ i.e. x   0, 
 2

 
 f´ (x) < 0, if x   0, 
 2

 
 f (x) is decreasing function in  0, 
 2

Illustration 28

   3 7 
Show that the function f (x) = cos  2 x   is increasing in  , 
 4   8 8 
Solution :
Given function is

   
f (x) = cos  2 x    f´ (x) = 2 sin  2 x  
 4   4 

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32 QUIZRR

 3 7  3 7
Now, x   ,    x
 8 8  8 8

3 7
  2x 
4 4

3   7  
   2x       2x   2x
4 4 4 4 4 4

   
 2x   , 2  sin  2 x    0, if 2 x   , 2
4  4 4

    3 7 
  sin  2 x    0, if 2 x   , 2 i.e. x  , 
 4 4  8 8 

 3 7 
 f´ (x) > 0 if x   , 
8 8 

 3 7 
Hence, f (x) is increasing in  , 
8 8 

Illustration 29
Find the least value of Âa Ê such that f (x) = x 2 + a x + 1 is increasing on ]1, 2[.
Solution :
Given function is f (x) = x2 + ax + 1
 f´ (x) = 2x + a
Now, x  ]1, 2[
 1< x< 2  2 < 2x < 4
 2 + a < 2x + a < 4 + a  2 + a < f´ (x) < 4 + a
If f (x) is an increasing function.
f´(x) > 0  2+ a  0  a  2
 the least value of a is 2.

Illustration 30

2x
Show that the function f ( x )  log (1  x )  2 is increasing for all x > 0.
 x

Solution :

2x
Given function is f ( x)  log (1  x) 
2x

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 33

1 (2  x).2  2 x
 f´(x) = 1  x 
(2  x)2

1 4 (2  x)2  4  4 x
=  
1  x (2  x)2 (1  x) (2  x)2

4  4 x  x2  4  4 x x2
=   0 for all x > 0
(1  x) (2  x)2 (1  x) (2  x)2

 f(x) is increasing for all x > 0

Illustration 31
Find the intervals of monotonicity of the function y = 2x 2 ă log |x|, x  0 [IITă83]
Solution :
Given, y = 2x2 log |x|, x  0 ...(i)

2 x  log ( x), x  0

2
 y
2
 2 x  log x, x0

 1 1 4 x2  1
4 x  (1)  4 x   , x0
dy 

  x x x
 dx  1 4 x2  1
 4x   , x0
 x x

dy 4 x2  1 dy 4 x2  1
Thus  , x  0 Sign scheme for i.e. for is
dx x dx x

y is dec. inc. dec. inc.

 
ve 1 +ve 7/5 ve 1 +ve
2 2

1 1
y is continuous at x   and x  and not defined at x = 0
2 2

 1  1
(i) y is a decreasing function in   ,   and   0, 
 2  2

 1  1 
(ii) y is an increasing function in   , 0  and  ,  
 2   2 

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
34 QUIZRR

Illustration 32
The function f (x) = sin4x + cos4x increases if

  3
(A) 0< x < (B)  x
8 4 4

3 5 5 3
(C) x (D) x [IITă95]
8 8 8 4
Solution :
f´(x) = 4 sin3x cos x + 4 cos3 x ( sin x)
= 4 sinx cos x (sin2x cos2x)
= 2 sin 2x cos 2x = sin4x
For f(x) to be an increasing function,
f´(x) > 0  sin 4x < 0
  < 4x < 2

 
  x
4 2

  3   
Since  ,  is a subset of  ,   correct choice is (B).
4 8  4 2

Illustration 33


If 0 <  <  < , show that  ă sin  <  ă sin  [IITă75]
2
Solution :
Let f(x) = x sin x ...(i)
Then f´(x) = 1 cos x ...(ii)

 
In interval  0,  , f´ (x) = 1 cos x > 0
 2

 
Hence f (x) is an increasing function in the interval  0, 
 2

  
Now, 0 <  <  <  ,   0, 
2  2
  <   f () < f ()   sin  <  sin 

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 35

Illustration 34

 x2
If 0 < x < , show that cos x > 1 ă
2 2
Solution :

x2
Let f(x) = cos x 1 + ...(i)
2
 f´(x) = sin x + x = x sin x ...(ii)

Y
y=x
y = sin x
X
 0  2

From the graph of y = sin x and y = x, it is clear that for x > 0, x > sin x

  
 In  0,  , f´ (x) > 0 and f´(x) is continuous at x = 0 and x 
 2 2

 
Hence f (x) is an increasing function in  0, 
 2


 0< x<  x> 0  f(x) > f(0)
2

x2 x2
 cos x 1+ > 0  cos x > 1
2 2
Second Method :

x2
f(x) = cos x  1  ...(i)
2
 f´(x) = sin x + x = x sin x ...(ii)

 
 f´´(x) = 1 – cos x > 0 in  0, 
 2

 
 f´(x) is an increasing function in  0, 
 2
 x> 0  f´(x) > f´(0)

 
 x sin x > 0  f´(x) > 0 in  0, 
 2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
36 QUIZRR

 
 f´(x) is an increasing function in  0, 
 2


[. . . f(x) is continuous at x = 0 and x  ]
2
 x> 0  f(x) > f(0)

x2
 cos x  1  0
2

x2
 cos x  1 
2

Illustration 35
Use the function f(x) = x 1/x, x > 0 to determine the bigger of the two numbers ex and e.
[IIT ă 81]
Solution :
f(x) = x1 / x

1/ x 1  log x
 f´(x) = x
x2
Now 1 log x = 0  log x = 1  x = e

Since x2 > 0, therefore, sign scheme for f´ (x) will be same as that of 1 log x

Sign scheme for f´(x) i.e. for (1 loge x) is

f(x) is inc. max f(x) is dec.


+ve e ve

put x = 1
 in (e, ), f´ (x) < 0 and f (x) is continuous at x = e
Hence in interval [e, ), f (x) is is a decreasing function.

Now , e [e, )

 > e  f() < f (e)    1 /   e1 / e

   
e e
 1 /   e1 / e  e < e

 e is bigger of e and e.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 37

Illustration 36

Show that 1  x ln ( x  x 2  1)  1  x 2 , for all x  0 [IIT ă 83]

Solution :

Let f(x) = 1  x log( x  x2  1)  1  x2 ...(i)

1  2x  2x
x2  1)  x. 1  
 f´(x) = 1.log( x 
x x2  1  2 x2  1  2 1  x2

x x
log( x  x2  1)  
=
x2  1 1  x2

= log( x  x2  1)

Clearly in interval (0, ), f´(x) > 0 and f(x) is continuous at x = 0

 f(x) is an increasing function in [0, )
 x > 0  f(x) > f(0)

 1  x log( x  x2  1)  1  x2  0 [ f (0) = 0]

 1  x log( x  x2  1)  1  x2

Illustration 37

dg
Let a + b = 4, where a < 2 and let g(x) be a differentiable function. If  0 for all x, prove
dx
a b

that  g( x)d x   g ( x )dx

0 0
increases as (b ă a ) increases. [IIT ă 97]

Solution :
Given, a + b = 4 and a < 2  b > 2 Hence b > a
Let z = b a, then z > 0 Now b + a = 4 and b a = z

z4 4z
 b = and a 
2 2

a b

Let y=  g(x)dx   g(x)dx

0 0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 38 QUIZRR

4z 4 z
2 2
Then, y = 
0
g ( x) dx 

0
g ( x) dx ...(i)

dy 4  z  1  4  z 1
 = g     g  .
dz  2  2   2  2

1  4  z  4  z  1
g   g   [ g(b)  g ( a)]
2   2 
= ...(ii)
 2  2

dg
According to question  0 for all real x
dx
 g(x) is an increasing function
 b> a  g (b) > g (a)

dy
Therefore, from (ii),  0 for all real z
dz
Hence y increases as z increases.

MAXIMA & MINIMA

Before going on to find maximum & minimum value of a function. Let us discuss some basic
definitions & results which will help us later on.

C r it ical Point s

An interior point of the domain of a function where f´ is zero or undefined is a critical point of f.
Also the function can attain a maxima or minima only at critical points or at end points (of
domain).

L ocal M axima & M inima

There may be points in the domain of the function where function does not attain the greatest
(or the least) value but its value it greater than or less than the values of function at neighbouring
points.
Such points are known as local maxima or local minima or combined known as extreme points.
The values at these points are called local maximum value, local minimum value and extreme
values respectively.
Let us take the following diagram to understand the concept.
Points P, R T are points of local maxima
Points Q, S are points of local minima.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 39

R
T

P
S

a p r s t b

Points to notice :
1. All the points of local maxima / minima are critical points i.e. tangent to the curve at these
points is parallel to axis or f´(x) = 0 at these points.
2. They are local maxima / minima, but remember they are not the maximum & minimum
values of the functions. Local minimum might not be the least value of function.
3. A value of local minimum can be greater than value of local maximum. For example in our
case value at S (local minimum value) is greater than value at P (local maximum value).

St ep s t o find local maxima & local minima

Method 1 : First derivative test
Step 1 : Find the critical points of the function by putting f´(x) = 0
Step 2 : For each of the critical points obtained in step 1 do the following :
for a critical point x = a

Case 1 : x = a is local maxima

if f´(x) changes from + to as x passes through a i.e. at every point to
the left of a f´(x) > 0 & at every point to the right f´(x) < 0

+ · f´ > 0 f´ < 0

x=a

x=a
Case 2 : x = a is local minima
if the sign of f´(x) changes from to + as x passes through a i.e.
at every point to the left of a, f´(x) < & at every point to the right of
a, f´(x) > 0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 40 QUIZRR

f´ < 0 f´ > 0
+ ·

Case 3 : There is no sign change across a this means that x = a is neither a

point of maxima or minima.

f´ < 0

f´ > 0 f´ > 0
f´ < 0
a
C

Befor e going on t o higher or der der ivat ive t est , let us discuss t he shape of cur ve.

C oncave shap e
If f´´(x) > 0 in the interval (a, b) then the function f (x) is concave upwards in the domain
(a, b).

a b
(Concave Upward)
C onvex shap e
If f´´(x) < 0 in the interval (a, b) then the function f (x) is convex upwards in the domain
(a, b).

a b
Point of inflect ion
A point of inflection is point where the curve changes its shape from convex to concave or from
concave to convex.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 41

A point x = c is a point of inflection if

1. f´´(c) = 0 or not defined and there is no sign changes across c.
2. But if there is a sign changes across c, then with f´´(c) = 0, f´´(c)  0 should also be true.

H igher O r d er T est
Let f be a differentiable function on interval I & let c be any point in the domain of f such that
(1) f´(c) = f´´(c) = f´´´(c) .... fn 1
(c) = 0 and
n
(2) f (c)  0 and exists.
then

 f n (c)  0  x  c is a local maxima 

if n is even  n 
 f ( c)  0  x  c is a local minima 

& if n is odd  x = c is a point of inflection.

for example, to understand it better

if x = c1 is the root of f´(x)
if f´´(c1) < 0 then x = c1 is local maxima
> 0 then x = c1 is local minima
= 0, then we will find f´´´(x)
If f´´´(c1)  0 then x = c1 is a point of inflection
& f´´´(c1) = 0, then we will find fIV.
if fIV (c1) < 0, then x = c1 is local maxima.... & this cycle goes on.
Remember we talk about maxima & mimima for even derivatives of f whereas for point of
inflection we look for odd derivatives of f (x).

G lob al M axima & M inima

We earlier discussed local maxima & minima which were restricted to their neighbourhood. Now
we need to find the (greatest / least) of the function over its whole domain. That value is known
as global maxima / absolute maxima or global minima / absolute minima.

St ep s t o find G lob al M axima / M inima

Step 1 : Find all critical points. Let say c1 c2 ... cn are n critical points.
Step 2 : Find the value of the function at all these critical points.
Step 3 : for

maximum = max  f (a), f (c1 ), f (c2 )... f (cn ), f (b)

Minimum = min  f (a), f (c1 ), f (c2 )... f (cn ), f (b)

Note : The introduction of end points of domain. As told to you earlier also, the
function attains extreme values at critical points or at end points.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
42 QUIZRR

Illustration 38
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function 2x 3 ă 15x 2 + 36x + 11
Solution :
Let y = 2x3 15x2 + 36x + 11 ...(i)

dy
 = 6x2 30x + 36 = 6 (x2 5x + 6)
dx
= 6(x 2) (x 3) ...(ii)

dy
Sign scheme for i.e. for (x 2) (x 3) is
dx
 
+ve 2 ve 3 +ve
decreasing increasing
max. min.
putting x= 0
y is increasing
y has minimum value at x = 2
From (i), the corresponding minimum value of y
= 2.23 15.22 + 36.2 + 11 = 39
y has maximum value at x = 3
From (i), maximum value of y = 2.33 15.32 + 36.3 + 11 = 38

Second Method :
let y = 2x3 15x2 + 36x + 11 ...(i)
dy
 = 6x2 30x + 36
dx
= 6(x2 5x + 6) ...(ii)
dy
For maximum or minimum values of y, 0
dx
 x2 5x + 6 = 0  x = 2, 2

d2 y
From (ii), = 6 (2x 5) ...(iii)
dx2

d2 y
At x = 2, = 6 (2 2 5) = 6 < 0
dx2
Hence y has maximum value at x = 2
From (i) corresponding maximum value of y = 2.23 15.22 + 36.2 + 11 = 39

d2 y
At x = 3,  6(2  3  5)  6  0
dx2
Hence y has minimum value at x = 3
From (i), corresponding minimum value of y = 2.33 15.32 + 36.2 + 11 = 38
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 43

Illustration 39

x2  7x  6
Find the maximum and minimum values of the following function y 
x  10
Solution :

x2  7 x  6
Let y=
x  10

dy ( x  10)(2 x  7)  ( x2  7 x  6).1
 = ...(i)
dx ( x  10)2

2 x2  27 x  70  x2  7 x  6
=
( x  10)2

x2  20 x  64
= ...(ii)
( x  10)2

dy
Since (x 10)2 > 0, therefore sign scheme for will be same as that of x2 20x + 64.
dx
x2 20x + 64 = 0  x = 4, 16
dy
Sign scheme for i.e. for x2 20x + 64 is
dx

 
+ve 4 ve 16 +ve
y is increasing y is decreasing y is increasing
max. min.

y has maximum value at x = 4

42  7  4  6
From (i) corresponding maximum value of y = 1
4  10
y has minimum value at x = 16
From (i) corresponding minimum value of y

162  7  16  6 150
=   25
16  10 6

Second Method :
x2  7 x  6
let y= ...(i)
x  10

dy x2  20 x  64
 = ...(ii)
dx ( x  10)2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
44 QUIZRR

dy
For maximum or minimum values of y, 0
dx
 x2 20x + 64 = 0 or x = 4, 16

dy x2  20 x  100  100  64
From (ii), =
dx ( x  10)2

( x  10)2  36 36
= 2
1 ...(iii)
( x  10) ( x  10) 2

d2 y 72
 = ...(iv)
dx2 ( x  10)3

d2 y 72 1
At x = 4, 2
 3
 0
dx ( 6) 3

Hence y has maximum value at x = 4

From (1), corresponding maximum value of y = 1

d2 y 72 1
At x = 16, 2
 3
 0
dx 6 3
Hence y has minimum value at x = 16
From (i), corresponding minimum value of y = 25

Illustration 40
Investigate the values of x for which the function x 5 ă 5x 4 + 5x 3 ă 1 has maximum or
minimum or neither. Find also its maximum and minimum values.
Solution :
y = x5 5x4 + 5x3 1
dy
 = 5x4 + 20x3 + 15x2 = 5x2 (x2 4x + 3)
dx
= 5x2 (x 1)(x 3)
dy
Sign scheme for 5x2 (x 1)(x 3) = 0  x = 0, 1, 3
dx

dy
Sign scheme for i.e. for 5x2 (x 1)(x 3) is
dx
+ve +ve ve +ve
 
0 1 3
inc. dec. inc.
neither max. max. min.
nor min.
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 45

y has maximum value at x = 1 and minimum value at x = 3

At x = 0, y has neither maximum nor minimum value.
Maximum value of y = 1 5 + 5+ 1= 0
Minimum value of y = 243 5 81 + 5 27 1 = 28

Second Method :
Let y = x5 5x4 + 5x3 1 ...(i)

dy
 = 5x4 20x3 + 15x2
dx

dy
For maximum or minimum values of y, 0
dx
 x4 4x3 + 3x2 = 0
 x2(x2 4x + 3) = 0 ...(ii)
2
 x (x 1)(x 3) = 0
 x = 0, 1, 3

d2 y
From (ii), 2
 20 x3  60 x2  30 x ...(iii)
dx

d2 y
From (iii), at x = 1,  20  60  30  50  60   10  0,
dx2
Hence y has maximum value at x = 1
This maximum value of y = 15 5 15 + 5 14 1 = 0

d2 y
From (iii), at x = 3, 2
 20  33  60  32  30  3  90  0,
dx
Hence y has minimum value at x = 3
This minimum value of y = 35 5 34 + 5 33 1= 28

d2 y
At x = 0,  20  0  60  0  30  0  0
dx2

d3 y
From (iii), 3
 60 x2  120 x  30
dx

d3 y
at x = 0,  30  0
dx3
Hence at x = 0, x has neither maximum nor minimum value.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
46 QUIZRR

Illustration 41

x
1
Show that the maximum value of   is e1 / e
x

Solution :
x
1
Let y    ...(i)
 x

x
1
Here for,   to be defined x > 0
 x

1
From (i), log y = x log   = x log x
 x
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get

1 dy 1
.   log x  x .   (1  log x)
y dx x

x
dy 1
or,   y (1  log x)     (1  log x) ...(ii)
dx  x

1
Since x > 0  x log   > 0
 x

dy
 Sign scheme for will be same as that of (1 + logex)
dx

1 1
1 + logex = 0  logex = 1 x= e =
e

dy
Sign scheme for i.e. for (1 + logex) is
dx

y inc. max y dec.


+ve 1/e ve

1
y has maximum value at x 
e

From (i), maximum value of y  e1 / e

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 47

Second Method :

x
dy 1
    (1  log x) ...(ii)
dx  x

d2 y  1  x 1  1 x 
    .  (1  log x).    (1  log x) 
  x  x ...(iii)
dx2   x  

1 d2 y  1 
At x ,   e1 / e  0  at x  , 1  log x  0 
e dx2  e 

1
Hence y has maximum value at x 
e

Corresponding maximum value of y  e1 / e

Illustration 42
Let f (x) = 2x 3 ă 9x 2 + 12x + 6. Discuss the global maxima and minima of f (x) in [0, 2] and
(1, 3).
Solution :
f(x) = 2x3 9x2 + 12x + 6
 f´(x) = 6x2 18x + 12 = 6 (x2 3x + 2) = 6 (x 1) (x 2)
First of all let us discuss [0, 2]
Clearly the critical point of f (x) in [0, 2] is x = 1
f(0) = 6, f (1) = 11, f (2) = 10
Thus x = 0 is the point of global minimum of f (x) in [0, 2] and x = 1 is the point of global
maximum.
Now let us consider (1, 3). Clearly x = 2 is the only critical point in (1, 3).

f(2) = 10. Lim f ( x)  11 and Lim f (x)  15

x 1 0 x3 0

Thus x = 2 is the point of global minimum in (1, 3) and the global maximum in (1, 3) does not
exist.

Illustration 43

The function f ( x )   t(e t

 1)(t  1)(t  2)3 (t  3)dt has local

minimum at x = (A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3 [IITă99]

 t (e
t
Solution : Given, f(x) =  1) (t  1) (t  2)3 (t  3)5 dt
1

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
48 QUIZRR
x 3
 f´ (x) = x(e 1) (x 1) (x 2) (x 3)5
 f´(x) = 0  x = 0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3
Sign scheme for f´(x) i.e. for x(ex 1) (x 1) (x 2)3 (x 3)5 is :

dec. dec. inc. dec. inc.

 
ve 0 ve 1 +ve 2 ve 3 +ve
min. max. min.

 f(x) has local minimum at x = 1 and x = 3

Ans. (B) and (D)

Illustration 44
Investigate for maxima and minima the function

 [2(t  1)(t  2)
3
f (x)   3(t  1)2 (t  2)2 ]dt [IITă88]
1

Solution :


Given, f ( x)  [2(t  1)(t  2)3  3(t  1)2 (t  2) 2 ]dt
1

 f´(x) = 2(x 1)(x 2)3 + 3(x 1)2(x 2)2

= (x 1)(x 2)2 [2(x 2) + 3(x 1)]
2
= (x 1)(x 2) (5x 7)

7
(x 1)(x 2)2 (5x 7) = 0  x  1, 2, 2,
5
Sign scheme for f´(x) is

 
+ve 1 ve 7/5 +ve 2 +ve

7
Hence the max. value at x = 1 and min. value at x 
5
f(x) has neither maximum nor minimum value at x = 2

Illustration 45

 
Let f(x) = sin3x +  sin2x,   x  . Find the intervals in which  should lie in order that
2 2
f (x) has exactly one minimum and exactly one maximum. [IITă85]

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 49

Solution :
f(x) = sin3x +  sin2x
 f´(x) = 3 sin2x cosx + .2 sinx.cosx

1
= sin x.cos x(3 sin x + 2) = sin 2x(3 sin x + 2) ...(i)
2

1
f´´(x) = cos2x(3 sin x + 2) + sin 2x(3 cos x) ...(ii)
2
For maximum or minimum values of f (x), f´(x) = 0
 sin 2x(3 sin x + 2) = 0
Now, sin 2x = 0  2x = n, n = 0,  1,  2, ...

  
 x = 0    x  
 2 2

 2
3 sinx + 2 = 0  sin x 
3

1  2 
 x = sin      (say)
 3 

1  2 
Also for sin    to be defined,
 3 

2     2 
1  1     2 , 2 ,  3   1
3  

3 3 3 3
    ...(A)
2 2 2 2
Also since f(x) has exactly one maximum and one minimum, therefore  0 as x should have two
values.
   0 ...(B)
From (ii), f´´(0) = 2 ...(iii)
1
and f´´()= cos2 (3 sin  + 2) + sin 23 cos
2

1
= 0 2 sin  cos  3 cos 
2

1  2  2
[  = sin     sin    3  3sin   2  0 ]
 3 

  2   4 2  2
= 3 sin  cos2  =  3   1  9  = (4 2  9)
   9

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
50 QUIZRR

3
Since from (A) and (B),   0,   f´´(0) = 0 and f´´()  0
2
f (x) has exactly one maximum and one minimum, therefore
f´´(0) and f´´() must be of opposite signs i.e. f´´(0) f´´() < 0

4 2  4 2 
  (4 2  9)  0  42 9 < 0    0 
9  9 
Sign scheme for (42 9) is

 
+ve 3/2 ve 3/2 +ve

3 3
 f´´(0)f´´() < 0   ,0 ...(C)
2 2
From (A), (B) and (C) common values of  are given by

3 3 3
    ,   0 i.e.  3    3 or 0   
2 2 2 2 2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 51

CURVE SKETCHING
There are 5 steps to draw a curve, y = f(x)
Step 1 :
CHECK FOR SYMMETRY
1. Check whether function is even.
(a) Replace x by x
(b) If no change in f(x), then function is even
(c) Graph is symmetrical about y-axis.
2. Check if function is odd
(a) Replace x by x
(b) If f ( x) = f(x), then function is odd
(c) Graph is symmetric about origin
3. Replace y by y, if no change, then the graph is symmetrical about x-axis.
4. If function is periodic, draw graph only in the period, as the remaining curve is a repetition of
this one.

Step 2 :
POINTS OF INTERSECTION
(a) Find points of intersection with x-axis & y-axis.
for x axis, put y = 0
y axis, put x = 0
(b) Special care of double & triple roots
for example, if f (x) = (x a)2 g (x)
here x = a, is a double root of f (x) or you can also say repeated root of f (x) = 0
note in this case f (a) = 0, f´(a) = 0 but f´´ (a)  0 i.e. can be point of local maxima / local
minima

now take f (x) = (x a)3 g (x)

 x = a is a triple root of f (x)
here, note
f (a) = 0
f´(a) = 0
a
f´´ (a) = 0, but
f´´´(a)  0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
52 QUIZRR
 a is the point of inflection (as shown in diagram) i.e. the point where shape of the
curve changes from convex to concave & vice-versa.
 TIP : if f (x) = (x a)n g (x)
& nth derivative is the first non zero derivative then

if n is even  x = a is a point of local maxima / minima

n is odd  x = a is a point of inflection

let us take another example

y = x (x ă 1)2
we can see that x = 1 is a double root of f (x)
Step 1 : no symmetry
Step 2 : has double root at x = 1
Step 3 : put f (x) > 0
 x (x 1)2 > 0
· + +
0 1
double root so
no sign change across it.
 for x  (0, ) y > 0
x  (  0) y < 0
so approximate graph would be

0 1

from this we can also deduce that x = 1 will be point of local minima & not local
maxima. If it was local maxima then the curve will come in the negative half.
Step 3 :
SIGN OF GRAPH
(a) Put y > 0 & see where the graph is above x-axis & where it is below x-axis.
for example if f (x) = x (x 1) (x 2)
· + · +
put x (x 1) (x 2) > 0
0 1 2
(using wavy curve)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 53

So corresponding to it the graph will be above x-axis where region is +ve & below x-axis
where region is represented by ve sign.

0 1 2

Further x (x 1) (x 2) is a polynomial function, so it will be continuous & hence the

following will be the curve.

Check the domain : Find the domain (especially in cases where denominator can become
zero). Draw the curve only in its domain.

Step 4 :
ASYMPTOTE
Examples of asymptote

y=Logx

y=1
x
x=0 is a vertical
asymptote
here x = 0 is a vertical asymptote
& y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
54 QUIZRR
(a) Horizontal asymptote

Ć If lim f ( x)  c1 , where c1 is finite then y = c1 is horizontal asymptote in right half.

x

if lim f ( x)  c2 , where c is finite then y = c is horizontal asymptote in left half.

x   2 2

for example
1
y = tan x

here y = /2 is a horizontal asymptote in right half.

y= /2 is a horizontal asymptote in left half.

(b) Vertical Asymptote

If ylim g( y)  c1 , where c is finite, then x = c is a vertical asymptote.

 1 1

OR
in normal words, if for a finite value of x, y approaches ( or ) then x = c is a vertical
asymptote.
e.g.

/2

y = tanx y = Log x

x = /2, a vertical asymptote x = 0, a vertical asymptote

Take special care in case of

(a) when denominator can be zero. Put denominator = 0 to get the value of x for which vertical
asymptote will be formed.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 55

(b) Logarithmic functions

for log (f(x)) = 0, find f (x) = 1 & for those values of x it will be a vertical asymptote.

Step 5 :
Find the points of maxima, minima.
find the shape of curve, i.e. either concave or convex.

Concave Convex

No line segment lies above the graph No line segment lies below the graph

A twice differentiable function f defined on interval I is

(a) concave if and only if f´´(x)  0 for x  I
(b) convex if and only if f´´(x)  0 for x  I
inflection is the point where the shape of the curve changes from convex to concave or vice-versa.

Illustration
Trace the following curves
(a) y = ă 3x 4 + 4x 3 + 3x 2 ă 4x

2x  3
(b) y 2
x  3x  2

Solution :
(a) The function given is a polynomial which we know are continuous for all x. So there is no point
of finding the asymptotes as the function is completely continuous.
We will go step by step for a better understanding

Step 1 : Symmetry : No
There is no symmetry as the function is neither odd nor even.

Step 2 : Points of Intersection :

y intercept : Put x = 0
 y= 0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 56 QUIZRR
x intercept : Put y = 0
 3x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 4x = 0
x3(3x 4) + (3x 4)x = 0
(x x3)(3x 4) = 0
2
 x(x 1)(3x 4) = 0

4
xint. = 0, μ 1,
3

Step 3 : Sign of curve

Method 1
now since we have found the intersection points the function can be written as

 4
f(x) = x(x 1)(x + 1)  x  
 3

by wavy curve
So the curve will lie in + · + · +
1 0 1 4/3
the shaded region

Step 4 : Asymptote : Since a continuous function so no asymptotes.

Now nothing is required as we already know everything

1 0 1 4/3

The curve will be similar to this shape.

For the maxima & minima points we can find them by differentiating the function.

 2x  3 
y 2
(b)  x  3 x  2 
 

Now here there is a term in denominator and so we can talk of asymptotes in this question

Step 1 : Symmetry : No

Step 2 : Intersection points & domain

yint  put x = 0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 57

3
 yint  
2

 2x  3 
xint   2   0
 x  3x  2 

Since denominator can not be zero for a valid fraction

2x 3 = 0

3
 x
2

Step 3 : Sign of function

2x  3 2x  3
f ( x)  
2
( x  3 x  2) ( x  2)( x  1)

+ +
· ·
1 3/2 2

The curve will be in these regions

Partă2
Increasing or decreasing ?

dy
Finding for it.
dx

dy 2( x2  3 x  2)  (2 x  3)(2 x  3)
=
dx ( x2  3 x  2)2

(2 x2  6 x  4)  (4 x2  12 x  9)
=
( x2  3 x  2)2

 3
2
1
2   x    

2 x3  6 x  5 2 4
 
= 2 2 2 2
( x  3 x  2) ( x  3 x  2)

 3
2
1
2   x    
 2 4

= 2
[( x  1)( x  2)]

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
58 QUIZRR

dy
now is always less than zero as numerator and denominator are both positive
dx

2
 3 1 2 2
i.e.  x  2   4  0 & (x  1) ( x  2)  0
 

 f(x) is strictly decreasing

 This also means that there will be no maxima & minima as it is strictly decreasing.
y is decreasing in ( , 1)  (1, 2)  (2 , )

Step 4 :
Asymptotes : Since denominator could be zero there will be asymptotes for those points.
And in case denominator becoming zero there are vertical asymptotes at x = 1
& 2
We can also prove it

 2x  3 
lim  
x1  ( x  1)( x  2) 

 2x  3 
lim  
x1  ( x  1)( x  2) 

hence x = 1 is an asymptote
Similarly we can prove it for x = 2
Now we can draw the curve

(1,0) (3/2,0) (2,0)

3/2

x=1 x=2

vertical
asymptotes

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 59

Now we know that the function is a decreasing one so we will draw decreasing curve.

(1,0) (3/2,0) (2,0)

( 3/2,0)

See all these curves are decreasing functions and have been drawn in their respective regions
according to step-3.

Illustration 47
Trace the following curves

1  x2 x2  4x  3
(a) y (b) y
1  x2 x2  4x  3

Solution :

1  x2
(a) Given function is y  f ( x)  , going through our step procedure
1  x2

Step 1 : Symmetry : Yes

even function
f( x) = f(x)
 symmetrical about y-axis

Step 2 : Intersection points & domain

Since it is a fraction, so denominator should not be zero
 1 x2  0
 x  μ 1
 domain = R { 1, 1}
and also 1, 1 are asymptotes

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 60 QUIZRR
for intersection point
yint = 1
xint : no x intercept as 1 + x2 cannot be zero.

Step 3 : Sign of curve :

y>0
1  x2 x2  1
f ( x)   ()
1  x2 x2  1 + · +
critical points 1 1
: x= μ 1 y<0

increasing & decreasing y>0

dy 2 x(1  x2 )  (1  x2 (2 x)
=
dx (1  x2 )2 1 1
y<0

2 x(1  x2  1  x2 )
=
(1  x2 )2

4x
=
(1  x2 )2

dy
> 0 for x> 0   increasing in x  (0,)
dx

dy
< 0 for x < 0     decreasing in x  ( , 0)
dx

Step 4 : Asymptotes :
horizontal asymptote :

1  x2
right part : lim f ( x)  lim  1
x x 1  x2

1  x2
left part : lim f ( x)  lim  1
x x 1  x2

So y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote

Ver t ical asymp t ot e :

We have already found them in step 2.

they are x = μ 1.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 61

Now drawing the curve.

(0,1)

decreasing ( 1,0) (1,0) Increasing

function function

(0, 1)

Note : that the graph is symmetrical about y-axis.

x2  4 x  3
(b) y
x2  4 x  3

Step 1 : Symmetry : No
Step 2 : Intersection point & domain
Domain : x2 + 4x + 3  0
(x + 3) (x 1)  0
 x = 3, 1
 domain : x  R { 3, 1}
Intersection points :
yint = 1
xint  x2 4x + 3 = 0
(x 3) (x 1) = 0
 x = 1, 3

Step 3 : sign of curve :

x2  4 x  3
f ( x) 
x3  4 x  3

x2  4 x  3
0
x3  4 x  3

( x  3) ( x  1)
 0
( x  3) ( x  1)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
62 QUIZRR
by wavy curve graph will be + + +
above x-axis for x  ( , 3)  ( 1, 1)  (3, ) 3 · 1 1 · 3
below x-axis for x  ( 3, 1)  (1, 3)
increasing & decreasing

dy (2 x  4) ( x2  4 x  3)  ( x2  4 x  3) (2 x  4)
=
dx ( x2  4 x  3)2

8( x2  3)
=
( x2  4 x  3) 2

critical points x   3

+ +

 3 3

dy
 0 for x  ( , 3 )  ( 3 , ) i.e. increasing
dx

dy
0 for x  ( 3 , 3 ) i.e. decreasing
dx

 x  3 is minima &

x  3 is maxima

but we know that x = 3 & x = 1 are not in domain so

f(x) is increasing for x  ( , 3)  ( 3, 3 )  ( 3 , ) i.e. increasing

decreasing for x  ( 3 , 1)  ( 1, 3)

Step 4 : Asymptotes
horizontal asymptotes :

x2  4 x  3
lim f ( x)  lim 1
x x x2  4 x  3

lim f ( x)  1
x

 y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 63

Vertical asymptotes :
This we have already covered
i.e. x = 3 and x = 1
Now let us draw the curve

(0,1) y=1

3 (1,0)
(3,0)
( 3,4 3 7)

X= 3 X= 1

Illustration 48

Trace the following curve y  log x

x

Solution :

log x
Given function y  f ( x) 
x

Step 1 : No symmetry
Step 2 : log x > 0 & x  0
 domain : x  (0, )

intersection points :
no intersection point on y-axis
xint = 1

Stet 3 : Sign :

log x
0 as x is always positive {a to domain}
x

log x > 0
+
  x > 1 · x=1

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
64 QUIZRR
increasing & decreasing

1
dy   x  log x 1  log x
=  x =
dx x2
x2

dy 1  log x
putting 0  0
dx x2
 1 log x > 0
 1 > log x
 log e > log x

 e
 log    0
 x

e
 1
x

 x<e
 function is increasing for (0, e)
& decreasing for (e, )

Step 4 : Asymptote :
horizontal asymptote

log x
lim 0
x x

 y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote

Vertical asymptote
only x = 0 , though this is not in domain

So drawing the curve Y

decreasing

X
(1,0) (e,0)

increasing

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 65

SOME MORE PROBLEMS

Illustration 1

x
If f ( x )  ( p   2  2) x 
 0
(cos 4 t  sin 2 t  2)d t is decreasing function of x for all x  R and

  R where  being independent of x, then find the range of p.

Solution :
f´(x) = p 2 2 (cos4x + sin2x 2)
2 4 2
=  + p (cos x + sin x)
=  2 + p [(cos2x)2 + 1 cos2x]

= 2  p   (cos2 x)2  1    cos2 x

1 1
 4 4 

2 2
3  1
= 2  p   cos2 x  1   1  1 = 2  p   cos2 x  

 2  4 4  2

3 
2
Clearly, f ´( x)  2  p   1
 min.value of  cos2 x    0 
4  2 
 

For f(x) to be decreasing for all real x,

 f ´( x)  0

3
 2  p  0
4

 42  4 p  3  0   R

 D  0  16 p2  48  0   3  p  3

Illustration 2

 
Let f (x) = sin3 x + K sin2x,  x  . In order that f (x) has exactly one minimum find the
2 2
value K should belong to ?
Solution :
f´(x) = 3sin2x . cosx + 2K sinx cosx
= sinx . cosx (3sin x + 2K) = 0

2K
sin x  0 or cos x  0 or sin x 
3
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 66 QUIZRR

 2K    
x  0, sin 1   in   , 
 3   2 2

2K 3 3
 1  1  K
3 2 2
But K = 0, when sinx = 0
which gives only one critical point

 3 3
K    ,  ~ {0} .
 2 2

Illustration 3
Let f (x) = x 3 + 6x 2 + a x + 2. If the largest possible interval in which f (x) is a decreasing
function is (ă 3, ă 1), then find the value of a
Solution :
f´(x) = 3x2 + 12x + a
Since, coefficient of x2 is positive, therefore f´(x) can be negative only when the roots  and 
( < ) of equation f´(x) = 0 are real and equal.
In this case the largest interval in which f(x) is a decreasing function will be (, ), but according
to question largest such interval is ( 3, 1).
  = 3,  = 1,  = 3

a
   3
3
  = 9.

Illustration 4

 2 g(x) 
Let f ( x )  sin 1 
 1  ( g ( x ))2 
, then which are correct ?
 
(i) f(x) is decreasing if g (x) is increasing and |g(x)| > 1
(ii) f(x) is an increasing function if g (x) is increasing and |g(x)|< 1
(iii) f(x) is a decreasing function if g (x) is decreasing and |g(x)| > 1
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i), (ii) and (iii) (d) (iii)
Solution :
If |g(x)| < 1, f(x) = sin 1(sin2), where g(x) = tan
f(x) = 2,  = tan 1(g(x))
= 2tan 1(g(x))

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 67

when |g(x)|> 1,
1
f (x) = sin 1(sin2), tan  
g ( x)
f (x) = 2 = 2cot 1(g(x)), g(x) > 1
2
Thus, f´ (x) = g´( x),| g( x)|  1
1  g2 ( x)

2
= g´( x),| g( x)|  1
1  g2 ( x)

So option (a) is correct

Illustration 5
Discuss the monotonicity of the function g defined by g (x) = f (x 2 ă x ă 10) +
f (14 + x ă x 2), f ´´(x) > 0 for all real numbers x except finite number of real numbers x, for
which f ´´(x) = 0
Solution :
f ´´(x) > 0 f´(x) is an increasing function of x. (f ´´(x) = 0 at finitely many values of x does not
affect the increasing ness of f ´(x)
Now g´(x) = (2x 1) f ´(x2 x 10) f´(14 + x x2)
If g(x) increases then g´(x) > 0.
 (2x 1) and [f´(x2 x 10) f´(14 + x x2)] are of same sign.
Case I
2x 1 > 0 and f´ (x2 x 10) f´(14 + x x2) > 0

1
 x and x2 x 10 > 14 + x x2, as f´ is increasing
2

1
 x and x2 x 12 > 0  x > 4
2
Case II
2x 1 < 0 and f´(x2 x 10) f´(14 + x x2) < 0
1
 x and 3 < x < 4
2
1
 3  x 
2

Hence, g(x) increases for x   3,   [4, )

1
 2

1 
Similarly, g(x) decreases for x (,  3]   , 4 
2 

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 68 QUIZRR

Illustration 6

The function f ( x )  a x 3  bx 2  cx  d has its non-zero local minimum and maximum values
at ă 2 and 2 respectively. If a is a root of x 2 ă x ă 6 = 0. Find the possible values of a , b, c
and d.
Solution :
Since minimum occurs before maximum, so a < 0. Also ÂaÊ is a root of x2 x 6 = 0  a = 2
3 2 3 2
Let g(x) = ax + bx + cx + d = 2x + bx + cx + d
2
 g(x) = 6x + 2bx + c
root of g´(x) = 0 are 2 and 2    b = 0, c = 24
Since minimum value is non-zero g( 2) > 0
 d > 32 so a = 2, b = 0, c = 24, d > 32.

Illustration 7
Suppose that f and g are non-constant differentiable, real valued functions on R. If for
every x, y  R,
f(x + y) = f(x)f(y) ă g(x)g(y),
g (x + y) = g(x)f(y) + f(x)g(y) and f´(0) = 0,
then prove that maximum and minimum value of the function f 2(x) + g 2(x) are same for all
x  R.
Solution :
We have f(x + y) = f(x)f(y) g(x)g(y)
Differentiate both sides w.r.t. x keeping y constant, we get
f´(x + y) = f´(x)(y) g´(x)g(y)
Putting x = 0, we get
f´(y) = g´(0) g(y) ... (1) (as f´(0) = 0)
We also have g(x + y) = g(x) f(y) + f(x) g(y)
Differentiate both sides w.r.t. ÂxÊ keeping ÂyÊ constant, and put x = 0, we get
g´(y) = g´(0) f(y) ... (2) (as f´(0) = 0)
we have
f´(y) = g´(0) g(y) & g´(y) = g´(0) f(y)

 g( y)
 f ´( y)  g ( y)  f ( y) f ´( y)   g´( y) g( y)
f ( y)

we get f(y)f´(y) + g(y)g´(y) = 0

d
 ( f 2 ( y)  g 2 ( y)  0
dy

 f 2(y) + g2(y) =  (const)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 69

Now putting x = y = 0 in both the given functional equations we get;

f(0) = f2(0) g2(0), g(0) = 2f(0)g(0)

 g(0) = 1 or f(0) = 1
2

1
But if f (0)  , first equation gives g 2 (0)  1 ,
2 4
whit is not possible.
Hence g(0) = 0 and f(0) = 1   = 1
Hence, f2(x) + g2(x) = 1, x  R.
 Maximum and minimum values of f2(x) + g2(x) are same for all x  R.

Illustration 8

 x  y  2 f ( x )  2 f ( y)  4
Real valued function f (x) satisfies the relation f    x , y  R. If f´(0)
 3  6
= 2, prove that f (x) is an increasing function for all x.
Solution :
For x = 0, y = 0, the given equation gives

4 f (0)  4
f (0)   f (0)  2
6
Now,

 3 x  3h 
f ( x  h)  f ( x)
f   f ( x)
 lim  
3
f ´( x)  lim
h 0 h h  0 h

2 f (3 x)  2 f (3 h)  4
 f ( x)
= lim 6
h 0 h

2 f (3 x)  2 f (3 h)  4  6 f ( x)
= lim
h 0 6h
For y = 0, the given relation yields

 x  2 f ( x)  2 f (0)  4
f 
3 6

2 f (3 x)  4  4 f (3 x)  4
 f ( x)  
6 3

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 70 QUIZRR
[Replacing x/3 by x]
 f(3x) = 3f(x) + 4

6 f ( x)  8  2 f (3 h)  4  6 f ( x)
Hence, f ´( x)  lim
h 0 6h

f (3 h)  2 f (3h)  f (0)
= lim  lim
h 0 3h h0 3h
 f(x) = 2x + c at x = 0, c = 2
 f(x) = 2x 2
 f´(x) = 2 > 0     Always increasing

Illustration 9
For what value of Âa Ê the point of local minima of f (x) = x 3 ă 3a x2 + 3(a 2 ă 1)x + 1 is less than
4 and point of local maxima is greater than ă 2 ?
Solution :
f´(x) = 3(x2 2ax + a2 1)
Clearly roots of the equation f´(x) = 0 must be distinct and lie in the interval ( 2, 4)
 > 0  a  R ...(1)
2
 f´( 2) > 2     a + 4a + 3 > 0
 a < 3 or a > 1 ...(2)
2
f´(4) > 0    a 8a + 15 > 0
 a > 5 or a < 3 ...(3)

B
and 2   4  2  a  4
2A
From (1), (2), (3) and (4) 1 < a < 3.

Illustration 1 0

1
Let f(x)   (2 2  4 x  2 x 2 ), where ÂÊ is a read parameter. Now let x 1, x 2 be the roots of f(x)
2

x2
where x 1 < x 2. If F() =  f ( x )dx find the minimum and the maximum value of F() and the
x1

corresponding .
Solution :
Consider g(x) = x2 + 2x
Clearly 2 will be a negative number. If  increases then 2 will decrease or graph of g(x) will
come down by the quantity 2. Also F() is algebraic area bounded by x-axis and the curve and

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 71

will be negative. So if we have increasing , F() will decrease, Hence maximum value of F() will
be corresponding to  = 0 and this value is equal to

0
0 x3 4
F() max   ( x  2 x) dx 
2
 x2 
2 3 3
2

4
 F() max   for  = 0 and clearly F() min does not exist.
3

Illustration 1 1

a 5 a
Let f(x) = 2x 3 ă 15x 2 + 24x, and g ( x )   f ( x )d x   f ( x )dx , 0  a  5 . Find the interval in which
0 0

g(x) is increasing.
Solution :
f´(x) = 6x2 30x + 24 = 6(x 4)(x 1)
Graph of f(x) will be as shown in fig.
g(a) = f(a) f(5 a)
if a < 5 a f(x)

5
 a , then from the graph f(a) > f(5 a) x
2 1 5/2 4 5
so g´(0) > 0
5
and if a  , then f(5 a) > f(a) so g´(a) < 0.
2

 5
Hence g(x) is increasing in  0, 
 2

Illustration 1 2
A point P(x, y) moves on the curve x 2/3 + y2/3 = a 2/3, a > 0. For each position (x, y) of P,
perpendiculars are drawn from origin upon the tangent and normal at P, the length (absolute
dp1 d p2
value) of them being p 1(x) and p 2(x) respectively. Prove that .  0.
dx dx
Solution :
Any point P(x, y) on the curve can be represented by using parameter , as (acos3, asin3)

dy
dy d 3a sin2  cos 
   tan 
dx dx 3 a cos2  sin 
d

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
72 QUIZRR
 equation of the tangent at P is
y asin3 = tan(x acos3)
xtan + y = asin3 + acos3 tan

a sin 3   a cos3  tan  1

p1   a sin 2
sec  2

Also, equation of the normal at P is

y asin3 = cot (x acos3)
or xcot y = acos3cot asin3

a cos3 .cot   a sin 3 

p1   a cos 2
cosec

 4 p12  p22  a 2 = constant point P(x, y)

 If p1 increases, p2 decreases and commonly

dp1 dp2
 and are of opposite signs.
dx dx

dp1 dp2
. 0
dx dx

Illustration 1 3
Prove that (a + b)n  a n + b n , a > 0, b > 0 and 0  n 1.
Solution :
We went to prove that (a + b)n  an + bn i.e.
n n
a  a
 b  1   b   1
   
i.e. (x + 1)n  1 + xn where x = a/b and x > 0,
Since a and b both are positive.
To prove above inequality, consider
f(x) = (x + 1)n xn 1
Differentiate to get,
f´(x) = n (x + 1)n 1 nxn 1

 1 1 
= n
1 n
 1 n  ...(1)
 ( x  1) x 
Consider x+ 1> x

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 73
n n
 (x + 1)1 > x1 ( 1 n > 0)

1 1
 1 n
 1 n ...(2)
( x  1) x

Combining (1) and (2), we can say

f´(x) < 0
 f(x) is a decreasing function  x  0
Consider x  0
f(x)  f (0)  f(x) is a decreasing function.
 f(x)  0
 (x + 1)n xn 1  0
n n
 (x + 1)  x + 1. Hence proved.

Illustration 1 4

x
Let g ( x )  2 f    f (2  x ) and f´´(x) < 0  x  (0, 2) . Find the intervals of increase and
 2
decrease of g(x).
Solution :

 x
We have g( x)  2 f    f (2  x)
2

 x
 g´( x)  f ´    f ´ (2  x) ...(1)
2
We are given that, f´´(x) < 0
It means that f´(x) would be decreasing in (0, 2).

x 3x 4
Let 2x  2  x
2 2 3

x 4 x 4
  2  x if 0 < x < and  2  x if x2
2 3 2 3

 x  4  x 4 
 f ´   f ´ (2  x), x   0,  and f ´   f ´ (2  x), x   , 2 
 
2  3   
2 3 

 4 4 
 g´(x) > 0, x   0,  and g´ (x) < 0, x   , 2 
 3 3 

 4 4 
 g(x) is increasing in  0,  and decreasing in  , 2 
 3 3 

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
74 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 5

2 b
If a x   c for all positive x, where a > 0 and b > 0, show that 27a b 2  4c 3 [IITă 82]
x
Solution :

2 b
Let f ( x)  ax  c ...(1)
x
Given, f (x)  0 for all x > 0,
 Least value of f (x) in (0, )  0 ...(2)

b 2ax3  b
Now, f ´( x)  2ax   ...(3)
x2 x2
Since x2 > 0, therefore sign scheme for f´(x) will be same as that of (2ax3 b)

1
3  b 3
Now 2ax b = 0  x  0
 2a 

Sign scheme for f´ (x) i.e. for (2ax3 b) is

f (x) is dec. min. f (x) is inc.


1
ve b 3 +ve
2a
1
 b 3
f´(x) has least value at x   
 2a 

 1 2
  b 3   b 3 b
From (2), f    0a   c0
  2a    2a  1
   b 3
 2a 
 

2 1
 b 3 b b  b 3
 a    c  a.  b c 
 2a  1 2a  2a 
 b 3
 
 2a 

1
3b  b 3 27b3 b
  c.     c3 .  27ab2  4 c3
2  2 a  8 2 a

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 75

Illustration 1 6

 3 b3  b2  b  1
 x  , 0 x 1
Let f ( x )   b 2  3b  2 [IITă93]

2x  3 1 x  3

Find all possible values of b such that f (x) has smallest value at x = 1
Solution :

b3  b2  b  1
Given, f(x)=  x3  ,0 x1
b2  3b  2

= 2x 3 1  x< 3
2
 f´(x) = 3x , 0  x< 1
= 2, 1< x< 3
Here f´(1 0) = 3.12 = 3 and f´ (1 + 0) = 2
Therefore f (x) is not differentiable at x = 1
Sign scheme for f´(x) is

f (x) is dec. f (x) is inc.

0 ve 1 +ve 3

Since f (x) has smallest value at x = 1

Lt f ( x)  f (1)
 x10

 3 b3  b2  b  1 
 Lt   x   1
x  1 0
 b2  3b  2 

 b3  b2  b  1  (b  1)(b2  1)
  1    0   0 ...(i)
 b2  3b  2  (b  1)(b  2)

(b  1)(b2  1)
Sign scheme for is
(b  1)(b  2)

 
ve 2 +ve 1 ve 1 +ve

(b  1)(b2  1)
  0  2 < b < 1 or 1  b < .
(b  1)(b  2)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
76 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 7
A swimmer S is in the sea at a distance d km from the closest point A on a straight shore.
The house of the swimmer is on the shore at a distance L km from A. He can swim at a speed
U km/hour and walk at a speed V km/hour (V > U). At what point on the shore should he
and, so that he reaches his house in the shortest possible time. [IIT ă 83]
Solution :
Let H be the house of the swimmer
L
Let the swimmer land at B. A B H
Let AB = x, then since AH = L x L x
 BH = L x
d 2 2
Let t1 be the time taken to go from S to B and t2 be the time taken d +x
to go from B to H
Let T be the total time taken by swimmer to reach his house H.
S
2 2
d x
Now t1 
U
Lx
and t2 =
V

d 2  x2 Lx
 T = t1  t2   ...(i)
U V

dT x 1

 = 2 2 V ...(ii)
dx U d x

Vx  U d 2  x2
= ...(iii)
UV d 2  x2

dT
UV d 2  x2  0, therefore sign scheme for will be same as that of Vx  U d 2  x2
dx

Now Vx  U d 2  x2  0  V2x2 = U2(d 2 + x2)

Ud
x
 [ x > 0]
V  U2
2

Sign scheme for

dT
dx
i.e. for  Vx  U d 2  x2  is
T is dec. min. inc.
O ve Ud +ve L
2 2
V U
Ud
 T is minimum when x 
V 2  U2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 77

Second Method :
dT
For maximum or minimum values of T, 0
dx
x 1 x2 1
 0  2
 V or
U d 2  x2 2 2 2
U (d  x ) V

2 U2 d 2
or, V x = U d + U x or, x 
2 2 2 2 2 2
V 2  U2

Ud
x
 [ V > U]
V  U2
2

x
d 2  x2 .1  x.
2
d 2  x2
From (ii), d T  1 .
dx2 U d 2  x2

1 d2 Ud
= . 3
 0, when x 
U V  U2
2
(d 2  x2 ) 2

Ud
x
 T is minimum when
V 2  U2

Illustration 1 8
A lane runs at right angles to a road Âa Ê feet wide. Find how many feet wide the lane must
be if it is just possible to carry a pole b feet long (b > a ) from the road into the lane, keeping
it horizontal.
Solution :
Let y be the width of the lane
Let BCL = 
given, AB = b, BL = a D B
Now b = BC + AC
a Road
= a cosec  + y sec  
b  a cosec  C L
 y =
sec   y
A M
= b cos  a cot  ...(i) Lane
dy
 = b sin  + a cosec2 
d

a  b sin3 
= ...(ii)
sin2 

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
78 QUIZRR

dy
Since sin2 > 0, therefore sign scheme for will be same as that of a b sin3.
d

1
 a 3
Now a b sin3 = 0  sin    
b

1
1  a 3
   sin     (say)
 b

1
 a 3
Here 0     and sin    
2 b

dy
Sign scheme for i.e. for (a b sin3) is
d

y is inc. max. y is dec.

O O
+ve a ve 
2

y has maximum value at  = 

The maximum (here greatest) value of
y = b cos  a cot 

b 2/ 3
a 2/3
b 2/ 3
a 2/ 3 b1/3 a3
= b. a a1/3 sin   1
1/ 3 1/ 3
b a b3

2/ 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/
= b 3 b 3 a 3 a 3 b 3 a 3

3/
2
2/ 2/  2 /3 2/   2/ 2/ 
= b 3 a 3
b  a 3   b 3  a 3   k (say)
   

3/
2
 2/ 2/ 
Thus required width of the lane =  b 3  a 3  feet. k is the maximum width of the lane for
 
just taking the pole from the road to the lane keeping it horizontal and also k is the minimum
width of the lane for taking the pole from road to the lane.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 79
Note : This is the maximum value of y (maximum width of the lane) when the pole can be taken
3
 2 2 2

from the road to the lane touching at A and B and if y  b  a  , then the pole can be taken
 3 3
 
 
3
 2 2 2

from the road to the lane without touching at A and B and if y   b 3  a3 

it cannot be taken
 
 
from the road to the lane.
Thus maximum width of the lane so that the pole can be taken just touching at A and B is
3 3
 2 2 2  2 2 2
 b3  a 3  and if width is more than  b3  a 3  pole can be easily taken (without touching at
   
   
A and B) from the road to the lane and if width is less than this, pole cannot be taken from road
to the lane.

Illustration 1 9

x2 y2
Find the co-ordinates of all the points P on the ellipse   1, for which the area of
a2 b2
the triangle PON is maximum, where O denotes the origin and N, the foot of the perpendicular
from O to the tangent at P. [IIT 99]
Solution :

x2 y2
Given ellipse is  1 ...(1)
a2 b2
Let P (a cos, b sin ) be a point on the ellipse in the first quadrant.

Then 0    
2 Y
N P(co, bsin)
Eqn. of tangent at P is

x cos  y sin 
 1  0
90

a b O
L X
or b cos x + asiny ab = 0 ...(2)
Eqn. of normal at P is
ax sec  + bycosec (a2 b2) = 0 ...(3)

ab ab
 ON =  2 2 2 2
 ...(4)
b cos   a sin  b cos   a2 sin2 
2 2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
80 QUIZRR

 (a 2  b2 ) (a 2  b2 ) sin  cos 
OL =  ...(5)
a2 sec 2   b2 cosec 2  a2 sin 2   b2 cos2 

Let A be the area of ONP, then

1 1 1 ab(a 2  b2 )sin  cos 

A = 2 ON.NP = ON.OL =
2 2 (b2 cos2   a 2 sin2 )

ab ( a2  b2 ) ab (a 2  b2 )
= 2 (b2 cot   a 2 tan ) 
2[(b cot   a tan ) 2  2ab]

A will be max. when (b cot   a tan )2  0

b
or tan  
a a2+b2
b
 a2 b2  
Hence P ,  a
 a 2  b2 a2  b2 


By symmetry, there will be one point in each of the second, third and fourth quadrants and they
are

   
a2 b2 a2 b2
=  , ,  , 
 a2  b2 a2  b2   a2  b2 a 2  b2 
 

 a2 
 b2
 , 
and  2 2 2 2 
 a  b a b 

 a2 b2 
 
Thus required points are   ,
 a2  b2 a2  b2 

Illustration 20
If a , b, c be non-zero real numbers such that [IITă81]
1 2

 (1  cos  (1  cos
8 2 8
x ) (a x  bx  c )dx  x ) (a x 2  bx  c )d x  0
0 0
2
then equation a x + bx + c = 0 will have one root between 0 and 1 and other root between
1 and 2.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 81

Solution :

 (1  cos
8
Let x) ( ax2  bx  c) dx  F( x)

 F(x) = (1 + cos8x) (ax2 + bx + c) ...(1)

 From given conditions
F(1) F(0) = 0  F(1) = F(0) and
F(2) F(0) = 0  F(2) = F(0)
 F(0) = F(1) = F(2)
Now by RolleÊs theorem for f(x) in [0, 1]
f´() = 0, for at least one , 0 <  < 1 and by RolleÊs theorem for f (x) in [1, 2]
f´() = 0, for at least one , 1 <  < 2
From (1), f´(), = 0  (1 + cos8) (a2 + b + c) = 0
but 1 + cos8  0  a2 + b + c = 0
i.e.  is a root of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
Similarly f´() = 0  a2 + b + c = 0
i.e.  is a root of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
But equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, being a quadratic equation cannot have more than two roots.
 equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has one root  between 0 and 1 and other root  between 1 and 2.

Illustration 21
If f(x) and g (x) are differentiable functions for 0  x  1 such that f (0) = 2, g (0) = 0, f (1) =
6, g (1) = 2, then show that there exists Âc Ê satisfying 0 < c < 1 and f´(c ) = 2g´(c ) [IIT ă 82]
Solution :
Let F(x) = Ag (x) + f(x) ...(1)
Since f (x) and g (x) are differentiable in [0, 1]
Therefore, f (x) and g (x) are also continuous in [0, 1] since differentiable functions are continuous.
Hence f (x) and g (x) are continuous in [0, 1] and f (x) and g (x) are differentiable in [0, 1] and
hence differentiable also in (0, 1).
Thus F (x) is a continuous function in the closed interval [0, 1] and differentiable in the open
interval (0, 1)
From (1), F´(x) = Ag´(x) + f´(x) ...(2)
 F´(c) = Ag´(c) + f´(c)
We choose A such that F(0) = F(1)
 Af(0) + g(0) = Af(1) + g(1)

g (1)  g(0)
 A  ...(3)
f (1)  f (0)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
82 QUIZRR
F(x) satisfies all conditions of mean value theorem in [0, 1], therefore there exists at least one c,
0 < c < 1 such that F´(c) = 0
 Af´(c) + g´(c) = 0

g´( c) g (1)  g (0) 2  0 1

 A  
f ´( c) f (1)  f (0) 6  2 2

 f´(c) = 2g´(c).
 by LagrangeÊs mean value theorem for f´(x) in [c, x],

f ´( x)  f ´( c)
 f ´´() for at least one , c <  < x
xc

or, f´(x) = (x c) f´´() [ f´(c) = 0]

or, |f´(x)| = |x c| |f´´()| ...(3)
But x  [0, 1], c  (0, 1)  |x c| < 1 0 or |x c| < 1
Given |f´´(x)| < 1 for all x in [0, 1]  |f´´()|  1
 From (3), |f´(x)| < 1.1
or |f´(x)| < 1 for all x < c in [0, 1] ...(4)

Case III : When x > c

max.
O O
0 c a x 1

By lagrangeÊs man value theorem for f´(x) in interval [c, x], there exists c <  < x such that

f ´(c)  f ´( x)
 f ´´()  | f´(x)| = |c x| |f´´()|
cx

 |f´(x)| < 1.1 or |f´(x)| < 1

Thus from (2), (3) and (4), |f´(x)| < 1 for all x in [0, 1].

Illustration 22
Show that the semivertical angle of a cone of maximum volume and of given slant height
is tan 1 2
Solution :
Let  be the semivertical angle and k be the slant height of a cone.
A
Then AB = k, BD = k sin  and
AD = k cos  
Let y be the volume of the cone, then k
1 
y BD2 . AD = . k2 sin 2  . kcos 
3 3 B C
D

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 83

 3
or, y k .sin 2  cos  ...(i)
3

dy  3
  k [2 sin  cos  .cos   sin 2  ( sin )]
d 3

k3
= sin  (2 cos2   sin 2 ) ...(ii)
3

 dy
Here 0     sin  > 0, therefore sign scheme for will be same as that of 2 cos2  sin2 .
2 d


2 cos2 sin2 = 0  tan   2 [ 0    ]
2

   tan  1 2   (say)

dy
Sign scheme for i.e. for (2 cos2 sin2) is
d

y is inc. max. y is dec.

O O
0 +ve  ve 
2

Put   tan   2
4

Thus y has maximum value at     tan 1 2

Illustration 23
Show that the semivertical angle of a right circular cone of given surface area and maximum
1
volume is sin 1 .
3
Solution :
Let BD = r, AD = h, AB = l
BAD =  A
Given, r2 + rl = cos tan t = k (say)

k  r 2 l
 l ...(i) h
r
Let y be the volume of the cone, then B C
r D
1 2 1
y r h  r 2 l2  r 2
3 3

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
84 QUIZRR
2
Let z = y , then

1 2 4 2
z =  r (l  r 2 )
9

 2 
1 2 4   k  r 2  2
 r    r
= 9  r   [from (i)]
 

2 r 4 
  
2
=  k  r 2  2 r 4 
2 2
9  r  

=
9

1 2 2
k r  2 kr 2  ...(ii)

=
9

1 2 2
k r  2 kr 4 

dz
dr
=
1 2
9

k 2r  8 kr 3 
2
= kr ( k  4 r 2 ) ...(iii)
9

2
Clearly kr  0
9

dz
Sign scheme for i.e. for (k 4r2) is
dr

z is inc. max. z is dec.

O O
0 +ve k ve
4

k
 z is maximum and hence y is is maximum when r 
4

k
k
From (i), l  4  3k . 2  3 k
k 4 k 2 

4

r 1 k 2  1
Now sin    .     sin 1 1
l 2  3 k 3 3

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 85

Illustration 24
Prove that the right circular cone of maximum volume which can be inscribed in a sphere
4
of radius r has its altitude equal to r
3
Solution :
Let OAB =  then BOD = 2 A
From OBD, OD = r cos2
 r
and BD = r sin2
 AD = AO + OD = r + r cos2 O

r2
= r (1 + cos2 ) = 2rcos2  C
B D
Let y be the volume of the cone, then

1
y=  BD2 . AD
3

1 2
= r sin 2 2.2r cos2 
3

2 3 8 3
r  2sin  cos   .cos2  =
2
= r sin 2  cos 4 
3 3

dy 8 3  2
 = r sin  .4 cos3    sin    2sin .cos .cos4  
d 3  


= 16 r 3 sin  cos3  ...(2)
3
 ve

cos2   2sin 2  , 0    

2

1 1
cos2 2 sin2 = 0  tan      tan 1   (say)
2 2

dy
Sign scheme for i.e. for (cos2 2 sin2) is
d

y is inc. max. y is dec.

0 +ve  ve 
2
1
Thus y is maximum when  = , where tan  
2

2r 2r 4
In this case altitude AD = 2r cos2 =   r
2
sec  1 3
1
2

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 86 QUIZRR

Illustration 25
Show that the height of the circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in
h
a gi v en r i gh t ci r cu l ar con e of h ei gh t h is .
3
Solution :
Let AL = x, MC = r
A
Given, AM = h  LM = h x
From similar ALQ and AMC
P L Q
AL LQ x LQ rx
    LQ 
AM MC h r h
Let y be the volume of the cylinder, inscribed in the cone, then
S R
2 2 B M C
r x
y =  . LQ . LM = 
2 (h  x) ...(i)
h2

dy r 2 
  2 x( h  x)  x2   1  
dx h2  

r 2
x(2 h  3 x)
= ...(ii)
h2
For maximum or minimum value of y,
dy 2h
 0  x (2h 3x) = 0  x  [ x > 0]
dx 3

d2 y r 2
From (ii), =  2h  6 x ...(iii)
dx2 h2

2 h d 2 y r 2
At x= ,  2 (2h)  0
3 dx2 h
2
Hence y in maximum when x  h
3
2 h
In this case height of the cylinder = h  x  h  h
3 3

Illustration 26
If the function f (x) = x 3 ă 9x 2 + 24x + c has three real root and distinct roots ,  and  then
the value of [] + [] + [] is :
Solution :
Take y = x3 9x2 + 24x = (x2 9x + 24) ve +ve
2 2
y = x (x 9x + 24) = x {(x 3) + 15} 0

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
 QUIZRR 87

dy
 = 3x2 18x + 24 = 3 (x2 6x + 8)
dx
= 3 (x 2) (x 4)

+ +
2 4

for three real roots of

f(x) = x3 9x2 + 24x + c, c must lie in the interval ( 20, 16)
Now if c  ( 20, 18)
  (1, 2),   (2, 3)
  (4, 5)

(2,20) y=x3 9x+2

20

18 (3,18)

16 (1,16) (4,16)
X
1 2 3 4

 [] + [] + [] = 7

If c  ( 18, 16)    (1, 2,),   (3, 4),   (4, 5)
 [] + [] + [] = 8

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
DIFFERENTATION
 QUIZRR 3

DIFFERENTIATION

The process of finding derivatives is called differentiation. So what is derivative ?

Loosely speaking derivative is a measure of how a function changes as its input changes.
The derivative of a function /differentiation is also called the differential coefficeint (d.c) of f(x).

change in y
Derivative  lim
h0 change in x

i.e. the rate of change of y with respect to the change in value of x.

Some notations of derivatives are

dy d
f , f ( x),. , f ( x)
dx dx

The derivative of the function f with respect to the variable x is the function f  whose value of
x is

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ( x )  lim provided that limit exists.
h 0 h

Differ en t ia b ilit y

Before going to find the derivatives of some functions we need to check whether they are
differentiable or not.

For this we need to prove that R.H.L.(Right Hand Limit) & L.H.L. (Left Hand Limit) exists are
and equal.

To find R.H.K. & L.H.L. at a point x  a .

R.H.L.

f (a  h)  f (a) f (a  h)  f (a)
lim = lim
h0 ( a  h)  h h 0 h

L.H.L.

f (a  h)  f (a) f (a  h)  f ( a)
lim = lim
h0 ( a  h)  a h 0 h

for a function to be differentiable at x = a.

R.H.L. = L.H.L. = k (a finite number)

DIFFERENTIATION
 4 QUIZRR

Illustration 1
x 1
If f ( x)  2 when x  1
2x  7x  5

1
 , when x = 1
3

Then find f ´(1) [IITă79]

Solution :
From defintion
f (1  h)  f (1)
f (1)  lim ...(1)
h 0 h

1
Given f (1)  
3

x1
 f ( x)  2
, when x  1
2x  7x  5

1 h 1
 f (1  h) 
2(1  h)2  7(1  h)  5

h h h 1
 2   
2(1  2 h  h )  7  7 h  5 2
2 h  3h h(2h  3) 2h  3

 from (i),

1 1
 2h 2 2
3  2h  3  lim
f (1)  lim 2h  3 3  lim h0 3 h(2h  3)
 lim
h0 3(2h  3)
 .
9
h0 h h0 3(2h  3)h

Illustration 2

1
f ( x )  x 2 sin when x  0
x
= 0, when x = 0. then find the d.c. of f(x) at x = 0.
Solution :
By defintion d.c. of (x) at x = 0, i.e.

f (0  h)  f (0) f (h)  f (0)

f (0)  lim  lim
h 0 h h  0 h

1
h2 sin 0  1 
 lim h sin  0  1  sin h  1
h 1
 lim
h 0 h h0 h

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 5

Illustration 3
Is |x| differetiable at x = 0 ?
Solution :

Let f ( x)  x (i)

 f (0)  0  0

Now d.c. of f ( x) at x = 0

f (0  h)  f (0) f ( h)  f (0)
 lim  lim
h 0 h h0 h

f (0  h)  f (0)
L.H.L  lt
h 0 h

f ( h)  f (0)
 lt
h 0 h

h
 lt (as h  0) = ă1
h 0 h

f (0  h)  f (0)
R.H.L.  lt
h 0 h

f (h)  f (0)
 lt
h 0 h

h
 lt 1
h 0 h

R.H.L  L.H.L
Hence |x| is not differentiable at x = 0

Illustration 4
Show that the function f(x) = |x2 ă 4| is not differentiab x = 2.
Solution :

 x2  4 : x  2

f ( x)  4  x2 : 2  x  2
 2
 x  4 : x2

 f (2)  22  4  0

DIFFERENTIATION
 6 QUIZRR

f (2  h)  f (2)
Lf (2)  lim
h 0 h

4  (2  h) 2  0 4 h  h2
 lim  lim  lim ( h  4)  4
h 0 h h 0 h h0

f (2  h)  f (2)
Rf (2)  lim
h0 h

(2  h)2  4  h2  4 h
 lim    lim  lim (h  4)  4
h 0 h h 0 h h0

 Lf (2)  Rf (2) .
Hence f(x) is not differentiable at x = 2.

Illustration 5
Show that the function

f ( x )  ( x 2  1) x 2  3 x  2  cos  x  is not differentiable at x = 2.

Solution :

Here cos  x   cos   x  cos x

f ( x)  ( x2  1)( x2  3 x  2)  cos x , 1 x2

 ( x2  1)( x2  3 x  2)  cos x, x  1 or x  2

Clearly, f (1)  cos1, lim f ( x)  cos1

x1

f(2) = cos 2, lim f ( x)  cos 2

x 2

Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 1,2

Now f ( x)  2 x( x2  3 x  2)  ( x2  1)(2 x  3)  sin x , 1 x2

 2 x( x2  3 x  2)  ( x2  1)(2 x  3)  sin x , x  1 or x  2

f (1  0)   sin1, f (1  0)   sin1

f (2  0)  3  sin 2

f (2  0)  3  sin 2
Hence f(x) is not differentiable at x = 2.

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 6
If [x] denotes the integral part of x and in (0, ), we define

 2(sin x  sin n x )  sin x  sin n x 

f ( x)   , x  
 n n  2
 2(sin x  sin x )  sin x  sin x 


= 3, x  .
2


Then for n > 1, show that f(x) is continuous and differentiable at x  .
2
Solution :

 
For 0 x or  x ,
2 2

0  sin x  1

 for n  1, sin x  sin n x

 3(sin x  sin n x)  
 f ( x)   n   3, x 
 sin x  sin x  2


3, x
2
Thus, in (0,  ), f ( x)  3 .


Hence f(x) is continuous and differentiable at x  .
2

Illustration 7

If f(x) = 2 ă x, when x < 2

= x ă 2, when x > 2
then is f(x) differentiable at x = 2 ?
Solution :
[Here we have to find the d.c. of f(x) at x = 2 and f(x) is different when x  2 and when x  2 ,
therefore we will have to find L.H. derivative and R.H. derivative separately.]
Given, f (2)  2  2  0
L.H. Derivative : In this case h < 0;
 2h  2

 f (2  h)  2  (2  h)   h
DIFFERENTIATION
 8 QUIZRR

f (2  h)  f (2) h  0
Now, f (2  0)  lim  lim  1
h0  h h 0 h
R.H. Derivative : In this case h > 0
 2h  2

 f (2  h)  2  h  2  h .

f (2  h)  f (2) h0
Now, f (2  0)  lim  lim 1
h 0 h h 0 h

 f (2  0)  f (2  0)
Hence, f(x) is not differentiable at x = 0.

Illustration 8

Let f(x) be defined in the interval [ ă 2, 2] such that

 1 ; 2  x  0
f ( x)  
x  1 ; 0 x 2

and g ( x )  f  x  f ( x ) . Test the differentiability of g ( x) in (-2,2)

Solution :

Consider f  x 

The given interval is 2  x  2

Replace x by x to get :

2  x  2  0 x 2

Hence f  x  can be obtained by substituting x in place of x in x  1 [see defintion of f(x)].

 f  x   x  1; 2  x  2 ...(1)

Consider f ( x)

 1 ; 2  x  2
Now f ( x)   x  1 ; 0x2


1 ; 2  x  0
 f ( x)   ...(2)
 x  1 ; 0x2

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 9

Adding (1) and (2), we get

 x  1  1 ; 2  x  0
f  x  f ( x)   
 x  1  x  1 ; 0 x2

 x ; 2  x  0
 g ( x)  
 x  1  x  1 ; 0 x2

On further simplification

 x ; 2  x  0

g ( x)   x  1  1  x ; 0  x1
x  1  x  1 ; 1 x2


 x ; 2  x  0

g ( x)  0 ; 0  x1
2 x  2 ; 1 x2


For x  0 and x  1 , g(x) is a differentiable function because it is a linear polynomial.

At x = 0

g (0  h)  g(0)
Lg(O)  lim
h0 h

( h)  0
 lim  1
h 0 h

g (0  h)  g (0)
Rg (0)  lim
h0 h

00
 lim 0
h 0 h

 Lg(0)  Rg(0) . Therefore g(x) is not differentiable at x = 0.

At x = 1

g (1  h)  g (1) 00
Lg (1)  lim  lim 0
h 0 h h 0  h

g (1  h)  g (1) 2(1  h)  2  0
Rg (1)  lim  lim 2
h 0 h h 0 h

 Lg(1)  Rg(1) .
Therefore g(x) is not differential at x = 1.
Hence g(x) is not differentiable at x = 0,1 in (ă2,2).

DIFFERENTIATION
10 QUIZRR
W hen d oes a Funct ion not have a Der ivat ive at a Point ?
A function ha s a deriva tive a t a point x0 if the slope of the ta ngent lines from left ha nd side
is equa l to slope of ta ngent from Right ha nd side a nd a tains a finite value.

P2

a c d
b P4 X
P5 Jump
P1 P3 discontinuity

Case-I.
At P1
Slope of tangent from LHS = slope of tangent from RHS
 function is differentiable at x = a

Case-II
At P2
Slope of tangent from LHS  Slope of tangent from RHS
but LHL = RHL
Therefore, function is continuous but non-differentiable.

Case-III
At P3
Slope of tangent from LHL  
Slope of tangent from LHL  
but LHL = RHL
Therefore, function is continuous & non-differentiable.

Case-IV
At P4
Its vertical tangent
Slope of tangent from LHS = Slope of tangent from RHS
but slope   or 
Therefore, its not differentiable.

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 11

Case-V
At P5
Discontinuity
Therefore , its neither continuous nor differentiable
Therefore, we conclude
For a function to be differentia ble, it must be continuous but vice-versa is not true.

Illustration 9

   1 1 
 x exp       , x0
Let f ( x )     x x   [IIT ă 97]

0 x0

Test whether (a) f(x) is continuous at x = 0

(b) f(x) is differentiable at x = 0
Solution : Here

   1 1 
 x exp      , x0
f ( x)    
  x x  

0 x0

   1  1 
x e  x x , x0

   1  1 
   x, x  0 
 f ( x)   xe   x x  x0  x   
0,   x, x  0 
x0





 xe2/ x , x  0

 f ( x)   x, x0 ...(i)
0, x0

(a) To check continuity of f ( x) at x = 0

LHL  lim f ( x)  lim x  lim (0  h)  0

x0  x0 h0

h
RHL  lim f ( x)  lim xe2 / x  lim  0, f (0)  0
x0  x0  h0 e2 / h

 f(x) is continuous at x = 0.

DIFFERENTIATION
12 QUIZRR
(b) Checking for discontinuity at x = 0

f (0  h)  f (0)
LHD  Lf (0)  lim , h0
h 0 h

( h)  0
 lim 1
h 0 h

f (0  h)  f (0)
RHD  Lf (0)  lim
h0 h

he2/ h  0
 lim  lim e2/ h
h 0 h h 0

 e  0

 Lf (0)  Rf (0)
Therefore, f(x) is not differentiable at x = 0.

Illustration 1 0
Show that the function f(x) is continuous at x = 0 but its derivative does not exists at x = 0
if

 x sin(log x 2 ) ; x0
f ( x)  
 0 ; x0

Solution :
Test for Continuity :

LHL  hlim f (0  h)  lim ( h) sin log( h) 2

0 h0

  lim h sin log h2

h 0

As h  0 , log h2   .

Hence sin log h2 oscillates between -1 & +1.

 LHL   hlim ( h)  lim (sin log h2 )

0 h 0

  0  (number between  1 &  1)  0

RHL  hlim
0
f (0  h)

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 13

 lim h sin log h2  lim h lim sin log h2

h 0 h 0 h 0

 0  (oscillating between -1 & +1)=0

f (0)  0 (Given)

 LHL = RHL = f(0)

Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 0.

Test for Differentiability :

f (0  h)  f (0)
Lf (0)  lim
h 0 h

h sin log( h)2  0

 lim
h 0 h

 lim sin(log h2 )
h 0

As the expression oscillates between -1 and +1, the limit does not exists.
Hence the function is not differentiable at x = 0.
Note :
As LHD is undefined there is no need to check RHD for differentiability as for differentiability
both LHD and RHD should be defined and equal.

Illustration 1 1

e1 / x  1
Check the function f ( x )  lim for continuity and differentiability at x = 0.
x 0 e1 / x 1

Solution :

e1/ x  1
Let f ( x)  .
e1/ x  1

Then LHL

= lim f ( x)  hlim
0
f (0  h)
x0

e1/ h  1 (1 / e1/ h  1) 0 1
 lim  lim   1
h0 e1/ h 1 h0 (1 / e1/ h
 1) 0 1

DIFFERENTIATION
 14 QUIZRR

RHL  lim f ( x)  lim f (0  h)

x0 h0

e1/ h  1 (1  1 / e1/ h )
 lim  lim
h0 e1/ h 1 h0 (1  1 / e1/ h )

10
 1
10
Clearly,

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
x0 x0
.

Hence, xlim f ( x) does not exist.

0

As xlim f ( x) does not exist function is neither continuous nor differentiable at x = 0.

0

C alculat ing Der ivat ies using fir st p r incip le

Steps for Calculating f ( x)
Using first principle
1. Write expression for f ( x) and f ( x  h)
2. Expand and simplify the difference quotient

f ( x  h)  f ( x)
h

3. Using the simplified quotient, find f ( x) by evaluating the limit

f ( x  h)  f ( x)
f ( x)  lim
h0 h

Illustration 1 2

x
(a) Differentiate f ( x )  ,
x 1
(b) Where does the curve y = f(x) have slope ă 1 ?
Solution :
We take the three steps listed above
x
Step-1 : Here we have f ( x) 
x1
and

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 15
y
y= x
x ă1
3
( x  h) (2,2)
f ( x  h)  2
, so
( x  h)  1 Slope ă 1
1
Slope ă 1
x
ă2 ă1(0,0) 1 2 3
ă1
ă2

x h x

Step-2. f ( x  h)  f ( x) x  h  1 x 1

h h

1 ( x  h)( x  1)  x( x  h  1)
 .
h ( x  h  1)( x  1)

1 h
 . , and
h ( x  h  1)( x  1)

Step-3.

1 1
f ( x)  lim 
h0 ( x  h  1)( x  1) ( x  1)2

(b) The slope of y  f ( x) will be -1 provided

1
  1 .
( x  1)2

This equation is equivalent to ( x  1)2  1 , so x  2 or x  0 .

Illustration 1 3

(a) Find the derivative of y  x for x > 0.

(b) Find the tangent line to the curve y  x at x = 4.

Solution :
Step-1 : f ( x)  x and f ( x  h)  x  h

f ( x  h)  f ( x) x h  x x h  x
Step-2 :  Multiply by
h h x h  x
DIFFERENTIATION
 16 QUIZRR

( x  h)  x

h  x h  x 
1

x h  x

1 1
Step-3 : f ( x)  hlim 
0 x h  x 2 x

y
x)
1 /( 2 y´
m= y= x
y´= 1
2 x

x
x 0 x
0 x

1
The graph of (a) y  x and (b) y  , x  0 . The function is defined at x = 0, but its
2 x
derivatives is not.
y
y= 1 x+1
4

(4,2) y= x
1

x
0 4

(b) The slope of the curve at x  4 is

dy 1 1
 
dx x 4 2 x x 4
4

The tangent is the line through the point (4,2) with slope 1/4.

1
y2 ( x  4)
4

1
y x1 .
4

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 17

O t her way :

dy
Also as we know that is defined as rate of change of y w.r.t. change in x
dx

dy rate of change of y
i.e. 
dx rate of change of x

y
 lim
x0 x

f ( x  x)  f ( x)
 lim
x0 x

Now we will solve questions based on this formula.

Illustration 1 4

x0
Find d.c. of sec from the first principle.
3

Solution :

x0 x   0 
Let y  sec  sec  .  [ 1  rad ]
3  3 180  180


 y  sec kx , where k  ...(i)
540

Let  x be a small change in x and  y be the corresponding change in y, then

y   y  sec k( x   x) ...(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
 y  sec k( x   x)  sec kx

1 1
 
cos k( x   x) cos kx

cos kx  cos k( x   x)

cos kx cos k( x   x)

2 kx  k x k x
2sin sin
 2 2
cos kx cos k( x   x)

DIFFERENTIATION
18 QUIZRR

2 kx  k x k x
 y 2sin 2
sin
2
 
 x  x.cos kx cos k( x   x)

2kx  k x k x
2sin sin
y 2 2 .k
lim  lim .
  x0  x  x0 cos kx cos k( x   x) k x 2
2

sin kx
 .k  ksec kx.tan kx
cos kx cos kx

dy  x0 x0  x0
Hence,  sec .tan [ k  and kx rad.  ]
dx 540 3 3 540 3

Illustration 1 5

Find the d.c. of cos x 2 from the first principle.

Solution :

Let y  cos x2 ...(i)

Let  x be a small change in x and  y be the corresponding change in y, then

y   y  cos( x   x)2 ...(ii)

Substituting (i) from (ii), we get

 y  cos( x   x) 2  cos x2

( x   x)2  x2 x2  ( x   x)2
 2sin sin
2 2

( x   x)2  x2 x2  ( x   x) 2
2sin sin
 y 2 2

x x

( x  x   x)( x  x   x)
sin
y ( x   x)2  x2 2
  2sin .
x 2 x

 2 x   x  
sin    x
( x   x)  x
2 2
 2  
  sin . (2 x   x)
2  2x   x 
   x
 2 

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 19

y x2  x2
 lim   sin .1.2 x   2 x sin x2
 x0  x 2

dy
  2 x sin x2 .
dx

Illustration 1 6

Find the d.c. of sin x from the first principle.

Solution :

Let y  sin x

Let  x be a small change in x and  y be the corresponding change in y, then

y   y  sin( x   x) ...(ii)

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get

 y  sin( x   x)  sin x


 sin( x   x)  sin x  sin( x   x)  sin x 
sin( x   x)  sin x

2x   x x
2cos sin
sin( x   x)  sin x 2 2
 
sin( x   x)  sin x sin( x   x)  sin x

2x   x x
2 cos sin
y 2 2
  .
x sin( x   x)  sin x  x

2x   x
2 cos
y 2
 lim  lim .
 x0  x  x0 sin( x   x)  sin x

 x
 sin 2  1
lim  .
 x0   x  2
 
 2 

dy 2cos x 1 cos x
Hence,  .1.  .
dx 2 sin x 2 2 sin x

DIFFERENTIATION
20 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 7
Find the d.c. of loga x from the first principle.
Solution :

Let y  log a x  log e x.log a e

 y  k log x , where log ae  k ...(i)

Let  x be a small change in x and  y be the corresponding change in y, then

y   y  k log( x   x) ...(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get

 x x
 y  k log( x   x)  log x  k log  
 x 

  x   x 1   x 2 1   x 3 
 k log  1    k         ...
 x   x 2  x  3 x  

x 
3
1  x 1 x
 k. 1  .     ...
x  2 x 3 x  


k 1  x 1 x  2
y
lim  lim 1      ...
  x0  x  x0 x  2 x 3 x  


dy k log ae
Hence   [ k  log a e ]
dx x x

d log e
a
 (log a x)  .
dx x

Illustration 1 8

Differentiatie cos1 (3 x  2) by delta method.

Solution :

Let y  cos1 (3 x  2)

 3 x  2  cos y

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 21

 3 x  cos y  2

1
 x (cos y  2)
3

Let x be small change in x and y be corresponding change in y.

1
Then, x  x  [cos( y  y)  2]
3

1 1 1
 x  [cos( y  y)  2]  [cos( y)  2]  [cos( y  y)  cos y]
3 3 3

Divding both sides by y , we get

x 1 cos( y  y)  cos y

y

3 y

x 1 cos( y  y)  cos y

 lim  lim
y0 y y0 3 y

 2 y  y  y
2sin  sin
dx 1  2  2 1 1  sin y
 lim   ( sin y) 
 dy y0 3 y 2 3 3
2

dy 3 3
 
 dx sin y 1  cos2 y

dy 3

 dx .
1  (3 x  2) 2

Illustration 1 9
Find the derivative of tană1 x 2 by ab-initio method.
Solution :

Let y  tan1 x2

 x2  tan y

 x  tan y

DIFFERENTIATION
22 QUIZRR

Let x be small change in x and y be corresponding change in y.

Then, x  x  tan( y  y)

 x  tan( y  y)  x  tan( y  y)  tan y

Dividing both sides by y , we get

x tan( y  y)  tan y


y y

x tan( y  y)  tan y

 lim  lim
y0 y y0 y

x tan( y  y)  tan y tan( y  y)  tan y

 lim  lim 
y0 y y0 y tan( y  y)  tan y

tan( y  y)  tan y

 lim
y0 y[ tan( y  y)  tan y]

tan y  1  tan( y  y) tan y  1  tan 2 y

 lim  
y0 y  tan( y  y)  tan y 
  2 tan y

dy 2 tan y
 
dx 1  tan 2 y

dy 2x
 
dx 1  ( x2 )2

dy 2x
 
dx 1  x4

tan(x)
 lim x2 [1  tan( x  x) tan x]  (x  2 x) tan( x  x)
x0 x

 x2  1  [1  tan x tan x]  2x tan x  x2 (1  tan2 x)  2x tan x

dy
  x2 sec 2 x  2 x tan x .
dx

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 23

Illustration 20
Find the derivative of sec(log x) by first principle.
Solution :
Let y  sec(log x) and let y be small change in y corresponding to small change x in x.

Then, y  y  sec(log( x  x))

 y  sec((log( x  x))  y  sec(log( x  y))  sec(log x)

Dividing both sides by x , we get

y sec(log( x  x))  sec(log x)


x x

y sec(log( x  x))  sec(log x)

 lim  lim
x0 x x0 x

dy sec(log( x  x))  sec(log x)

  lim
dx x0 x

1  1 1 
 lim   
x0 x  cos(log( x  x)) cos(log x) 

1  cos(log x)  cos(log( x  x)) 

 lim  
x0 x  cos(log( x  x)) cos(log x) 

  log x  log( x  x)   log x  log( x  x)  

 2   sin  
1   2   2 
 lim
x0 x  cos (log( x  x)) cos(log x) 
 
 

 log x  log( x  x)   log x  log( x  x) 

2sin   sin  
 lim  2   2   log x  log( x  x)
x0 cos(log( x  x)) cos(log x) log x  log( x  x) 2x
2

 log x  log( x  x)   log x  log( x  x) 

2sin   sin   log( x  x)  log x
 lim  2   2 
x0 cos(log( x  x)) cos(log x) log x  log( x  x) 2x
2

DIFFERENTIATION
24 QUIZRR

 log x  log( x  x)   log x  log( x  x)   x  x 

2sin   sin   log  x 
 lim  2   2   
x0 cos(log( x  x))cos(log x) log x  log( x  x) 2x
2

 log x  log( x  x)   log x  log( x  x)   x 

2sin   sin   log  1 
 2   2   x  1
 lim 
x0 cos(log( x  x))cos(log x) log x  log( x  x) x x
2
2 x

log x  log( x  x)

as x  0, 0
2

 log x  log x   2 log x 

2sin   sin  
 2  1 1 1 1 =  z   1  sin(log x)  1

cos(log x) cos(log x) 2 x cos2  log x x cos2 (log x) x

dy sec(log x) tan log( x)

 
dx x

Hence, we end this topic, though this is not that relevent as regard to IIT but it is useful in your
boards preparation. That is the reason we covered it.

DERIVATIVES OF BASIC FUNCTIONS

d
1. ( c)  0 , where c is a constant.
dx

d n d n n
2. x  n.xn1 & x  nx n1  n 1
dx dx x

d x
3. (e )  ex
dx

d x
4. (a )  a x log a
dx

d 1 d 1
5. (log e x)  & (log a x) 
dx x dx x log e a

d d
6. (sin x)  cos x , (cos x)   sin x
dx dx

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 25

d d
7. (tan x)  sec 2 x , (cot x)   cos ec2 x
dx dx

d d
8. (sec x)  sec x tan x , (cos ecx)   cos ecx cot x
dx dx

d 1 d 1
(sin 1 x)  (cos1 x) 
9. dx 1  x2
, dx 1  x2
for 1  x  1

d 1 d 1
10. (tan 1 x)  , (cot 1 x)   for x  R
dx 1  x2 dx 1  x2

d 1 d 1
(sec 1 x)  (cos ec 1 x) 
11. dx , dx for x  1
x x2  1 x x2  1

DIFFERENTIATION RULES
Power s, M ult ip les, Sums and Differ ences
The first rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is zero.
Rule-1. Derivative of a Constant

d
If c is constant, then c  0.
dx

d d
Illustration. (10)  0, ( 2)  0
dx dx

The rule (d/dx) (c) = 0 is another way to say that the values of constant functions never change
and that the slope of a horizontal line is zero at every point.

Rule-2. Power Rule for Positive Integers

If n is a positive, then

d n
x  nx n 1
dx

To apply the Power Rule, we subtract 1 from the origin exponent (n) and multiply the result
by n.
Illustration :

f x x2 x3 x4 ...

f 1 2x 3x2 4x3 ...

DIFFERENTIATION
26 QUIZRR
T he Power R ule for Negat ive I nt eger s
The power Rule for negative integers is the same as the rule for positive integers.

Power Rule for Negative Integers

If n is a negative integer and x  0 , then

d n
( x )  nxn 1 .
dx

d  1  d 1 1
Illustration :   ( x )  (1) x2   2
dx  x  dx x

d  4  d 1 12
  4 ( x )  4(3) x4   4
dx  x 
3 dx x

Illustration 21

2
Find an equation for the tangent to the curve y  x  .
x

Solution :
The slope of the curve is

dy d d 1  1  2
 ( x)  2    1  2   2   1  2
dx dx dx  x   x  x

The slope at x  1 is

dy  2
 1   1  2  1.
dx x1  x2  x1

The line through (1,3) with slope m  1 is

y  3  (1)( x  1) Point-slope equation

y  x  1  3

y  x  4 .

Rule-3. The Constant Multiple Rule

If u is a diffeentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then

d du
(cu)  c .
dx dx

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 27

In particular, if n is a positive integer, then

d
(cxn )  cnxn 1 .
dx

d
Illustration : (4 x3 )  4.3 x2  12 x2
dx

says that if we rescale the graph of y  x2 multiplying each y-coordinate by 3, then we multiply
the slope at each point by 3.

Rule 4. The Sum Rule

If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then their sum u + v is differentiable at every point
where u and v are both differentiable. At such points

d du dv
(u  v )   .
dx dx d x

Combining the Sum Rule with the Constant Multiple Rule gives the equivalent Difference Rule,
which says that the derivative of a difference of differentiable functions is the difference of their
derivatives

d d du du du dv
(u  v)  [u  (1)v]   (1)  
dx dx dx dx dx dx

The Sum Rule also extends to sums of more than two functions, as long as there are only finitely
many functions in the sum. If u1 , u2 ,..., un are differerntiable at x, then so is u1  u2  ...  un , and

d du1 d u2 du n
(u1  u 2  ...  u n )    ...  .
dx dx dx dx

Illustration :

4 2
(a) y  5 x4  12 x2 (b) y  x3  x  5x  1
3

dy d 4 d dy d 3 d  4 2  d d
 (x )  (12 x2 )  x  x  (5 x)  (1)
dx dx dx dx dx dx  3  dx dx

4
 20 x3  24 x  3 x2  .2 x  5  0
3

8
 3 x2  x5
3

DIFFERENTIATION
28 QUIZRR

Illustration 22

Does the curve y  x 4  2 x 2  2 have any horizontal tangents ? If so, where ?

Solution :
The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope dy/dx is zero. To find these points, we

dy dy d 4
1. Calculate   ( x  2 x2  2)  4 x3  4 x
dx dx dx

dy
2. Solve the equation  0 for x;
dx

4 x3  4 x  0

4 x( x2  1)  0

x  0,1, 1

The curve y  x4  2 x2  2 has horizontal tangent at x  0,1 and  1 . The corresponding points on
the curve are (0,2), (1,1) and (-1,1).

Rule 5 The product Rule

If u and v diferentiable at x, then so is their product uv, and

d dv du
(uv)  u v
dx dx dx

Illustration 23

Find the derivative of y  ( x2  1)( x3  3) .

Solution :

From the Product Rule with u  x2  1 and v  x3  3 .

We find

d
[( x2  1)( x3  3)]  ( x2  1)(3 x2 )  ( x3  3)(2 x)
dx

 3 x4  3 x2  2 x4  6 x

 5 x4  3 x2  6 x .
Above Illustration be done as well (perhaps better) by multiplying out the original expression for
y and differentiating the resulting polynomial. We now check :

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 29

y  ( x2  1)( x3  3)  x5  x3  3 x2  3

dy
 5 x4  3 x2  6 x .
dx

Illustration 24
Let y = uv be the product of the function u and v. Find y´(2) if
u(2)  3, u (2)  4, v(2)  1, and v(2)  2
Solution :
From the Product Rule, in the form
y  (uv)  uv  uv
we have
y(2)  u(2)v(2)  v(2)u(2)

 (3)(2)  (1)(4)  6  4  2 .

Rule-6. The Quotient Rule

If u and v are differentiable at x, and v( x)  0 , then the quotient u/v is differentiable at x, and

du dv
v u
d u dx dx .
 
dx  v  v2

Illustration 25

dy
(a) If y  x 4  4 x 3  5 x  6 , then find .
dx

2 sin 2 x  3 cos y  1 dy
(b) If y  , then find .
sin x dx

Solution :

dy d 4
(a)  ( x  4 x3  5 x  6)
dx dx

d 4 d d d
 (x )  (4 x3 )  (5 x)  (6)
dx dx dx dx

 4 x3  4.3 x2  5.1  0  4 x3  12 x2  5

DIFFERENTIATION
 30 QUIZRR

2sin 2 x  cos x 1
(b) y    2sin x  4 cot x  cos ecx
sin x sin x sin x

dy d
Now,  (2sin x  3cot x  cos ecx)
dx dx

d d d
 (2sin x)  (3cot x)  (cos ecx)
dx dx dx

d d d
2 (sin x)  3 (cot x)  (cos ecx)
dx dx dx

 2cos x  3( cos ec2 x)  ( cos ecx cot x)

 2cos x  3cos ec2 x  cos ecx cot x .

Illustration 26

Differentiate the following functions with respect to x :

3
(a) 2 x  x 2  2 x  log 2 x (b) sin 1 x  2cos ec 1 x 
cos x
Solution :
(a) Let y  2 x  x2  2 x  log 2 x

dy d x
Then,  (2  x2  2 x  log 2 x)
dx dx

d x d 2 d d
 (2 )  (x )  2 ( x)  (log 2 x)
dx dx dx dx

1
 2 x log 2  2 x  2 
x log 2

1 1 3
(b) Let y  sin x  2 cos ec x 
cos x
 sin 1 x  2 cos ec 1 x  3sec x .
dy d
Then,  (sin 1 x  2cos ec1 x  3sec x)
dx dx
d d d
 (sin 1 x)  2 (cos ec1 x)  3 (sec x)
dx dx dx

 
1 1 1 2
  2   3sec x tan x    3sec x tan x
1  x2  x x2  1  2 2 .
  1  x x x  1

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 31

Illustration 27

x 2  dy  x 2
If y   , prove that 2 xy    .
2 x  dx  2 x
Solution :

x 2 x 2 1
y     x1/2  2 x1/2
2 x 2 x 2

dy d  1 1/2 
   x  2 x1/2 
dx dx  2 

1 d 1/2 d 1/2
 (x )  2 (x )
2 dx dx

1 1 1/21  1 
 x  2   x1/21 
22  2 

1 2 3/2 1 2
 x1/2  x   3/2
2 2 2 2 2 x 2x

 dy   1 2   2x 2x 2 
Now, 2 xy dx   2 xy   3/2    2 2 x  2 x3/2 
y
   2 2 x 2x   

 x 2  x 2
 y    y   
 2 x   2 x 

 x 2  x 2 x 2
      
 2 x 
 2 x  2 x

dy x 2
 2 xy   .
dx 2 x

Illustration 28

(a) Let y  a x log a x

dy d x d d
Then,  (a log a x)  a x (log a x)  log a x ( a x )
dx dx dx dx

1
 ax  log a xa x log a
x log a

DIFFERENTIATION
32 QUIZRR

(b) Let y  x2 cos 1 x

dy d 2 d d 2
Then,  ( x cos1 x)  x2 (cos 1 x)  cos1 x (x )
dx dx dx dx

 1   x2
 x2    cos1 x(2 x)   2 x cos1 x
 2  2
 1 x  1 x

Illustration 29
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x :

1 1
(i) e x . log x .a x (ii) sin x cos x .
x
Solution :
(i) Let y  ex log xa x

dy d x
Then,  ( e log xa x )
dx dx

d x d d
 ( e ) log x.a x  ex (log x).a x  ex log x (a x )
dx dx dx

1
 ex log x.a x  ex . .a x  ex log xa x log a
x

1 1
(ii) Let y  sin x cos x.
x

dy d  1
Then,   sin 1 x cos x 
dx dx  x

d 1 d 1 d 1
 (sin 1 x) cos x  sin 1 x (cos x).  sin 1 x cos x.  
dx x dx x dx  x 

1 1 d 1 d 1
 cos x.  sin 1 x (cos x).  sin 1 x cos x.  
1x 2 x dx x dx  x

1 1 1  1 
 cos x.  sin1 x( sin x).  sin 1 x cos x  2 
1 x 2 x x x 

cos x sin 1 x.sin x sin 1 x cos x

  
x 1  x2 x x2

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 33

Illustration 30
Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x :
(i) x 4 sin x  e x tan x

(ii) 2 x log x  (1  x 2 )cot 1 x

(iii) ( x log x  a x )( x 2 e x  log x )

Solution :

(i) Let y  x4 sin x  ex tan x

dy d 4
Then,  ( x sin x  ex tan x)
dx dx

d 4 d x
 ( x sin x)  (e tan x)
dx dx

d d d d x
 x4 (sin x)  sin x ( x4 )  ex (tan x)  tan x (e )
dx dx dx dx

 x4 cos x  sin x4 x3  ex sec 2 x  tan xex

(ii) Let y  2 x log x  (1  x2 ) cot 1 x

dy d x
Then,  [2 log x  (1  x2 ) cot 1 x]
dx dx

d x d
 (2 log x)  [(1  x2 ) cot 1 x]
dx dx

d d x d d
 2x (log x)  log x (2 )  (1  x2 ) (cot 1 x)  cot 1 x (1  x2 )
dx dx dx dx

1  1 
 2 x.  log x.2x log 2  (1  x2 )  2
 cot 1 x.2 x
x 1 x 

2x
  log x.2 x.log 2  1  2 x cot 1 x .
x

(iii) Let y  ( x log x  a x )( x2 ex  log x) .

dy d
Then,  [( x log x  a x )( x2 ex  log x)]
dx dx

DIFFERENTIATION
34 QUIZRR

d 2 x d
 ( x log x  a x ) ( x e  log x)  ( x2 ex  log x) ( x log x  a x )
dx dx

 d d   d d x 
 ( x log x  a x )  ( x2 ex )  (log x)   ( x2 ex  log x)  ( x log x)  (a ) 
 dx dx   dx dx 

 d x d 2 d 
 ( x log x  a x )  x2 ( e )  ex (x )  (log x) 
 dx dx dx 

 d d d x 
( x2 ex  log x)  x (log x)  log x ( x)  (a ) 
 dx dx dx 

 1  1 
 ( x log x  a x )( x2 ex  ex 2 x    ( x2 ex  log x)  x   log x  1  a x log a 
 x  x 

 
 1
 
 x log x  a x  x2 ex  ex 2 x    x2 ex  log x 1  log x  a x log a
 x


Illustration 31

Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x.

a x log x tan x e x log x  x

(i) (ii) x log x (iii)
sin x x  a n log a x

Solution :

a x log x
(i) Let y 
sin x

dy d  a x log x 
Then, dx  dx  sin x 
 

d x d
sin x (a log x)  a x log x (sin x)
 dx dx
(sin x)2

 d d x  d
sin x  a x (log x)  ( a ) log x  a x log x (sin x)
 dx dx  dx

(sin x)2

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 35

 1   sin x 
sin x  a x .  a x log a log x  a x log x cos x ax   sin x log a log x  log x cos x
 x   x 
 2
 2
sin x sin x

tan x
(ii) Let y 
x log x

dy d  tan x 
Then,   
dx dx  x log x 

d d
x log x (tan x)  tan x ( x log x)
 dx dx
2
( x log x)

d  d d 
x log x (tan x)  tan x  x (log x)  log x ( x) 
dx  dx dx 

( x log x)2

 1 
x log x sec 2 x  tan x  x.  log x x log x sec 2 x  tan x(1  log x)
 x  

( x log x)2 ( x log x)2

ex log x  x
(iii)
x  a x log a x

ex log x  x
Let y
x  a x log a x

dy d  ex log x  x 

Then, dx dx  
x 
 x  a log a x 

d x d
( x  a x log a x) (e log x  x)  (ex log x  x) ( x  a x log a x)
 dx dx
( x  a x log a x)2

 ex 
( x  a x log a x)  ex log x 

 x 

 
 1   ex log x  x  1  a x log a log a x  a x .

1 
x log a 
 .
( x  a x log a x)2

DIFFERENTIATION
36 QUIZRR

Illustration 32

ex
Find the d.c. of w.r.t.x.
log x

Solution :

ex
Let y 
log x

d d
log x. ( ex )  ex . (log x)
dy d  ex  dx dx
Now,   
dx dx  log x  (log x)2

1
log x.ex  ex . x x x
 x  xe log x  e  e ( x log x  1)
(log x)2 x(log x) x(log x)2

Illustration 33

x tan x dy
If y  , then find .
sec x  tan x dx

Solution :

d d
(sec x  tan x) ( x tan x)  x tan x. (sec x  tan x)
dy dx dx

dx (sec x  tan x)2

 d d  d d 
(sec x  tan x)  x. (tan x)  tan x. ( x)   x tan x  (sec x)  tan x
  dx dx   dx dx 
2
(sec x  tan x)

(sec x  tan x)( x sec 2 x  tan x)  x tan x(sec x tan x  sec 2 x)


(sec x  tan x) 2

x sec3 x  x tan x sec 2 x  sec x tan x  tan2 x  x sec x tan2 x  x tan x sec 2 x

(sec x  tan x)2

x sec 3 x  x sec x tan 2 x  sec x tan x  tan2 x


(sec x  tan x)2

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 37

x sec x(sec 2 x  tan 2 x)  tan x(sec x  tan x)


(sec x  tan x)2

x sec x(sec x  tan x)  tan x


(sec x  tan x)

Illustration 34

1  cos x  
If f ( x )  , then find f    .
1  cos x  2

Solution :

d d
(1  cos x) (1  cos x)  (1  cos x) (1  cos x)
f ( x)  dx dx
(1  cos x) 2

d d   d (1) d 
(1  cos x)  (1)  (cos x)   (1  cos x)   cos x 
 dx dx   dx dx 

2
(1  cos x)

(1  cos x)(0  sin x)  (1  cos x)(0  sin x)


(1  cos x)2

sin x  sin x cos x  sin x  sin x cos x 2sin x

 2

(1  cos x) (1  cos x)2


2sin
  2 2
f     2
2
 2   12 .
 1  cos 2 
 

Differentiation of Inverse functions

Before going to differentiation let us revise some important results related to inverse functions

 x y 
Ć tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan1   x  0, y  0, xy  1
 1  xy 

 x y 
Ć tan 1 x  tan 1 y    tan 1   x1  0, y  0, xy  1
 1  xy 

DIFFERENTIATION
 38 QUIZRR

 x y 
Ć tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1   if x  0, y  0
 1  xy 

1
Ć sec 1    cos1 x
 x

1
cos ec1    sin 1 ( x)
 x

1
cot 1    tan 1 x
 x

We advice to change sec 1 & cos ec1 by using above rules to ease out differentiation/

Some sub st it ut ions :

 2x 
Ć sin1  1
  2tan x (put x  tan  )
 1  x2 

 1  x2 
cos1   2 tan 1 x
Ć  1  x2  (put x  tan  )
 

put the following substiutions for the expression

1  x substitute
 x  cos 
1 x

substitute a cos 
a 2  x2 , a 2  x2  x 
a sin 

substitute
x2  a2 , x2  a 2  x  a sec  / a cosec 

substitute
x2  a2 , x2  a 2  x  a tan  / a cot 

Illustration 35

 cos x 
(a) tan 1   (b) tan 1 (sec x  tan x )
 1  sin x 

1  sin x 2
(c) tan 1 (d) sec 1
1  sin x 1  cos x

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 39

Solution :
(a) Let
 cos x 
y  tan 1  
 1  sin x 

 2 x 2 x
 cos x  cos 2  sin 2 
 x x   
cos2  sin 2 x x 
 tan 1  2 2    sin x  2sin cos
   2 2 
 cos2 x  sin 2 x  2sin x cos x   
 x x
 2 2 2 2 1  cos2  sin2 
 2 2 

 x x  x x  x x
  cos 2  sin 2  cos 2  sin 2    cos  sin 
1       tan 1  2 2
 tan 
  x x   x x
  cos  sin    cos  sin 
  2 2   2 2

x
Dividing num. and denom. by cos , we get
2
 x
1  tan
1  2
y  tan  
 1  tan x 
 2

   x  1  tan x  
 tan 1  tan     [  tan   x  ]
  4 2  1  tan x 4 
 x
 
4 2
dy 1
 
dx 2
Other Method
   
 sin   x  
1  cos x  1 2  
Lwet y  tan    tan  
 1  sin x    
 1  cos  2  x  
 

  x   x
 2sin  4  2  cos  4  2  
 tan 1        tan 1 tan    x 
 
 2  x   4 2
 2cos    
  4 2 

 x  dy 1
   dx   2 
4 2  

DIFFERENTIATION
 40 QUIZRR

1 1  1 sin x 
(b) Let y  tan (sec x  tan x)  tan   
 cos x cos x 

 x x x x
 cos2  sin 2  2sin cos 
 1  sin x  2 2 2 2
 tan 1  1
  tan  
 cos x  x x
 
2 2
cos  sin
 2 2 

  x x
2 
 cos  sin   x x
   cos 2  sin 2 
 tan 1   2 2  1
  tan  
x x  x x
 cos  sin  cos  sin    cos x  sin x 
 2 2  2 2  2 2
 

x
Dividing num. and denom. by cos , we get
2

 x
1  tan
1  2
y  tan  
 1  tan x 
 2

  x  1  tan x  
 tan 1  tan      1  tan x  tan  4  x  
  4 2    

 x
 
4 2

dy 1
  .
dx 2

Other Method

 1 sin x 
Let y  tan 1 (sec x  tan x)  tan 1   
 cos x cos x 

  
 1  cos   x  
 1  sin x  2 
 tan 1  1
  tan 
 cos x      
 sin  2  x  
 

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 41

  x 
 2cos2    
 tan 1   4 2 
  x x  x x
 2sin  4  2  cos  4  2  
 

   x      x 
 tan 1  cot      tan 1  tan     
  4 2    2 4 2 

  x  x
 tan 1  tan      
  4 2  4 2

dy 1
 
dx 2

1  sin x
(c) Let y  tan 1
1  sin x

x x x x
cos2  sin 2  2 sin cos
 tan 1 2 2 2 2
x x x x
cos2  sin 2  2 sin cos
2 2 2 2

2
 x x  x x
 cos  sin   cos 2  sin 2 
1  2 2 1
 tan  tan  
 cos x  sin x 
2
 x x
 cos  sin   2 2
 2 2

x
Dividing num. and deno. by cos , we get
2

 x
1  tan
1  2   tan 1  tan    x      x
 tan     
 1  tan x    4 2  4 2
 2

dy 1
  .
dx 2

DIFFERENTIATION
 42 QUIZRR

2
(d) sec 1
1  cos x

1 2 1  cos x
Let y  sec  cos1
1  cos x 2

x
2cos2
 cos 1 2  cos1  cos x   x
 
2  2 2

dy 1
 
dx 2

Illustration 36
Differentiate

(a) sin 1 (3 x  4 x 3 )
 3x  x3
(b) tan 1 
 1  3x 2




(c) tan 1  1  x2  x 
1  1  x  1  x  1 2
(d) sin   (e) sin ( x 1  x  x 1  x )
 2 

Solution.

(a) Let y  sin 1 (3 x  4 x3 )

Putting x  sin 

   sin 1 x , we get

y  sin1 (3sin   4 sin3  )

 sin 1 (sin3 )  3  3sin 1 x

dy 3

 dx 1  x2

1  3 x  x 
3
(b) Let y  tan  
2 
 1  3x 

Putting x  tan     tan 1 x , we get

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 43

 3 tan   tan 3  
y  tan 1  1 1
  tan (tan 3 )  3  3 tan x
 1  3 tan 2 
 

dy 3
 
dx 1  x2

(c) Let y  tan

1
 1  x  x
2

Putting x = cot    = cotă1 x

y  tan 1  1  cos   cot   tan

2 1
 cos ec  cot  

 1 cos  1  1  cos  
 tan 1     tan  
 sin  sin    sin  

    
 2cos2   cos 
 tan 1  2 1 2  tan 1  cot  
  tan    
 2sin  cos    sin    2
 2 2  2

        1
 tan 1  tan         cot 1 x
  2 2  2 2 2 2

dy 1  1  1
   
dx 2  1  x  2(1  x2 )
2

1  1  x  1  x 
(d) Let y  sin  2

 

Putting x  cos    cos 1 x , we get

 2 2 
  2 cos  2sin 
1  cos  1  cos  2 2
y  sin 1  1
  sin 
 2  2 
 
 
 

  
 2 cos  2 sin 
 sin 1  2 2  sin 1  2 cos   2 sin  
  
 2   2 2 2 2 
 

DIFFERENTIATION
 44 QUIZRR

 1  1      
 sin1  cos  sin   sin 1  cos sin  sin cos 
 2 2 2 2   2 4 2 4

        1  1
 sin 1  sin            cos1 x
  4 2  4 2 4 2 4 2

dy 1 1 1
 . 
 dx 2 1  x2 2 1  x2 .

(e) Let y  sin

1

x 1  x  x 1  x2 
Putting x  sin  and x  sin 


y  sin1 x 1  ( x )2  x 1  x2 
 sin 1 (sin  1  sin 2   sin  1  sin 2  )

 sin 1 (sin  cos   sin  cos )  sin 1 (sin(   ))    

 sin 1 x  sin 1 x

dy 1 1 1 1 1 1
  .   .
 dx 1x2
1  ( x) 2 2 x
1 x2 1 x 2 x

1 1
 
1  x2 2 x  x2

Illustration 37
Differentiate

(a) sin
1

2a x 1  a 2 x 2   1  x 2n
(b) cos 1 
 1  x 2n




 2 x 1
(c) tan 1 
 1  4x


 .


 6x  1  a cos x  b sin x 
(d) tan 1   (e) tan  
 1  8x 2   b cos x  a sin x 

Solution :

(a) Let y  sin 1 [2 ax 1  a 2 x2 ]

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 45

Putting ax  sin     sin 1 ax , we get

y  sin 1 [2sin  1  sin 2  ]  sin 1 [2sin  cos ]

 sin 1 (sin2 )  2  2sin 1 ax

dy 1 2
 2. .a 
 dx 1  a 2 x2 1  a2 x2

1  1  x
2n 
(b) Let y  cos  
2n 
1 x 

Putting xn  tan     tan 1 xn , we get

 1  tan 2  
y  cos 1  1 1 n
  cos (cos 2 )  2  2 tan x
 1  tan 2 
 

dy 1 n 1 2nxn1
 2 .nx  .
dx 1  ( xn ) 2 1  x2 n

x1 
1  2 1  2.2
x 
(c) Let y  tan  
x
 tan 
 1  22 x 
14   

Putting 2 x  tan     tan 2 2 x , we get

 2tan  
y  tan1  1
  tan (tan 2 )
 1  tan2  

 2  2 tan 1 2 x

dy 1 x 2.2 x log 2 2 x1 log 2

  2. .2 log 2   .
dx 1  (2 x )2 1  22 x 1  4x

1  6 x   4 x  2x 
(d) Let y  tan  2
 tan1  
 1  8x   1  (4 x)(2 x) 

 tan 1 (4 x)  tan1 (2x)

dy 1 1 4 2
  .4  .2  
dx 1  (4 x) 2
1  (2 x) 2
1  16 x2
1  4 x2

DIFFERENTIATION
46 QUIZRR

1  a cos x  b sin x 
(e) Let y  tan  
 b cos x  a sin x 

Dividing num. and deno. by b cos x , we get

 a 
  tan x 
1 a
y  tan 1  b   tan  tan 1 (tan x)
a
 1  tan x  b
 b 

a
 tan 1 x
b

dy
  1 .
dx

DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT OF FUNCTION OF FUNCTION

Meaning of function of function :

Let y  ( x3  1)5

Here x3  1 is a function of x and if u  x3  1 then y  u5 .

Hence y is a function of u.
Thus, we see that y is a function of u and u is a function of x. In this, we say that y is a function
of function.

d .c. of funct ion of funct ion.

Let y be a differentiable function of u and u be a diferentiable function of x,
dy dy du
then  
dx du dx

dy dy du
Hence  .
dx du dx

Colrollary. If y  f (u), u   (v) and v   ( x) .

dy dy du dv
Then  . .
dx du dv dx
Chain Rule
If y and x both are expressed in terms of t, then
dy dy / dt

dx dx / dt
DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 47

Take y in place of t in (b), we get :

dy dy / dt

dx dx / dy

dy 1
 
dx dx / dy

Hence deriva tive of y w.r.t. x a nd deriva tive of x w.r.t. y a re rec iproca l of ea ch other.

Choosing which Rule to use

The choice of which rules to use in solving a differentiation problem can make a difference in how
much work you have to do. Here is an example.
Illustration :
Rather than using the Quoteint Rule to find the derivative of

( x  1)( x2  2 x)
y
x4

expand the numerator and divide by x4 .

(x  1)( x2  2 x) x3  3 x2  2 x
y 4
 4
 x1  3 x2  2 x3
x x

Then use the Sum and Power Rules :

Second and H igher O r d er Der ivat ives

dy
The derivative y  is the first (first order) derivative of y with respect to x. This derivative
dx
may itself be a differentiable fucntion of x; if so, its derivative

dy d  dy  d 2 y
y    
dx dx  dx  dx2

is called the second(second order) derivative of y with respect to x.

dy d 3 y
If y is differentiable, its derivative, y   is the third (thrid order) derivative of y with
dx dx3
respect to x. The names continue as you imagine, with

d (n 1)
y(n)  y
dx
denoting the nth (nth order) derivative of y with respect to x, for any positive integer n.

DIFFERENTIATION
 48 QUIZRR

Illustration 38

dy
If y  sin(cot x ) , then find
dx

Solution :

dy d
 sin(cot x)
dx dx

d sin(cot x) d (cot x)

 .
d cot x dx

 cos(cot x).( cos ec2 x)   cos ec2 x cos(cot x)

Illustration 39

dy
If y  (7 x 2  11 x  39)3 / 2 , find .
dx

Solution :

dy d
 (7 x2  11 x  39)3/2
dx dx

d (7 x2  11 x  39)3/2 d (7 x2  11 x  39)
 .
d (7 x2  11 x  39) dx

3
3 1  d ( x2 ) d ( x) d (39) 
 (7 x2  11 x  39) 2 . 7.  11  
2  dx dx dx 

1
3 3 2
 (7 x2  11 x  39) 2 .(14 x  11)  (14 x  11) 7 x  11x  39 .
2 2

Illustration 40

2 dy
If y  sin x  a x  1 , find .
dx

Solution :

dy d
 (sin x2  ax  1)
dx dx

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 49

d sin x2  ax  1 d x2  ax  1 d 2
 . . ( x  ax  1)
d x2  ax  1 d ( x  ax  1) dx
2

1
 cos x2  ax  1. .(2 x  a)
2 x2  ax  1

(2 x  a)cos x2  ax  1
 .
2 x2  ax  1

Illustration 41

dy
If y  sin x , find .
dx

Solution :

dy

dx dx
d
 sin x 
d sin x d sin x d x
 . .
d sin x d x dx

1 1 cos x
 .cos x. 
2 sin x 2 x 4 x sin x

Illustration 42

dy
If y  cos sin x , find .
dx

Solution :

dy d
 (cos sin x )
dx dx

d cos sin x d sin x d sin x d x

 . . .
d sin x d sin x d x dx


  sin sin x .  2 sin1 x
.cos x.
1
2 x

cos x.sin sin x
4 x. sin x

DIFFERENTIATION
 50 QUIZRR

Illustration 43

dy
If y  sin3 a x 2  bx  c , find .
dx

Solution :

dy d sin3 ax2  bx  c d sin ax2  bx  c d ax2  bx  c d ( ax2  bx  c)

 . . .
dx d sin ax2  bx  c d ax2  bx  c d (ax2  bx  c) dx

1
 3sin2 ax2  bx  c .cos ax2  bx  c . (2ax  b)
2
2 ax  bx  c

Illustration 44

2 cot x dy
If y  1  x  , find .
x dx

Solution :

dy d d  cot x 
 1  x2   
dx dx dx  x 

d d
x (cot x). ( x)
d 1  x2 d (1  x2 ) dx dx
 . 
d (1  x2 ) dx
 x
2

1
x ( cos ec2 x)  cot x.

1
(2 x)  2 x
2 1 x 2 x

x 2 x cos ec2 x  cot x

 
1  x2 2 x3/2

DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTION

If a relation between x and y is such that y cannot be expressed in terms of x then y is called an
dy
implicit function of x. Here we will give method to find if y is an implict function of x.
dx

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 51

W or king R ule :
(i) Diffeentiate the given relation between x and y w.r.t. x.

dy
(ii) Bring all the terms containing on left hand side and remaining terms on right hand side
dx

dy
and then find .
dx

(iii) Use the given relation between x and y to get the result in simplified form.

Illustration 45

3 3 dy
If xy  x  y , find .
dx

Solution :

Given xy  x3  y3

differentiating w.r.t. x, we get (i)

d d 3 d 3
( xy)  (x )  (y )
dx dx dx

dy dy
1. y  x.  3 x2  3 y2
dx dx

dy
or ( x  3 y2 )  3 x2  y
dx

dy 3 x2  2
 
dx x  3 y2

Illustration 46

dy
If x  y  sin( xy) , find .
dx

Solution :
Given x  y  sin( xy) (ii)
differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy d d d
1  (sin( xy))  sin( xy). ( xy)
dx dx dx dx

DIFFERENTIATION
 52 QUIZRR

 dy  dy
 cos( xy).  1. y  x  y cos( xy)  x cos( xy)
 dx  dx

dy
 1  x cos( xy)  y cos( xy)  1
dx

dy y cos( xy)  1
 
dx 1  x cos( xy)

Illustration 47

dy
If x 3  y3  sin( x  y) , find .
dx

Solution :

Given, x3  y3  sin( x  y)

differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

d 3 d 3 d
(x )  (y )  [sin( x  y)]
dx dx dx

d 3 d 3 dy d sin( x  y) d
or (x )  (y )  . ( x  y)
dx dx dx d ( x  y) dx

dy  dy 
3 x2  3 y2  cos( x  y).  1 
dx 
or
dx 

dy
or [3 y2  cos( x  y)]  cos( x  y)  3 x2
dx

dy cos( x  y)  3 x2
 
dx 3 y2  cos( x  y)

Illustration 48

dy
If x  y log( xy) , find .
dx

Solution : x  y log( xy)

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
d dy
1 y log( xy)  log(xy)
dx dx
DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 53

d d dy
or 1 y log( xy) . (xy)  log( xy).
d ( xy) dx dx

1  dy  dy
 y.  1. y  x   log( xy)
yx  dx  dx

y dy dy
or 1   log( xy)
x dx dx

dy y x y
 1  log( xy)  1 
dx x x

dy x y
 
dx x[1  log( xy)]

x y ( x  y) y x
  [from (i), log( xy)  ]
 x  x( y  x) y
x 1  
 y

Illustration 49

dy
If y  sin x  sin x  sin x  ....to  find .
dx

Solution :

y  sin x  sin x  sin x  ... to 

 y  sin x  y

or y2  sin x  y ...(i)

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

d 2 d dy
(y )  (sin x) 
dx dx dx

d 2 dy dy dy dy
or ( y ).  cos x  or 2y  cos x 
dy dx dx dx dx

dy dy cos x
or (2 y  1)  cosx  
dx dx 2 y  1

DIFFERENTIATION
 54 QUIZRR

Illustration 50

1 dy
If x  y  . Prove that  2 x 2  y 2  3 xy .
1 dx
y
1
y
y  ... to 
Solution :
1
x  y
1
y
1
y
y  ... to 

1
 x  y
x

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy 1
1 
dx x2

dy 1
or  1 2
dx x

dy 1
or  1  ( x  y)2 [ from (i)  x y]
dx x

 1  x2  y2  2 xy (ii)

From (i), x2  xy  1  1  x2  xy

dy
Putting in (ii), we get  x2  xy  x2  y2  2 xy
dx

dy
Hence,  2 x2  y2  3 xy .
dx

Illustration 51

dy
If x 3 y 2  log e ( x  y)  sin(e x ) , find .
dx
Solution

x3 y2  log e ( x  y)  sin( ex ) ...(i)

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 55

Differentiating w.r.t. x , we get

dy 1  dy 
3 x2 y2  x3 .2 y  1  cos(ex ).ex
dx x  y  dx 

dy 1 1 dy
or 3 x2 y2  2 x3 y   .  ex cos(ex )
dx x  y x  y dx

 3 1  dy 1  ( x  y) ex cos(ex )  3 x2 y2 .( x  y)
 2 x y  
x  y  dx
or
 x y

dy 1  ( x  y) ex cos(ex )  3 x3 y2  3 x2 y3
or  .
dx 2 x4 y  2 x3 y2  1

Illustration 52

1 dy
If y  tan ( x  y) , find .
dx

Solution :

y  tan 1 ( x  y) (i)

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy d d
 tan 1 ( x  y). ( x  y)
dx d ( x  y) dx

1  dy 
 . 1 
1  ( x  y)  2 dx 

1 1 dy
 
1  ( x  y) 2
1  ( x  y) dx
2

 1  dy 1
or 1  2  dx

 1  ( x  y)  1  (x  y)2

 1  ( x  y)2  1  dy 1
or  2  dx

 1  ( x  y)  1  ( x  y)2

dy 1
 
dx ( x  y)2 .

DIFFERENTIATION
56 QUIZRR

Illustration 53

2 2 dy
If y 1  x  x 1  y  1 , when |x| < 1 and |y| < 1, find .
dx

Solution :

y 1  x2  x 1  y2  1 .

Let x  sin  , y  sin  , then we get

sin  1  sin 2   sin  1  sin 2   1

or sin  cos  sin  cos   1

or sin(   )  1

or     sin1 (1)

or sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1 (1)

Differentiating both sides, we get

1 1 dy
 . 0
1  x2 1  y2 dx

dy 1  y2
Hence, 
dx 1  x2

Other Method : Let f  y 1  x2  x 1  y2  1

f 2 xy
  1  y2
 x 2
1 x

f 2 xy
 1  x2 
and y 1  y2

 f 
 
dy x [ 1  x2 1  y2  2 xy] / 1  x2
  
 dx  f  [ 1  x2 1  y2  2 xy] / 1  y2
 
 y 

dy 1  y2
or 
dx 1  x2

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 57

Illustration 54

d y x 2 1  y6
If 1  x  1  y  a ( x  y ) . Prove that dx  2
6 6 3 3 3 .
y 1  x6

Solution :

Here, 1  x6  1  y2  a3 ( x3  y3 ) ;

Let x3  sin  , y3  sin  , then we get

1  sin 2   1  sin 2   a3 (sin   sin  )

cos   cos   a3 (sin   sin  )

       3        
2cos   .cos    a 2cos   sin  
 2   2    2   2 

   3   
cos    a sin  
 2   2 

   3
cot  a
 2 

or     2cot 1 (a3 )

sin 1 x3  sin 1 y3  2cot 1 (a3 )

Differentiating both sides we get,

1 1 dy
.3 x2  .3 y2 . 0
1  x6 1  y6 dx

dy x2 1  y2
Hence, dx  2
y 1  x6

Logarithmic Differentiation

So far, we have discussed derivatives of the functions of the form ( f ( x)) n , n f ( x) and nn , where

f ( x) is a function of x and n is a constant. In this section, we will be mainly discussing derivatives

DIFFERENTIATION
58 QUIZRR

of the functions of the form ( f ( x)) g ( x) , where f(x) and g(x) are functions of x. To find the
derivatives of this type of functions we proceed as follows :

Let y  ( f ( x)) g ( x) , taking logarithm of both the sides, we have

log y  g( x) log  f ( x)

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

1 dy 1 df ( x) dg ( x)
.  g ( x). .  log  f ( x).
y dx f ( x) dx dx

dy  g ( x) df ( x) dg ( x) 
 y .  log  f ( x).
 dx  f ( x) dx dx 

dy  g ( x) df ( x) dg ( x) 
or  ( f ( x)) g ( x)  .  log  f ( x). 
dx  f ( x) dx dx 

Logarithmic Differetiating (Objective Approach)

If y   f ( x) ( x) then

dy  ( x)
 d.c of  f ( x) w.r.t. x taking  ( x) as a constant
dx

 ( x)
 d.c. of  f ( x) w.r.t. x taking f ( x) as a constant.

dy  ( x) 1 df ( x)  ( x) d ( x)
   ( x). f ( x) .   f ( x) .log f ( x).
dx dx dx
or when we have to differentiate the function of the form (variable), take log on both sides and
differentiate.

Illustration 55

dy
If y = x sin x, find
dx

Solution :

y  xsin x , taking log on both sides,, we get

log y  sin x.log x

On differentiting both sides, we get

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 59

1 dy 1
 sin x.    log x.(cos x)
y dx  x

dy  sin x 
or  y   (cos x) log x
dx  x 

dy  sin x 
  xsin x   (cos x) log x
dx  x 

Other Method :
Here,

y  xsin x

could also be differentiated by using defintion;

d d d
(variable)variable  (va riable)constant  (constant) variable
dx dx dx

dy d d
i.e.  ( x)sin x  ( x)sin x
dx dx dx

 sin x( x)sin x1  ( x)sin x . log x. cos x

( x)sin x
 (sin x)  ( x)sin x .log x.cos x
x

 sin x 
 xsin x   cos x.log x
 x 

Illustration 56

dy
If x y  y x , find .
dx

Solution :

Given x y  yx

Taking logarithm, we get y log x  x log y

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy 1 1 dy
log x  y.  1.log y  x. .
dx x y dx

DIFFERENTIATION
 60 QUIZRR

 x  dy y
or  log x    log y 
 y  dx x

y log x  x dy x log y  y
or . 
y dx x

dy y ( x log y  y)
  .
dx x ( y log x  x)

Illustration 57

dy
If x m y n  ( x  y)m  n , find .
dx

Solution :

xm yn  ( x  y) m n ....(i)

Taking logarithm, we get

log( xm )  log( yn )  (m  n) log( x  y)

or m log x  n log y  (m  n) log( x  y)

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

m n dy m  n  dy  m  n m  n dy
 .   1  
x y dx x  y  dx  x  y x  y dx

 n m  n  dy m  n m
or     
 y x  y  dx x  y x

nx  ny  my  ny dy mx  nx  mx  ny

y( x  y) dx x( x  y)

nx  my dy nx  my
or 
y( x  y) dx x( x  y)

dy y
 
dx x

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 61

Illustration 57

xe x  e x  ... to  dy y
If y  e , prove that  .
dx 1  y

Solution :

x ex... to 
Given y  ex e

 y  ex y (i)

Taking logarithm, we get log y  ( x  y) log e e

or log y  x  y [ log e e  1 ]

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

1 dy dy
.  1 ;
y dx dx

1  dy
or   1 1
y  dx

 1  y  dy dy y
or   1  dx  1  y
 y  dx

Illustration 59

dy
If y  e x sin x 3  (tan x )x , find .
dx

Solution :

Let u  ex sin x3 and v  (tan x) x

Now u  ex sin x3

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

du x
e .
d sin( x)3 
 sin x3 .

d x
(e )
dx dx dx

 ex .cos x3 .3 x2  sin x3 .ex

du
Hence,  3 x2 ex cos x3  ex sin x3
dx

DIFFERENTIATION
62 QUIZRR

x
and v  (tan x)  log v  x log(tan x)
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

1 dy 1
 1.log(tan x)  x. .sec 2 x
v dx tan x

dv
  v[log(tan x)  x cot x.sec 2 x]
dx

 (tan x) x [log(tan x)  x cot x sec 2 x]

Now, y  u  v

dy du dv
  
dx dx dx

 3 x2 ex cos( x3 )  ex sin( x3 )  (tan x) x [log(tan x)  x cot x sec 2 x]

Illustration 60

x dy
If y  x x , find
dx

Solution :
x
y  xx (i)

x x
 log y  log( x x )  log[( x x )]  x x log x (ii)

Taking logarithm, we get

log(log y)  log(log x x )  log(log x)  x log x  log(log x)

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

1 1 dy 1 1 1
.  1.log x  x.  .
log y y dx x log x x

dy  1 
  y log y  log x  1  
dx  x log x 

x  1 
 xx .x x log  log x  1   [from (i) and (ii)]
 x log x 

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 63

Illustration 61

dy
If x y  y x  4, find .
dx

Solution :

x y  yx  4 (i)

Let u  x y and v  yx

 u  xy  log u  y log x
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

1 du 1 dy
 y.  log x.
u dx x dx

du y dy  y y dy 
  u   log x   x   log x 
dx x dx  x dx 

Again  v  yx  log v  x log y

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get

1 dv 1 dy
 1.log y  x.
y dx y dx

dv  x dy  x x dy 
  v  log y    y  log y   (iii)
dx  y dx   y dx 

From (i), u  v  4

du dv
  0
dx dx

y dy   x dy 
 x y   log x   yx  log y  0
x dx   y dx 

 y x x  dy  y 
or  x . log x  y .     yx log y  . x y 
 y  dx  x 

or x y
log x  xy x1  dy
dx
  y x
log y  yx y1 
dy yx log y  yx y1
  y .
dx x log x  xyx1

DIFFERENTIATION
 64 QUIZRR

Illustration 62

dy
(Logarithmic differentiaton) Find for tyhe functions
dx

x 1
 1 1 (2 x  1)3 1  x 2
(i) y  1    x x (ii) y
 x (3 x  2)2 2 x

(iii) y  log x (log x )

Solution :

x
 1 1
(i) Let u   1   and y  x1 x
 x

 y uv

dy du dv
   i)
dx dx dx

x
 1
Now u   1  
 x

 1
 log u  x log  1    x log( x  1)  x log x
 x

1 du x x 
   log( x  1)    log x 
u dx x  1  x 

du  x1 1 
  u  log 
x  1 
(2)
dx  x

1
Consider 1
v x x

 1
 log v   1   log x
 x

1 dv  11  1 
  1    log x   2 
v dx  x x  x 

dv v
  ( x  1  log x) (3)
dx x2

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 65

Substituting from (2) and (3) into (1)

1
x 1
dy  1  x1 1  x x
  1    log    2  ( x  1  log x)
dx  x  x x 1 x

(ii) Taking log on both sides

1
log y  3 log(2 x  1)  log(1  x2 )  2 log(3 x  2)  x log 2
2

Differentiating with respect to x,

1 dy 3(2) 2 x 2(3)
    log 2
y dx 2 x  1 2(1  x ) 3 x  2
2

dy (2 x  1)3 1  x2  6 x 6 
  x
    log 2 
dx 2
(3 x  2) 2  2x  1 1  x2 3x  2 

(iii) y  log x (log x)

log log x  log m b 

y  u sin g log a b  
log x  log m a 

 1 1 1
log x     log log x 
 dy
  log x x  x
dx (log x) 2

dy 1
  (1  log log x)
dx x(log x)2

Illustration 63

1 x dy
If y  f (sin 2 x ) and f ( x )  , then show that  2tan(1  sin 2 x ) .
1 x dx

Solution :

Let u  sin 2 x

dy du
Using chain rule :  f (u)
dx dx

dy 1  u d
  (sin 2 x)
dx 1  u dx

DIFFERENTIATION
66 QUIZRR

1  sin2 x
 (2sin x cos x)
1  sin2 x

 2tan(1  sin2 x)

Illustration 64
A function f : R  R satisfy the equation f(x + y) = f(x)f(y) for all x, y in R and f(x)  0 for
any x in R. Let the function be differentiable at x = 0 and f´(0) = 2. Show that f´(x) = 2f(x)
for all x in R. Hence determine f(x).
Solution :
In f ( x  y)  f ( x) f ( y) substitutte y = 0

 f ( x  0)  f ( x) f (0)

 f ( x)  f ( x) f (0)

 f (0)  1 [ f ( x)  0 ] (1)

f (0  h)  f (0)
Consider f (0)  lim
h0 h

f (h)  1
 2  lim (2)
h0 h

f ( x  h)  f ( x)
Consider f ( x)  lim
h0 h

f ( x) f (h)  f ( x)
 lim
h0 h

f ( h)  1
 f ( x) lim
h0 h

 f ( x)(2) [using (2)]

 f ( x)  2 f ( x)

f ( x)
 2
f ( x)

d d
 [log f ( x)]  (2 x)
dx dx

 log f ( x)  2 x

 f ( x)  e2 x

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 67

Differentiation of a function given in form of a determinant

u( x) v( x) w( x)
y  p( x) q( x) r ( x)
If
 ( x)  ( x)  ( x)

u( x) v( x) w( x) u( x) v( x) w( x) u( x) v( x) w( x)

dy
 p( x) q( x) r ( x)  p( x) q( x) r ( x)  p( x) q( x) r ( x)
dx
 ( x)  ( x)  ( x)  ( x)  ( x)  ( x)  ( x)  ( x)  ( x)

The differentiation can also be done by column-wise.

Illustration 65

x x2 x3
If f ( x )  1 2x 3 x 2 , find f´(x)
0 2 6x

Solution :

x x2 x3
2
Here, f ( x)  1 2 x 3 x
0 2 6x

On differentiating , we get

d d 2 d 3
( x) (x ) (x ) x x2 x3
dx dx dx x x2 x3
d d d
 f ( x)  1 2x 3 x2  (1) (2 x) (3 x2 )  1 2x 3 x2
dx dx dx
0 2 6x d d d
0 2 6x (0) (2) (6 x)
dx dx dx

1 2 x 3 x2 x x2 x3 x x2 x3
or f ( x)  1 2 x 3 x2  0 2 6 x  1 2 x 3 x2
0 2 6x 0 2 6x 0 0 6

DIFFERENTIATION
 68 QUIZRR
As we know if any two rows or columns are equal, then value of determiannt is zero

x x2 x3
 0  0  1 2 x 3 x2
0 0 6

 f ( x)  6(2 x2  x2 )

Therefore, f ( x)  6 x2

Illustration 66

x3 sin x cos x
3
Let f ( x )  6 1 0 , where p is constant. Then, find d [ f ( x )] at x = 0. [IITă97]
2 dx 3
p p p3

Solution :

x3 sin x cos x
Give, f ( x)  6 1 0
p p2 p3

On differentiating it, we gte,

d 3 d d
(x ) (sin x) (cos x)
dx dx dx x3 sin x cos x x3 sin x cos x
d
[ f ( x)]  6 (1) 0  0 0 0  6 1 0
dx
p p2 p3 p p2 p3 0 0 0

3 x2 cos x  sin x
d
[ f ( x)]  6 1 0
So, dx
p p2 p3

Again differentiating it, we get

6 x  sin x  cos x
d2
[ f ( x)]  6 1 0  Remaining two determinants as zero
dx2
p p2 p3

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 69

Differentiating it again at x = 0

6  cos x sin x
d3
[ f ( x)]  6 1 0  Remaining two determinants as zero
dx3
p p2 p3

at x = 0

6 1 0
d3
[ f ( x)]  6 1 0 0
dx3
p p2 p3

 d3 
 3 [ f ( x)]  0
 (i.e., independent of p)
 dx at x0

Illustration 67

If a i , bi  N for i = 1,2,3 then coefficient of x in the determinant;

(1  x )a1b1 (1  x )a1b2 (1  x )a1b3

(1  x )a 2b1 (1  x )a 2b2 (1  x )a 2b3
.
a 3b1 a 3b2 a 3b3
(1  x ) (1  x ) (a  x )

Solution :

(1  x) a1b1 (1  x) a1b2 (1  x) a1b3

(1  x) a2b1 (1  x) a2b2 (1  x) a2b3  A  Bx  Cx2  ...
Here,
(1  x) a3b1 (1  x) a3b2 (a  x) a3b3

Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get

a1 b1 (1  x) a1b1 1 (1  x) a1b2 (1  x) a1b3 (1  x) a1b1 a1 b2 (1  x) a1b2 1 (1  x) a1b3

 a2 b1 (1  x) a2b1 1 (1  x) a2b2 (1  x) a2b3  (1  x) a2b1 a2 b2 (1  x) a2b2 1 (1  x) a2b3
a3 b1 (1  x) a2b1 1 (1  x) a3b2 (1  x) a3b3 (1  x) a2b1 a3 b2 (1  x) a3b2 1 (1  x) a3b3

(1  x) a1b1 (1  x) a1b2 a1 b3 (1  x) a1b3 1

a2b3 1
 (1  x) a2b1 (1  x) a2b2 a2 b3 (1  x)  B  2C  ...
(1  x) a2b1 (1  x) a3b2 a3 b3 (1  x) a3b3 1

DIFFERENTIATION
 70 QUIZRR
Putting x  0 ;

a 1b1 1 1 1 a 1b2 1 1 1 a 1 b3
B  a2 b1 1 1  1 a 2 b2 1  1 1 a 2 b3
a3 b1 1 1 1 a 3 b2 1 1 1 a 3 b3

 B = 0

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS DEFINED BY PARAMETER

Par amet r ic E q uat ion
When both x and y are functions of a thrid variable t, then given equation are said to be
parametric equation and t is called the parameter.
Let x  f (t)

and y   (t) ...(i)

be function of variable t and inverse function of x  f (t) be t   ( x) , then

y   (t)   [ ( x)] ...(ii)

will be a function of x.
Equation (i) is the parametric form of equation (ii) and t is called the parametr.

dy
To find when parametric equations are given :
dx

Let x  f (t) and y   (t) , be differentiable functions of parameter t and t   ( x) be the inverse
function of function x  f (t) , then y   [ ( x)] , is a function of x and y is a function of t and t
is a function of x.

dy dy dt
Now  . (i)
dx dt dx

dt 1
But  (ii)
dx dx / dt

dy dy 1 dy / dt
 from (i),  . 
dx dt dx / dt dx / dt

dy dy / dt
Hence 
dx dx / dt

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 71

Working Rule :

dx dy
(i) If x and y are functions of parameter t, then find and separately.
dt dt

dy
(ii) Then find by the following formula
dx

dy dy / dt

dx dx / dt

Illustration 68

dy
If x  a (  sin ), y  a (1  cos ) , find .
dx

Solution :

dx
x  (  sin  )   a(1  cos  ) (i)
d

dy
and y  a (1  cso )   a(0  sin  )  a sin  (ii)
d

 
2 sin cos
Now, dy  dy / d   a sin   2 2
dx dx / d  a(1  cos ) 
2 cos2
2

Illustration 69

dy
If x  a cos3 , y  a sin , find .
dx

Solution :

x  a cos3 

dx d (cos3  ) d (cos )
 a .
d d cos d

dx
or  a.3cos2  ( sin  )  3a.cos2  sin  (i)
d

y  a sin3 

DIFFERENTIATION
 72 QUIZRR

dy d (sin 3  ) d (sin  )
 a .
d d sin  d

dy
or  a.3sin 2  .cos   3a sin 2  cos  (ii)
d

dy dy / d 3a.sin2  .cos 
Now,     tan 
dx dx / d 3a cos2  sin 

Illustration 70

dy
If x  log t  sin t, y  et  cos t , find .
dx
Solution :

dx 1
x  log t  sin t    cos t (i)
dt t

dy
and y  et  cos t   et  sin t (ii)
dt

dy dy / dt et  sin t t( et  sin t)
  
Now, dx dx / dt 1  cos t 1  t cos t
t

Illustration 71

d2y 
If x  a (cos    sin ), y  a (sin    cos ) , then find 2 at   .
dx 4

Solution :
x  a(cos   sin )

dx
  a( sin   1.sin    cos )  a cos (i)
d

and y  a (sin   cos  )

dy
  a[cos   (1.cos    ( sin  )]  a sin  (ii)
d

dy dy / d a. sin 
Now,    tan 
dx dx / d a cos

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 73

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

d2 y d d d
 (tan  )  (tan  ).
dx 2 dx d dx

1 1 sec 3 
 sec 2  .  sec 2  .  [from (i)]
dx / d a .cos  a


4  
3
sec3 2
 d2 y 8 2
 ,  .4 
 When 4 dx 2  a a
a.
4

Illustration 72

2t 2t dy
If sin x  , tan y  , find .
1 t 2
1t 2 dx

Solution :

2t 2t
sin x  2  x  sin 1 2
 2 tan1 t
1 t 1t

dx 1 2
  2. 
dt 1 t2
1  t2

2t 2t
and tan y   y  tan 1 2
 2 tan 1 t
2
1t 1 t

dy 1 2
  2.  (ii)
dt 1t2
1  t2

dy dy / dt
Now,  1.
dt dx / dt

Illustration 73

x ....
xa dy
If y  a , then find
dx
Solution :

x.... y
xa can be written as y  a x
y a

DIFFERENTIATION
 74 QUIZRR

 log y  x y log a

 log log y  y log x  log log a

Differentiating with respect to x :

1 1 dy 1 dy
 y  log x
log y y dx x dx

dy  1  y
   log x  
dx  y log y  x

dy y2 log y
 
dx x(1  y log x log y)

Illustration 74

A function f(x) satisfies the following property : f ( x  y)  f ( x ). f ( y)

Show that the function is continuous for all values of x if it is continuous at a = 1.
Solution :
As the function is continuous at x  1 , we have

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  f (1)

x1 x1

 lim f (1  h)  lim f (1  h)  f (1) [Using f ( x  y)  f (x). f ( y) ]

h 0 h 0

 lim f (1). f (h)  f (1)

h 0

 lim f ( h)  lim f ( h)  1 (i)

h 0 h 0

Now consider some arbitrary points x  a .

Left hand limit

lim f ( a  h)  lim f ( a). f ( h)  f ( a) lim f ( h)

h 0 h 0 h 0

LHL = f(a) (as hlim f ( h)  1 , using (i)]

0

Right hand limit

 lim f ( a  h)  lim f ( a). f ( h)  f (a) lim f ( h)

h 0 h 0 h 0

RHL = f(a) [as hlim f (h)  1, using (i)]

0

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 75

Hence, at any arbitrary point ( x  a)

LHl = RHL = f(a)
Therefore, function is continuous for all values of x, if it is continuous.

Illustration 75

Let f be a function such that f ( x  y)  f ( x )  f ( y) for all x and y and f ( x )  (2 x 2  3 x ) g ( x )

for all x where g(x) is continuous and g(0)=3. Then find f´(x).
Solution :

f ( x  h)  f ( x)
Here, f ( x)  lim
h0 h

f ( x)  f (h)  f ( x) f ( h)
 lim  lim
h 0 h h0 h

(2h2  3h) g (h)

 lim Ê
h 0 h

 lim (2h  3) g ( h)
h 0

 3 g (0)
= 9

 f ( x)  9 .

Illustration 76

d2y dy
If x  sin t and y  cos pt , show that (1  x 2 ) x  p2 y  0
dx 2 dx

Solution :

dy dy / dt  p sin pt
 
dx dx / dt cos t
As the equation to be drived does not contain t, we eliminate t using expressions for x and y

dy  p 1  y2

dx 1  x2

dy
 1  x2   p 1  y2
dx

DIFFERENTIATION
76 QUIZRR
As the equation to be derived does not contain any square root, we square and then differentiate.

2
 dy 
(1  x2 )  2 2
  p (1  y )
 dx 

2
dy d 2 y  dy   dy 
(1  x2 )2  (2 x)    p2  2 y 
dx dx 2
 dx   dx 

d2 y dy
 (1  x2 ) x   p2 y
dx2 dx

d2 y dy
 (1  x2 ) x  p2 y  0 .
dx2 dx

Illustration 77
Given a function g(x) which has derivatives g´(x) for every real and which satisfies the
following equation g ( x  y)  e y g ( x )  e x g ( y) for all x and y and g´(0) = 2. Show that

g ( x )  g ( x )  ce x also find c.
Solution :

Here, g ( x  y)  ey g ( x)  ex g ( y)

put x y0

g(0)  2 g(0)

 g(0)  0

g ( x  h)  g ( x)
Now, g ( x)  lim
h0 h

eh g ( x)  ex g (h)  g ( x)  lim g ( h)  e  1   ex g ( h)
h
 lim  
h 0 h h 0
 h  h

g ( h)  g (0)
 g ( x)  ex lim  g ( x)  ex g´(0)
h 0 h

g ( x)  g ( x)  2ex ,

Thus, g ( x)  g ( x)  cex

 c2

DIFFERENTIATION
 QUIZRR 1

2 . CON T I N U I T Y

2 .1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
Continuity in general means that you can draw the graph of a function without lifting your pen,
in its defined domain.

2 .2 Co t in u i t y a t a Po i n t
In practice, most functions of a real variable have domains that are intervals or unions of separate
intervals, and it is natural to restrict our study of continuity to functions with these domains. This
leaves us with only three kinds of points to consider : interior points (points lie in an open interval
in the domain), left endpoints, and right endpoints.

De f i n i t i o n
A function f is continuous at an interior point x = c of its domain if

lim f ( x)  f ( c)
xc

In Fig. the first function is continuous at x = 0. The function in (b) would be continuous if it had
f (0) = 1. The function in (c) would be continuous if f (0) were 1 instead of 2. The discontinuties in (b)
and (c) are removable. Each function has a limit as x  0, and we can remove the discontinuity by
setting f (0) equal to this limit.

y y y y

2
y = f(x) y = f(x) y = f(x)
y = f(x)
1 1 1 1

x x x x
0 0 0 0

(a) (b) (c) (d)

y y
1
y = f(x) = 2
x 1

x
0
x 1
0 y = sin x
ă1
(e) (f)

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 2 QUIZRR

The discontinuties in parts (d)ă(f) are more serious : limx0 f (x) does not exist and there is no
way to improve the situation by changing f at 0. The step function in (d) has a jump discontinuity
: the one-sided limits exists but have different values. The function f (x) = 1/x2 in (e) has an infinite
discontinuity. Jumps and infinite discontinuities are the ones most frequently encountered, but there
are others. The function in (f) is discontinuous at the origin because it oscillates too much to have a
limit as x  0.

2 .3 T y p e s o f d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
(1) Discontinuity of First kind : The point x = a will be a point of discontinuity of first type
if both right hand and left hand limits at x = a exist but are not equal, i.e.

Lt f  a  h   Lt f ( a  h)
h0 h0

(2) Discontinuity of Second kind : The point x = a will be a point of discontinuity of second
type if either or both the right hand and left hand limits do not exist or if either or both
the limits

Lt f  a  0  or Lt f ( a  0)
h0 h0 are infinite.

Removable Discontinuity : h  0 
Lt f a  h  = Lt f (a  h)
(3) h  0 i.e., limit exists but is not

equal to f (a) i.e., value, then the function is said to have a removable discontinuity. We can
re-define the function at x = a so that limit = value and thus the discontinuity has been
removed and the funtion has become continuous now.

2 .4 Co n t i n u i t y a t e n d p o i n t s
Continuity at end points is defined by taking one-sided limits.
Definition
A function f is continuous at a left end point x = a of its domain if

lim f ( x)  f (a) Continuity Two-sided Continuity

x  a from the right continuity from the left

and continuous at a right end point x = b of its

domain if y = f(x)

lim f ( x)  f (b) x
. a c b
x  b

In general, a function f is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = c in

its domain if limxc+ f (x) = f (c). It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at c if limxcă
f (x) = f (c). Thus, a function is continuous at a left end point a of its domain if it is right-continuous
at a and continuous at a right end point b of its domain if it is left-continuous at b. A function is

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 3

continuous at an interior point c of its domain if and only if it is both right-continuous and left-
continuous at c.
y

2 y = 4 ă x2

ă2 0 2
Continuous at every domain point

Example : The function f ( x)  4  x2 is continuous at every point of its domain, [ă 2, 2]. This

includes x = ă 2, where f is right-continuous, and x = 2, where f is left-continuous.

y = U(x)
1

x
0
Right-continuous at the origin

Example : The unit step function U (x) is right-continuous at x = 0, but is neither left-continuous nor
continuous there.
We summarize continuity at a point in the form of a test.

Co n t i n u i t y T e s t
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following three conditions.

1. f (c) exists (c lies in the domain of f)

2. limxc f (x) exists (f has a limit as x  c)

3. limxc f (x) = f (c) (the limit equals the function value)

For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in parts 2 and 3 of the test
should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 4 QUIZRR

Illustration 35
Consider the function y = f (x) whose domain is the closed interval [0, 4]. Discuss the
continuity of f at x = 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Solution : y
The continuity test gives the following results : y = f(x)
2
(a) f is continuous at x = 0 because
(i) f (0) exists (f(0) = 1) 1

(ii) limx0+ f(x) = 1 (the right-hand limit exists at x

0 1 2 3 4
this left end point) This function, defined on the
(iii) limx0+ f(x) = f (0)(the limit equals the function closed interval [0, 4] is
discontinuous at x = 1, 2, and 4.
value). It is continuous at all other
(b) f is discontinuous at x = 1 because limx1 f(x) does points of its domain
not exist. Part 2 of the test fails : f has different right- and left-hand limits at the interior
point x = 1. However, f is right-continuous at x = 1 because
(i) f (1) exists (f (1) = 1),
(ii) limx1+ f(x) = 1 (the right-hand limit exists at x = 1),
(iii) limx1+ f(x) = f (1)(the right-hand limit equals the function value).
(c) f is discontinuous at x = 2 because limx2 f (x)  f (2). Part 3 of the test fails.
(d) f is continuous at x = 3 because
(i) f (3) exists (f (3) = 2),
(ii) limx3 f(x) = 2 (the limit exists at x = 2),
(iii) limx3 f(x) = f (3) (the limit equals the function value).
(e) f is discontinuous at the right end point x = 4 because limx4ă f (x)  f (4). The right endpoint
version of part3 of the test fails.

2 .5 Ru l e s o f Co n t i n u i t y
If two functions are continuous at a point, then various algebraic combinations of those functions
are continuous at that point.
Continuity of Algebraic Combinations
If functions f and g are continuous at x = c, then the following functions are continuous at x = c :
1. f + g and f ă g
2. fg
3. kf, where k is any number
4. f/g (provided g (c)  0)
5. (f(x))m/n (provided f (x)m/n is defined on an interval containing c, and m and n are integers)
As a consequence polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every point where they
are defined.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 5

2. Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions

Every polynomial is continuous at every point of the real line. Every rational function is continuous
at every point where its denominator is different from zero.

Example :
The functions f (x) = x4 + 20 and g (x) = 5x (x ă 2) are continuous at every value of x. The function

f ( x) x4  20
r ( x)  
g ( x) 5 x  x  2 

is continuous at every value of x except x = 0 and x = 2, where the denominator is 0.

Example :
Continuity of f (x) = |x|
The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at every value of x (fig. 1.41). If x > 0, we have f (x) = x,
a polynomial. If x < 0, we have f (x) = ă x, another polynomial. Finally, at the origin, limx0 |x|
= 0 = |0|.
Example :
Continuity of trigonometric functions
y=x
The functions sin x and cos x are continuous at every value 3
y=x y=x
of x. Accordingly, the quotients
2
sin x cos x 1
tan x = cot x =
cos x sin x x
ă3 ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3
1 1 The sharp corner does not prevent
sec x = cos x = the function from being continuous at
cos x sin x
the origin (Example 58)
are continuous at every point where they are defined.
Note : If f is continuous at c, and g is continuous at f (c), then g o f is continuous at c (see Fig.).

g.f
Continuous at c
f g
Continuous Continuous
at c at f(c)
c f(c) g(f(c))

The continuity of composites holds for any finite number of functions. The only requirement is
that each function be continuous where it is applied.
A function f is said to be continuous on an interval I in its domain if limxc f (x) = f (c) at
every interior point c and if the appropriate one-sided limits equal the function values at any end points
I may contain. A function continuous on an interval I is automatically continuous on any interval
contained in I. Polynomials are continuous on every interval, and rational functions are continuous on
every interval on which they are defined.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 6 QUIZRR

So m e e x a m p l e s o f Fu n c t io n s c o n t i n u o u s o n i n t e rv a l s
y y

2 y = 4 ă x2 y= 1
x

x x
ă2 0 2 0

(a) Continuous on [ă2, 2] (b) Continuous on (ă, 0) and (0, )

y y
1
y = U(x) y = cos x
1
x
0

x
0
(c) Continuous on (ă, 0) and (0, ) (d) Continuous on (ă, )

Functions that are continuous on intervals have properties that make them particularly useful in
mathematics and its applications. One of these is the intermediate value property. A function is said
to have the intermediate value property if it never takes on two values without taking on all the
values in between.
The Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose f (x) is continuous on an interval I, and a and b are any two points of I. Then if y0 is
a number between f (a) and f (b), there exists a number c between a and b such that f (c) = y0.

y
y = f(x)
f(b)
y
y = [x],
y 1 0<x<1
0
f(a)

x x
0 a c b 0 1
Fig. 1. The function f, being continuous on [a, b], Fig. 2. The function f(x) = [x], 0 < x < 1, does not
takes on every value between f(a) and f(b) take on any value between f(0) = 0 and f(1) = 1

The continuity of f on I is essential to the theorem. If f is discontinuous at even one point of I,

the theoremÊs conclusion may fail, as it does for the function graphed in Fig. 2.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 36

x3
If possible, find the value of Lt
x 0 x
Solution :
L.H. limit : In this case x < 0  x3 < 0
 |x3| = ă x3.

x3  x3 
Now, Lt
x00
f ( x)  Lt
x00 x
 Lt    Lt  x2  0
x  0  x  x  0
  
R.H. limit : In this case x > 0  x3 > 0  |x3| = x3

x3
Now, Lt
x00
f ( x)  Lt
x00 x
 Lt
 x3
x0 x
 Lt x2  0
x0
 
Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  0  Lt f ( x)  0
 x00 x00 x0

Since L.H.L. = R.H.L. Limit exists

Illustration 37

x2  4
Does Lt exist ?
x 2 x 2

Solution :

x2  4
Let f ( x) 
x2

L.H. limit : In this case x < 2  x ă 2 < 0  |x ă 2| = ă (x ă 2)

x2  4
Now Lt f ( x)  Lt  Lt  ( x  2) = ă 4
x20 x2 2 x x2

R.H. limit : In this case x > 2  x ă 2 > 0  |x ă 2| = x ă 2

x2  4 x2  4
Now Lt f ( x)  Lt  Lt  Lt ( x  2) = 4)
x20 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2

x2  4
 Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x) i.e. Lt does not exist.
x20 x20 x2 x2 x2

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 8 QUIZRR

Illustration 38

x 3  x 2  16 x  20
If f (x) = , when x  2
 x  22
= k, when x = 2
and f (x) is continuous at x = 2, find the value of k. [I.I.T. 81]
Solution : Given, f (2) = k ...(1)

x3  x2  16 x  20
Lt f ( x) Lt f ( x)  Lt
Now x  2  0 = x20 x2  x  2 2

x3  2 x2  3 x2  6 x  10 x  20
 Lt
x2  x  2 2

 Lt
 x  2  x2  3 x  10 
x2  x  2 2

 x  2  x  2  x  5 
 Lt  Lt  x  5   7
x2  x  2 2 x2

 f (x) is continuous at x = 2

Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  f (2),
 x20 x20  k= 7

Illustration 39
Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0, where

1
ex
,
f (x) = 1 when x  0 = 0, when x = 0
1  ex

Solution :
Given, f (0) = 0
1
L.H. limit : In this case x < 0  Lt  
x  0  0  x

1
ex 0
Lt f ( x)  Lt  0
 x00 x0 1 10
1  ex
LIMITS & CONTINUITY
 QUIZRR 9

1
R.H. limit : In this case x > 0  Lt  
x  0  0  x

1
ex 1 1
Lt f ( x)  Lt  Lt  1
 x00 x0 1 x0 1
1 01
1  ex 1/
x
e

Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)
Since x  0  0 x  0  0

 f (x) is discontinuous at x = 0.

Illustration 40
The function

x2
f (x) = if 0  x < 1
a

= a, if 1  x  2

2b 2  4b
= , if 2x
x2
is continuous for 0  x < ; then find the most suitable values of a and b.
Solution :
Given, f(1) = a

x2 1 Lt f ( x)  Lt a  a
Lt f ( x)  Lt 
x10 x10 a a and x  1  0 x  a

2b2  4b
Given, f  
2   b2  2b
 2
2

Lt f ( x)  Lt (a)  a
x 2 0 x 20

2b2  4b
Lt f ( x)  Lt ( a)  a  b2  2b
and x 20 x 20
x2

 f(x) is continuous in [0, ]

 it is continuous at x = 1 and x = 2

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

10 QUIZRR

Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  f (1) 1
or  a a   1
x 10 x 10 a

Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  f ( 2) or a = b2  2b
and
x  2 0 x  2 0
or, b2 ă 2b ă a = 0
When a = 1, b2 ă 2b ă 1 = 0

22 2
 b=  1 2
2
When a = ă1, b2 ă 2b + 1 = 0, (b ă 1)2 = 0 or b = 1
Answer a = 1, b = 1  2 ; a = ă 1, b = 1

Illustration 41
Determine the constants a , b, c for which the function

 1
 1  a x 
/x
x  0
 b
 x 0
f (x)  
  x  c  /3  1
1
x  0
 1
  x  1 / 2  1

is continuous at x = 0
Solution :
For function to be continuous at x = 0
RHL = LHL = f (0) &
RHL & LHL should be finite
now, solving first LHL at x = 0

lim f ( x)  lim f  0  h   lim f ( h)

x0 h0 h0

1
=  lim 1  h  h
h0

 1 
= ea using lim 1  f ( x) 
/ f ( x)
 e
 f ( x)  0 

lim f ( x)  lim f (0  h)
RHL = x  0 x0

1
 h  c /3
1
lim
= 1
h  0 /2  1
 h  1
LIMITS & CONTINUITY
 MATRICES &
DETERMINANTS
 QUIZRR 3

M ATRICES

Matrix Definition :

Matrix is a rectangular array of real complex numbers in rows and columns. A matrix is denoted by the capital letters A, B, C
etc. If there are m rows and n columns in the matrix, then the matrix is called a m ï n matrix.
Let us consider the following system of equations
x + 2y + 3z = 11
2x ă y ă z = ă 3
3x + 4y + 2z = 17
If we arrange the coefficients of x, y and z in the order in which they occur in the given equations and enclose them in brackets,
we get the following rectangular array of numbers.

1 2 3  1 2 3 
2  1  1  2  1  1
  or  
3 4 2   3 4 2 

This type of rectangular array of numbers has been given the name matrix. The horizontal lines are called rows and the vertical
lines are called columns.

1 2 3  1 2 3 
Example : A    or A   
3 2  4 3 2  4 
Here A is a 2 × 3 matrix because A has two rows and three columns.

Element of a matrix :

The numbers occurring in the rectangular array (matrix) are called the elements of the matrix. The elements of the matrix denoted
by the capital letters are usually denoted by the corresponding small letters with lower suffixes. Thus the element of the ith row
and jth column of the matrix denoted by the capital letter A is usually denoted by the corresponding small letter aij. The matrix
A is sometimes also written as (a ij ) or [a ij ].

Definition :

A set of mn numbers (real or complex) in the form of m horizontal lines (called rows) and n vertical line (called columns), is called
an m ï n matrix (to be read as m and n matrix).

Type of Matrices :

(a) Row Matrix : If a matrix has only one row and any number of columns, is called row matrix or row vector.

For example : A   2 3 4 5 and B  1  i 2 1  i are row matrices of order 1 ï 4 and 1 ï 3 respectively.

1  i 
2  i 
Column matrix or column vector : For example, A    and B   2  are column matrices of orders 4 ï 1
(b)
 3  4 
 
 
 w 
and 2 ï 1 respectively.
(c) Square matrix : A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is called a Square Matrix.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

4 QUIZRR
Thus m ï n matrix A will be a square matrix if m = n, and it will be termed as a square matrix of order n or n-rowed
square matrix.
Diagonal Elements : In a square matrix all those elements aij for which i = j i.e. all those elements which occur in the
same row and same column namely a11.a22.a33 are called the diagonal elements and the line along which they lie is called
the principal diagonal. Also the sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called trace of A.
i.e. a11 + a22 + a33 + ... = Trace of A
In general a 11 , a 22 , ... a nn are the diagonal elements of n-rowed square matrix and
a11 + a22 + ... a = Trace of A.
(d) Diagonal Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal elements be zero.

1 0 0   d1 0 0 
0 4 0   
Thus   or  0 d2 0 
0 0 8   0 0 d3 

Above are diagonal matrices of the type 3 ï 3. These are in short written as
Diag [1, 4, 8] or Diag [d 1, d2, d 3]
(e) Scalar Matrix : A diagonal matrix [i.e. all non-diagonal elements being zero] whose all the diagonal elements are equal
is called a scalar matrix.

3 0 0  d 0 0 
0 3 0   
Thus   or  0 d 0 
0 0 3   0 0 d 

are both scalar matrics of type 3 ï 3.

In general for a scalar matrix,
aij = 0 for i  j and aij = d for i = j
(f) Unit Matrix : A square matrix A all of whose non-diagonal elements are zero (i.e. it is a diagonal matrix) and also the
diagonal elements are unity is called a unit matrix or an identity matrix.

1 0 0 0
1 0 0  0
0 1 0   1 0 0 
Thus   and 0 0 1 0
0 0 1   
0 0 0 1 

are unit matrices of order 3 and 4 respectively. In general for a unit matrix
aij = 0 for i  j and aij = 1 for i = j
They are generally denoted by I3, I4 or In where 3, 4, n denote the order of the square matrix. In case the order be known
then we may simply denote it by I.
(g) Zero matrix or Null Matrix : Any m ï n matrix in which all the elements are zero is called a zero matrix or null matrix
of the type m ï n and is denoted by Omï n.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 5

0 0  0 0 0 
0 0  , 0 0 0  , 0 0 0 0 
Thus     0 0 0 0 
 0 0  0 0 0   

All the above are zero or null matrices of the type 3 ï 2, 3 ï 3 and 2 ï 4 respectively.
Trace of a Matrix : The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A (say) is called the trace of a matrix A.

2  7 9 
For example, If A  0 3 2 
8 9 4 

Then Trace of A = 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 or (A) = 9

(h) Horizontal Matrix : Any matrix in which the number of columns is more than the number of rows is called a horizontal
matrix.

2 3 4 5 
8 9 7  2 
For example,   is a horizontal matrix.
 2  2  3 4 

Since here no. of columns > no. of rows.

(i) Vertical Matrix : Any matrix in which the number of rows is more than the number of columns is called matrix.

2 3
4 5 
For example,  is a column matrix.
6 7
 
8 9 

since here no. of rows > no. of columns.

(j) Sub Matrix : A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix by deleting any number of rows and number of columns
is called a sub-matrix of the given matrix.

 3 4
For example,   is a sub matrix of
  2 3

8 9 5 
2 
 3 4 
3 2 3 

(k) Upper Triangular Matrix : A square matrix in which all elements below the leading diagonal are zero, is called Upper
Triangular Matrix.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 6 QUIZRR

 3 2 4 1 
 0 2 3 2 
 
For example,  0 0 7 5  is an upper triangular matrix.
 
 0 0 0 8 

(l) Lower Triangular Matrix : A square matrix in which all elements above the leading diagonal are zero is called Lower
Triangle Matrix.

2 0 0
3 4 0 
For example,  is a lower triangular matrix.
 2 8 6 

Difference between a Matrix and a Determinant

(i) A matrix can not be reduced to a number but determinant can be reduced to a number.
(ii) The number of rows may or may not be equal to the number of columns in matrices but in determinant the number of
rows is equal to the number of columns.
(iii) On interchanging the rows and columns, a different matrix is formed but in determinant it does not change the value.
(iv) A square matrix A such that |A|  0, is called a non-singular matrix if |A|´ = 0, then the matrix A is called a singular
matrix.
(v) Matrices represented by [ ], ( ), | | | | but determinant is represented by | |.

Illustration 1

Write down the matrix A   a ij  2 2 where a ij = 2i ă 3j.

Solution : aij = 2i ă 3j
 aij = 2.1 ă 3.1 = ă 1, a12 = 2.1 ă 3.2 = 4. a13 = 2.1 ă 3.3 = ă 7
a21 = 2.2 ă 3.1 = 1, a22 = 2.2 ă 3.2 = ă 2, a23 = 2.2 ă 3.3 = ă 5

 1  4  7 
 A 
 1  2  5

Illustration 2

Construct a 3 ï 3 matrix A = [a ij ], where a ij = |2i ă j|.

Solution :
Required matrix is having 3 rows and 3 columns.

 a11 a12 a13 

a a22 a23 
A =  21
 a31 a32 a33 

a11 = |2 ï 1 ă 1| = 1 a12 = |2 ï 1 ă 2| = 0 a13 = |2 ï 1 ă 3| = |ă 1| = 1

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 7
a21 = |2 ï 1 ă 1| = 3 a22 = |2 ï 2 ă 2| = 2 a23 = |2 ï 2 ă 3| =1
a31 = |2 ï 3 ă 1| = 5 a32 = |2 ï 3 ă 2| = 4 a33 = |2 ï 3 ă 3| =3

1 0 1 
A  3 2 1 
Required matrix is  
5 4 3

Illustration 3

 i  j , if i  j

A ij   i  j , if i  j
Construct a 4 ï 3 matrix A = [a ij ], where
 i  j , if i  j


Solution :
Required matrix is having 4 rows and 3 columns.

 a11 a12 a13 

a a22 a23 
A   21
 a31 a32 a33 
 
 a41 a42 a43 

a11 = 1 ï 1 = 1 ( i = j)
a12 = 1 + 2 = 3 ( i < j)
a13 = 1 + 3 = 4 ( i < j)
a21 = 2 ă 1 = 1 ( i > j)
a22 = 2 ï 2 = 4 ( i = j)
a23 = 2 + 3 = 5 ( i < j)
a31 = 3 ă 1 = 2 ( i > j)
a32 = 3 ă 2 = 1 ( i > j)
a33 = 3 ï 3 = 9 ( i = j)
a41 = 4 ă 1 = 3 ( i > j)
a42 = 4 ă 2 = 2 ( i > j)
a43 = 4 ă 3 = 1 ( i > j)

1 3 4
1 4 5 
Required matrix is A  
2 1 9
 
3 2 1 

Equality of Matrices :

Comparable matrices. Two matrices are said to be comparable if their orders are same.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 8 QUIZRR
Equal matrices. Two matrices are said to be equal if :
(i) Their orders are same
(ii) Their corresponding elements are same
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are two equal matrices, then
(i) order of A = order of B
(ii) aij = bij  i and j. i.e., (i, j)th element of A = (i, j)th element of B.

Illustration 4

 x  y 2 x  y  3 3 
 y  z 7 y  z    4 4  , find x, y and z.
   
Solution :
x+y=3 and 2x ă y = 3
Solving them we get, x=2 and y=1
y+z=4 and 7y ă z = 4
Solving them we get, y=1 and z=3

Algebra of Matrices

(i) Addition of Matrices : Two matrices A and B can be added only if A and B are of same order. Sum is obtained by adding
the corresponding elements of A and B.
If A = [aij]m ï n
and B = [bij]m ï n,
then, A + B = [aij]m ï n
+ [bij]m ï n
= [aij + bij]m ï n

1 5 2  4 9 8 
For example : If A  and B 
3 7 6  3 6 1
then, since order of A and B is same, both are 2 ï 3 matrices.
Therefore, we can add A and B.

1 5 2 4 9 8  1  4 57 2  8  5 14 10 
A B       
3 7 6   3 6 1   3  3 76 6  1  6 13 7 

Difference of matrices A and B of same order is obtained by adding A and ă B. ă B is obtained by changing the sign of each
element of B.
A ă B can also be obtained by subtracting from the elements of A the corresponding elements of B. A and B must be of same
order.
For A and B of last example,

1 5 2  4 9 8  1  4 5  9 2  8   3  4  6 
AB    
 3 7 6   3 6 1  3  3 7  6 6  1   0 1 5 

Properties of Matrix Addition :

Property I : Matrix addition is commutative i.e. if A and B be any two m ï n matrices, then A + B = B + A.

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Property II : Matrix addition is associative i.e. if A, B and C be three m ï n matrices, then
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Property III : Cancellation laws hold good for addition of matrices
i.e. if A, B, C, be any three m ï n matrices, then
(i) A + B = A + C  B = C (left cancellation law)
(ii) B + A = C + A  B = C (right cancellation law)
(i) Negative of a Matrix : If A be a given Matrix then ă A is called the negative of matrix A and all its elements are the
corresponding elements of A multiplied by ă 1.

2 3  1
Thus if A =  
6  4 2 

 2  3 1 
then ă A =  
  6 4  2
(ii) Scalar Multiple of a Matrix : If A be a given matrix and k is any scalar number real or complex. [We call it scalar k
to distinguish it from matrix [k] which is 1 ï 1 matrix] then by matrix kA = Ak is meant the matrix all of whose elements
are k times of the corresponding elements of A.

2 3 1 
If A =  
5 2 4 

3.2 3.3 3.1 

then 3A =  
3.5 3.2 3.4 

6 9 3 
or 3A =  
15 6 12

  4.2  4.3  4.1 

Similarly ă 4A =  
  4.5  4.2  4.4 

  8  12  4 
=  
  20  8  16 
II. Subtraction of Matrices :
i.e. A ă B. This can be proceeded as follows A + (ă B) i.e. negative of B is added to matrix B.

Illustration 5

3 2 1  7 5 3  , find matrix Y.
If X    and 2X + Y 
15 11 19 
7 5 9   
Solution :

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 10 QUIZRR

3 2 1  6 4 2 
2X = 2   
7 5 9  14 10 18

7 5 3 
Now, 2X + Y =  
15 11 19 

6 4 2  7 5 3 
  + Y =  
14 10 18  15 11 19 

7 5 3  6 4 2 
 Y =   ă  
15 11 19  14 10 18 

 76 54 3  2  1 1 1
=   
15  14 11  10 19  18  1 1 1

Illustration 6

8 9 10  13 12 11
Find matrix X and Y such that 2X + Y    and X + 2Y  
11 12 13  10 9 8 

Solution :

8 9 10 
2X + Y   
11 12 13
Multiplying both sides by 2, we get :

16 18 20
4X + 2Y =   ...(i)
22 24 26 

13 12 11
Subtracting, X + 2Y =   ...(ii)
10 9 8 

16 18 20 
from equation (i) 4X + 2Y =  
22 24 26 

13 12 11
X + 2Y =  
10 9 8 

ă ă ă

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 QUIZRR 11

16 18 20  13 12 11 3 6 9 

3X =   ă   =  
22 24 26  10 9 8  12 15 18 

1 3 6 9  1 2 3 
 X =   
3 12 15 18 4 5 6 
Putting the value of X in equation (ii), we get

1 2 3  13 12 11
   2Y =  
4 5 6  10 9 8 

13 12 11 1 2 3  12 10 8 

 2Y =      2Y   
10 9 8  4 5 6  6 4 2 

1 12 10 8  6 5 4
 Y =   
2  6 4 2  3 2 1

Illustration 7

If  is an imaginary cube root of unity, show that

 1  2     2 1    2 1  
 2   2   
   1    1     1  2 
is a null matrix.
 2 1  1    
    2    2 1 

Solution :

 1  2    2 1  2 1  
 2   2   2
   1    1     1   
 2 1  1    
   2    2 1 

1    2 1    2 1    2 
  0 0 0 
2 2 2  
= 1     1     1       0 0 0  , which is a null matrix.
 
2 2 2
1     1     1      0 0 0 

Matrix Multiplication

If A = [aij]m ï p
B = [bij]pï n and then C = AB = [Cik]m ï n

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 12 QUIZRR

p
where Cik =  aij b jk
j 1

i.e. Cik = aij bik + a12 b2k + ... aip bpk

In other words Cik = Sum of the products of nth row of A (having p elements) with kth column of B (having p elements). This
is known as row by coloum multiplication of matrices.
It may be noted that in determinants we have row by row or column by column multiplication.

Illustration 8

 2 3
1  2 3  4 5
If A    and B  compute AB and show that AB  BA.
  4 2 5  23  
 2 1 
32

Solution :
A is 2 ï 3 type and B is 3 ï 2 type and hence both AB and BA are defined because the number of columns in pre-factor is
equal to the number of rows in post-factor.

AB =
 1.2  2.4  3.2 1.3  2.5  3.1 
 
  4.2  2.4  5.2  4.3  2.5  5.1

 0  4
=  
10 3  2  2

 2 3
   1  2 3
BA =  4 5  4 2 5
 2 1   2  3
32

  10 2 21
  16 2 37 
=
 
  2  2 11 
33

Hence AB  BA
If A and B be two matrices then their product is defined or in other words A is conformable to B for multiplication if the number
of columns of A is the same as the number of rows in B. i.e., If be m ï p and p ï n, the matrix AB will be of the type
m ï n.

Properties of matrix multiplication

(a) Multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to addition of matrices.

i.e. A (B + C) = AB + AC.
(b) Matri multiplication is associative if conformability is assured.
i.e. A (BC) = (AB) C.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 13
(c) The multiplication of matrices is not always commutative i.e. AB is not always equal to BA.
(d) Multiplication of a matrix A by a null matrix conformable with A for multiplication is a null matrix i.e. A0 = 0.
In particular if A be a square matrix and O be square null matrix of the same order, then AO = OA = O.
(e) If AB = O then it does not necessarily mean that A = O or B = O or both are O as shown below.

 0 1  1 0   0 0 
   
 0 0  0 0   0 0 
None of the matrices on the left is a null matrix whereas their product is a null matrix.
(f) Multiplication of matrix A by a unit matrix I : Let A be a m ï n matrix and I be a square unit matrix of order n,
so that A and I are conformable for multiplication, then
AIn = A.
Similarly for IA to exist I should be square unit matrix of order m and in that case ImA = A

Illustration 9

 4 2
  1 2 4 
Find AB, where A  1 6 , B   
 
 3 5  3 5 1 

Solution :
Order of A is 3 ï 2 and that of B is 2 ï 3. Number of columns in A is 2 and number of rows in B is 2, therefore product AB
is defined and order of AB is 3 ï 3.

4 2   a11 a12 a13 

1 6  1 2 4    a 
AB =   3 5 1   21 a22 a23 
 3 5     a31 a32 a33 
33

 1st 
 
column  1 
a11 = [1st row of A]   [4 2]   = 4 ï 1 + 2 ï 3 = 10
 of  3 
 
 B 

 2nd 
 
 column   2
a12 st
= [1 row of A]  [4 2]   = 4 ï 2 + 2 ï 5 = 18
 of  5 
 
 B 

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

14 QUIZRR

 3rd 
 
a13 = [1st row of A]  column   [4 2]
4  = 4 ï 4 + 2 ï 1 = 18
 of  1 
 
 
 B 

 1st 
 
column   [1 6] 1 
a21 = [2nd row of A]  3 = 1 ï 1 + 6 ï 3 = 19
of   
 
 B 

 2nd 
 
column   [1 6] 2 
a22 = [2nd row of A]  5  = 1 ï 2 + 6 ï 5 = 32
of   
 
 B 

 3rd 
 
column   [1 6] 4 
a23 = [2nd row of A]  1  = 1 ï 4 + 6 ï 1 = 10
of   
 
 B 

 1st 
 
column   [3 5] 1 
a31 rd
= [3 row of A]   3 = 3 ï 1 + 5 ï 3 = 18
of   
 
 B 

 2nd 
 
column   [3 5]  2 
a32 rd
= [3 row of A]   5  = 3 ï 2 + 5 ï 5 = 31
of   
 
 B 

 3rd 
 
 column  4 
a33 rd
= [3 row of A]  [3 5]   = 3 ï 4 + 5 ï 1 = 17
 of  1 
 
 B 

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 QUIZRR 15

 a11 a12 a13  4  1  2  3 4  2  2  5 4  4  2  1

AB   a21 a22 a23   1  1  6  3 1  2  6  5 1  4  6  1 
 a31 a32 a33   3  1  5  3 3  2  5  5 3  4  5  1 

10 18 18 
19 32 10 
=  
18 31 17

Illustration 1 0

2 3
1  2 3   4 5  find AB and BA and show that AB  BA.
If A    and B 
 4 2 5   
 2 1 

Solution :
A is a 2 ï 3 matrix and B is a 3 ï 2 matrix
 AB is defined and it will be a 2 ï 2 matrix.

2 3 
1  2 3   
Now AB = A    4 5 
  4 2 5 
2 1 

 286 3  10  3   0  4 
=   
  8  8  10  12  10  5 10 3 
Since B is a 3 ï 2 matrix and A is a 2 ï 3 matrix
 BA is defined and it will be a 3 ï 3 matrix.

 2 3
1  2 3 
BA  4 5 
Again  4 2 5 
 2 1  

 2  12  4  6 6  15   10 2 21
4  20  8  10 12  25    16 2 37 
= 
 2  4 4 2 6  5    2 2 11 

Clearly AB  BA.

Illustration 1 1

 4 3
If A   2
 and A ă a A + bI = 0, find a and b.
 2 5 

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Solution :

 4 3  4 3
A 2 = A.A =   
 2 5  2 5

4  4  3  2 4  3  3  5 22 27
=  
2  4  5  2 2  3  5  5  18 31
 

 4 3   4 a  3a 
ă aA = ă a    
 2 5   2a  5a 

1 0   b 0 
bI = b    
 0 1  0 b 
Now, A2 ă aA + bI = 0

22 27   4 a  3a   b 0  0 0 
         
18 31   2a  5a   0 b  0 0 

22  4 a  b 27  3a  0 0 
   
 18  2a 31  5a  b  0 0 

 22 ă 4a + b = 0, 27 ă 3a = 0
18 ă 2a = 0 and 31 ă 5a + b = 0
Solving them, we get : a = 9 and b = 14

Illustration 1 2

 1 3 2  1 

Find the value of x if 1 x 1 2 5 1
  2  0
  
15 3 2   x 

Solution :

 1 3 2  1 
1 x 1  2 5 1   2   0
15 3 2  x

1 

1  1  x  2  1  15 1  3  x  5  1  3 1  2  x  1  1  2  2  0
 x

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1 
2 x  16 5x  6 x  4   2 
 =0
 x

 [(2x + 16) ï 1 + (5x + 6) ï 2 + (x + 4) ï x] =0

 [2x + 16 + 10x + 12 + x2 + 4x] = 0
 [x2 + 16x + 28] =0
2
 x + 16x + 28 =0
 (x + 2) (x + 14) =0
 x = ă 2, ă 14
 x=ă2 or x = ă 14

Illustration 1 3

 cos  sin    cos 2 cos 2 

If A   2
 , show that A   
  sin  cos     sin 2 cos 2 
Solution :
A2 = A.A

cos2   sin 2  
 cos  sin    cos  sin    cos  sin   sin  cos 
   sin  cos  
=   sin  cos     sin  cos    sin 2   cos2  
  cos  sin 
 

cos2   sin2  2sin  cos    cos 2 sin 2

=  2 
  
  2sin  cos  cos   sin    sin 2 cos 2
2

Illustration 1 4

 cos x  sin  0 
 
If f () =  sin  cos  0  , show that f (x).f(y) = f (x + y)
 0 0 1 

Solution :

cos x  sin x 0  cos y  sin y 0 

sin x cos x 0  , f ( y)  sin y cos y 0 
f (x) =  
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

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cos( x  y)  sin( x  y) 0 
sin( x  y) cos( x  y) 0 
f (x + y) =  
 0 0 1 

cos x  sin x 0  cos y  sin y 0

sin x cos x 0  sin y cos y 0 
Now, f (x). f (y) =   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

 cos x cos y  sin x sin y  cos x sin y  sin x cos y 0 

sin x cos y  cos x sin y  sin x sin y  cos x cos y 0 
=  
 0 0 1 

cos( x  y)  sin( x  y) 0 
sin( x  y) cos( x  y) 0 
=   = f (x + y)
 0 0 1 

Illustration 1 5

 0 
  tan   cos   sin  
If A   2 then show that : I2 + A = (I2 ă A) 
 tan   sin  cos  
 2 0 

Solution :


Let tan = t then
2

 
1  tan 2 2 2 tan
2t
cos =
2  1  t and sin   2 
 1  t2 2 1  t2
1  tan 2 1  tan
2 2

1 0  0  t 1  t
Now, L.H.S. = I2 + A =    
0 1   t 0   t 1 

 1  t2  2t 
 
1  t
2 1  t2 
R.H.S. = (I2 ă A)  2t 1  t2 
 
 1  t2 1  t2 

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

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1 0  0  t  1  t2  2t  1 1  t2  2t  1
=         .
0 1   t 0    2t 1  t  1  t
2 2
 2t 1  t2  1  t2

 1  t2  2t2  2t  t  t3  1  1  t2  t (1  t2 )  1
=     
2
  t  t3  2t 2 2
2t  1  t  1  t 2
t(1  t ) 1  t 2
 1  t2

1  t 1  t2 1  t
=    
t 1  1  t t 1 
2

cos   sin  
 I2 + A = (I2 ă A)  
sin  cos  

Illustration 1 6

Three shopkeepers A, B and C go to a store to buy stationary. A purchases 12 dozen notebooks, 5 dozen pens and 6 dozen
pencils, B purchases 10 dozen notebooks, 6 dozen pens and 7 dozen pencils and C purchases 11 dozen notebooks, 13 dozen
pens and 8 dozen pencils. A notebook costs 40 paise, a pen costs Rs. 1.25 and a pencil costs 35 paise. Use matrix multiplication
to calculate each individualÊs bill.
Solution :
Cost of one dozen notebooks is Rs. 12 ï 0.40 = Rs. 4.80, cost of one dozen pens is
Rs. 12 ï 1.25 = Rs. 15 and cost of one dozen pencils is
Rs. 12 ï 0.35 = Rs. 4.20.
Purchases madey by A, B and C can be represented by a 3 ï 3 matrix X as
Notebook Pen Pencil
A 12 5 6
B 10 6 7
C 11 13 8

12 5 6 
10 6 7 
X =  
11 13 8 

Cost per dozen can be represented by a 3 ï 1 matrix Y as

4.80 
 15 
Y =  
4.20 

Now, product XY will give the bills of A, B and C

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 20 QUIZRR

 A's bill  12 5 6  4.80 

 B's bill     
  = XY = 10 6 7   15 
 C's bill  11 13 8  4.20 

 12 ï 4.80 + 5 ï 15 + 6 ï 4.20  157.80 

 10 ï 4.80 + 6 ï 15 + 7 ï 4.20   167.40 
=    
11 ï 4.80 + 13 ï 15 + 8 ï 4.20  281.40 

 AÊs bill is of Rs. 157.80

BÊs bill is of Rs. 167.40
and CÊs bill is of Rs. 281.40.

Various Kinds of Matrices

(i) Idempotent Matrix : A square matrix A is called idempotent provided it satisfies the relation A2 = A.

Illustration 1 7

 2  2  4
 4  is idempotent.
Show that the matrix A   1 3

 1  2  3 

Solution :

 2 2  4  2  2  4
 1 3 4     1 3 4 
A2 = A.A = 
 1  2  3   1  2  3 

2.2  ( 2).( 1)  ( 4).1 2( 2)  ( 2).3  ( 4).( 2) 2.( 4)  ( 2).4  ( 4).( 3) 

 ( 1).2  3.( 1)  4.1 ( 1).( 2)  3.3  4.( 2) ( 1).( 4)  3.4  4.( 3) 
= 
1.2  ( 2).( 1)  ( 3).1 1.( 2)  ( 2).3  ( 3).( 2) 1.( 4)  ( 2).4  ( 3).( 3) 

 2 2  4
 1 3 4 
=  = A.
 1  2  3 

Hence the matrix A is idempotent.

(ii) Periodic Matrix : A square matrix A is called periodic, if Ak+1 = A, where k is a positive integer. If k is the least positive integer
for which Ak+1 = A, then k is said to be period of A. For k = 1, we get A2 = A and we called it to be idempotent matrix.
(iii) Nilpotent Matrix : A square matrix A is called Nilpotent matrix of order m provided it satisfies the relation Ak = 0 and Akă

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 21

1
 0, where k is positive integer and 0 is null matrix and k is the order of the nilpotent matrix A.

Illustration 1 8

1 1 3 
 6  is nilpotent matrix of order 3.
Show that  5 2
 2 1  3 

Solution : Let

1 1 3 
5 2 6 
A = 
 2 1  3 

1 1 3  1 1 3
5 2 6    5 2 6 
A2= A.A = 
 2  1  3  2 1 3

 156 123 369 

5  10  12 546 15  12  18 
= 
 2  5  6  223  6  6  9 

0 0 0 
3 3 9 
= 
 1  1  3 

0 0 0   1 1 3 
 3 3 9    5 2 6 
 A3 = A2.A =  
  1  1  3    2  1  3 

 0  0  10 0  0  0 000  0 0 0 
3  15  18 3  6  9 9  18  37  
=   = 0 0 0 
  1  5  6  1  2  3  3  6  9  0 0 0 

 A3 = 0 i.e., Ak = 0
Hence A is nilpotent of order 3.

(iv) Involutory Matrix : A square matrix A is called involutory provided it satisfies the relation
A2 = I, where I is identity matrix.

Illustration 1 9

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 22 QUIZRR

 5  8 0 
 0  is involutory.
Show that the matrix A  3 5

 1 2  1

Solution :

 5  8 0   5  8 0 
 3 5 0    3 5 0 
A2 = A.A = 
 1 2  1  1 2  1

 25  24  0 40  40  0 0  0  0 
  15  15  0  24  25  0 0  0  0 
=  
  5  6  1  8  10  2 0  0  1 

1 0 0 
0 1 0 
=  
0 0 1 

=I
Hence the given matrix A is involutory.

Transpose of a matrix

Let A be any matrix then the matrix obtained by interchanging its rows and columns is called the transpose of AO and is denoted
by A´ or AT. If A is a m ï n matrix then A´ will be a n ï m matrix.

1 2
 1 2 3  
Example : A    , then A '   2 0 
 2 0 5
 3 5 

i = 1, 2, ..., m
Note : If A = |aij|;
j = 1, 2, ..., n
j = 1, 2, ... n
Then A´ = [a ji ];
i = 1, 2, ..., m

Property of transpose of Matrices :

Property I. (A + B)´ = A´ + B´
Property II. If A is any matrix, then (A´)´ = A
Property III. If k is any number real or complex and A be any matrix, then (kA)´ = kA´
Property IV. If A be a m ï n matrix and B be a n ï p matrix, then (AB)´ = B´A´.

Symmetric Matrices :
A square matrix A = [aij] will be called symmetric it for all values of i and j, a ij = a ji .

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 23
i.e. every i-jth element = j-ith element.

a h g
e.g. A   h b f 
 g f c 
33

Property A´ = A

Skew Symmetric Matrix :

A square matrix A = [aij] wil be called skew symmetric if its i-jth element is ă ive of j-ith element for all values of i and j i.e.
an = an for all values of i and j.
Since diagonal elements will be of the type a11.a22.a33, ... an and by given condition an = ă an for all values of i
or 2aii = 0  a ii = 0
Hence the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.

 0 h g
 h 0 f 
e.g.   is a skew symmetric matrix.
  g  f 0 

Property : A´ = ă A.

Some results related to symmetric and skew symmetric matrices :

(i) If A is any square matrix, then A + A´ is a symmetric matrix and A ă A´ is a skew symmetric matrix.
A ă A´ is a skew symmetric matrix.
Proof : (A + A´) = A´ + (A´) = A´ + A + A´ [ (A + B)´ (A´ + B´]
Hence A + A´ is a symmetric matrix.
Again (A ă A´) = A´ ă (A´) = A´ ă A = ă (A ă A´)
Hence A ă A´ is a skew symmetric matrix
(ii) Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew symmetric matrix.

1 1
Proof : Let A be any square matrix. Then as in (i) (A + A´) will be a symmetric matrix and (A ă A´) will be
2 2
a skew symmetric matrix.

1 1
Let B = (A + A´) and C = (A ă A´)
2 2

1 1
Then A = (A + A´) + (A ă A´) = B + C
2 2
where B is a symmetric matrix and C is a skew symmetric matrix.
To prove that the representation is unique :
If possible let A = D + E where D is a symmetric and E is a skew symmetric matrix. Then D´ = D and E´ = ă E.
...(1)
Now A = D + E  A´ = D´ + E´ = D ă E [From (1)]

Thus A = D + E 1
 and E = (A ă A´) = C.
and A' = D  E  2

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 24 QUIZRR
Illustration 20

 4 2  3
 
Express A as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix, where A   1 3  6 
 5 0  7
 
Solution :

 4 2  3
 
1 3  6
We have A = 
  5 0  7
 

 4 1  5
 
2 3 0 
 A´ = 
  3  6  7
 

 4 2  3  4 1  5
   
1 3  6   2 3 0 
then A + A´ = 
  5 0  7   3  6  7
   

 8 3  8
 
3 6  6
=  ...(1)
 8  6 0 
 

 4 2  3  4 1  5
   
1 3  6   2 3 0 
and A ă A´ = 
  5 0  7   3  6  7
   

 0 1 2 
 
 1 0  6
=  ...(2)
  2 6 14 
 
Adding (1) and (2), we get

 8 3  8  0 1 2 
   
3 6  6  1 0  6
2A =  + 
 8  6 0    2 6 14 
   

 4 3 / 2  4  0 1/ 2 1 
   
3 / 2 3  3   1 / 2 0  3
A = 
4 3 0  1 3 7 
  
Symmetric matrix Skew symmetric matrix

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 25

D ETERMINANTS

Determinant is a number associated with every square matrix, i.e. the number of rows and columns are equal.
Determinant of a square matrix A = [aij] is denoted by |A| = |aij| or  = |A|

a11 a12  a1n

a21 a22  a2 n
or 
an1 an2  ann

Determinant of order 2 :
Order 2 means 2 rows & 2 columns.

a11 a12
i.e. A 
a21 a22

denotion aij means number associated with ith row & jth column.
Also notice in order 2 there are 2 ï 2 = 4 numbers

Determinant of order 3 :
order = 3 rows ï 3 columns

a11 a12 a13

A  a21 a22 a23
i.e.
a31 a32 a33

Value of determinant of order 2 :

a11 a12
for |A| =
a21 a22

= (a11 ï a22 ă a21 ï a12)

i.e. cross multiply and subtract

or oder 3 :

a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23
for |A| =
a31 a32 a33

Here there are 2 possibilities of expanding the determinant i.e. finding its value.
One is by expanding row & the other is by expanding column.
We will solve first by expanding row.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 26 QUIZRR

a22 a23 a a a a
A  a11  a12 21 23  a13 21 22
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
 

we can achieve this by

leaving the elements of
that row & column.
Similarly for a12 & a13.

Sign Convention :
Why there is (ă) sign for a12 ?

How to decide :
1. multiply the term with (ă1)i + j
for example for a11, it is (ă 1)1+1 = 1
for a12, it is (ă 1)1 + 2 = 1 that is the reason for ă 1 sign.
for a13, it is (ă 1)1 + 3 = 1
or other way to learn sign convention is by alternate +, ă

  
  
  

Expanding by column

a11 a12 a13

a a22 a23
For |A| = 21
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23 a12 a13 a12 a13

|A| = a11  a21  a31
a32 a33 a32 a33 a22 a23

though we will generally use expension by row method.

Illustration 21

1 2 4
 3 4 9
Find the value of the determinant
2 1 6

Solution :
Expanding the determinant along the first row

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 27

4 9 3 9 3 4
 = 1 2 4
1 6 2 6 2 1

= 1 (24 ă 9) ă 2 (18 ă 8) + 4 (3 ă 8)
= 15 ă 2 ï 0 + 4 ï (ă 5) = ă 5

Illustration 22

3 1 7
Find the value of the determinant   5 0 2
2 5 3

Solution :
Expanding the determinant along the second row,

1 7 3 7 3 1
 =ă 5 0 2
5 3 2 3 2 5

= ă 5 (3 ă 35) + 0 (9 ă 14) ă 2 (15 ă 2)

= 160 ă 26 = 134
Note : Since 5 is in second row and first column so, the sign before 5 is (ă 1) 2 + 1
= (ă 1) 3
= ă 1 (minus). Similarly the sign before 0 is + (plus) and that before 2 is ă (minus).

Minors and cofactors :

In the determinant

a11 a12 a13

  a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

if we leave the row and the column passing through the element aij then the second order determinant thus obtained is called the
minor of aij and it is denoted by Mij Thus we can get 9 minors corresponding to the 9 elements.
For example, in determinant (i)

a12 a13
The minor of the element a21 =  M21
a32 a33

a11 a13
The minor of the element a32 =  M32
a21 a23

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 28 QUIZRR

In terms of the notation of minors if we expand the determinant along the first row, then,
 = (ă1)1+1 a11M11 + (ă1)1+2 a12M12 + (ă1)1+3a13M13
= a11M11 ă a12M12 + a13M13
Similarly expanding along the second column. We have,
 = a1M12 + a22M22 ă a32M32
Cofactors : The minor Mij multiplied by (ă1)i + j is called the cofactor of the element aij
If we note the cofactor of the element aij, by Aij, then
Cofactor of aij = Aij = (ă1)i +j
Mij

a12 a13
Cofactor of the element a 21  A 21  (1)2  1 M21  
a32 a33

32 a11 a13

Cofactor of the element a 32  A 32  (1) M32  
a21 a23

So the cofactor of an element aij = (ă1)i + j ï the determinant obtained by leaving the row and the column passing through that
element.
In terms of the notation of the cofactors.
 = a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13
 = a21A21 + a22A22 + a23A23
 = a31A31 + a32A32 + a33A33
Also a11A21 + a12A22 + a13A23 = 0
a11A31 + a12A32 + a13A33 = 0 etc.
Therefore, in a determinant the sum of the products of the elements of any row or column with the corresponding cofactors is
equal value of the dterminant. Also the sum of the products of the elements of any row or column with the cofactors of the
corresponding elements of any other row or column is zero.

Illustration 23

2 3 4
Find the determinant of minors and cofactors of the determinant 7 2  5
8 1 3

Solution :

2 5
Here M11 = (Delete 1st row and first column)
1 3

=6ă5
M11 = 1
 C11 = 1( (ă 1)1 + 1 = 1)

7 5
M12 = (Delete 1st row and 2nd column)
8 3

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 29
= 21 ă (ă 40)
M12 = 61
 C12 = 61( (ă 1)1 + 2 = ă 1)

7 2
M13 = (Delete 1st row and 3rd column)
8 1

= 7 ă 16
M13 = ă 23
 C13 = ă 23( (ă 1)1 + 3 = 1)

3 4
M21 = (Delete 2nd row and 1st column)
1 3

= 9 ă (ă 4)
M21 = 13
 C21 = ă 13( (ă 1)2 + 1 = ă 1)

2 4
M22 = (Delete 2nd row and 2nd column)
8 3

= 6 ă 32
M22 = ă 26
 C22 = ă 26( (ă 1)2 + 2 = 1)

2 3
M23 = (Delete 2nd row and 3rd column)
8 1

= ă 2 ă 24
M23 = ă 26
 C23 = 26( (ă 1)2 + 3 = ă 1)

3 4
M31 = (Delete 3rd row and 1st column)
2 5
= ă 15 ă 8
M31 = ă 23
 C31 = ă 23( (ă 1)3 + 1 = 1)

2 4
M32 = (Delete 3rd row and 2nd column)
7 5
= ă 10 ă 28
M32 = ă 38
 C32 = 38( (ă 1)3 + 2 = ă 1)

2 3
and M33 = (Delete 3rd row and 3rd column)
7 2

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 30 QUIZRR
= 4 ă 21
M33 = ă 17
 C33 = ă 17( (ă 1)3 + 3 = 1)
Hence Determinants of Minors and Cofactors are :

1 61  23 1  61  23
13  26  26  13  26 26
and are respectively.
 23  38  17  23 38  17

Orthogonal Matrix :

A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix if the product of the matrix A and as transpose A´ is an identity matrix.
i.e. AA´ = I
Note (i) If AA´ = I then Aă1 = A´
Note (ii) If A and B are orthogonal then AB is also orthogonal.

Illustration 24

 1 2 2 
1  
Verify that A   2 1 2  is an orthogonal matrix.
3   2  2  1
 
Solution :

 1 2 2 
1  
Given A   2 1 2 
3   2  2  1
 

 1  2  2
1  
A´ = 3   2 1  2
 2 2  1
 

 1 2 2   1  2  2
1   1 
AA´ = 3  2 1 2     2 1  2
3
  2  2  1  2 2  1
   

 144 224  2  4  2
1  
=
9  2  2  4 4  1  4 422 
 2  4  2 4  2  2 4  4  1 


9 0 0 1 0 0
1    
= 0 9 0 = 0 1 0 = 1
9 0 0 0 1
 0 9   

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Hence A is orthogonal matrix.

Adjoint of a Matrix :

If A = [aij] be a n-squared matrix then the matrix B = [bij] such that bij is the co-factor of the element aji in the determinant
|A| is called the adjoint of matrix A and is written as adj.A.

In simple language we can say that adj.A is the transpose of the matrix formed by the co-factors of elements of |A|.

Working rule for finding the adjoint of A.

Write down the determinant |A| and the co-factors of various rows which will be columns of adj.A or replace each element in
A by its co-factors and then take transpose to get adj.A.

Rule to write the cofactors of an element aij.

Cross the row and column intersecting at the element aij and the determinant which is left be denoted by D, then

Cofactor of aij  D if i  j  even 

 
 D if i  j = odd 

Illustration 25

  
A   find adj.A and show that adj. (adj.A) = A.
  
Co-factor of  is  and co-factor of  is ă .
Co-factor of  is ă  and co-factor of  is .

   
 Matrix formed by co-factors is   ...(1)
   
Adj. A = transpose of matrix (1)

   
=   ...(2)
   
You may see that , ă  are the co-factors of first row of A and it forms the first column of
adj.A, ă ,  are the co-factors of 2nd row of A and it forms the second column of adj.A.

Rule for adjoint of 2 ï 2 matrix : If A be 2 ï 2 then adj.A is written by interchanging the elements of leading diagonal and

 3 4 7  4 
changing the sign of the elemnts of other diagonal i.e. if A    then adj.A =  
 5 7 5 3 
...(3)
i.e. elements 3, 7 of leading diagonal have been interchanged and the sign of 4, ă 5 in the other diagonal have been changed.

Properties of adjoint A.

The product of a matrix and its adjoint is commutative.

(a) If A be n-rowed square matrix, then (adj.A) A = A (adj.A) = |A|.ln

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1 0 0   A 0 0 
  
= A 0 1 0 0 A 0

...(I)
 
0 0 1   0 0 A 

where |A| is determinant A and ln is the n-rowed unit matrix.

Deduction (a) If A is a n-squared singular matrix i.e., |A| = 0, then

A (adj.A) = (adj.A) = O (null matrix by (I)
A matrix is said to be singular if its determinant is zero i.e. |A| = 0

Deduction (b) |adj.A| = |A|nă1 if |A| is not zero.

If clearly follows from above on taking determinants of both sides in (I) (a) that
|A|.|adj.A|=|A|n=|adj.A|.|A|
|adj.A| = |A|nă1 provided |A| is not zero.

If |A| is not zero then A is said to be non-singular matrix.

Verification of the rule
(adj.A) A = A (Adj.A) = |A|In

0 1 1 
if A  1 2 0 
3  1 4 

 8  5  2
 4  3 1 
then Adj A =  
  7 3  1 

Also |A| = ă 11 by calculation

 A (adj.A) by actual multiplication

  11 0 0  A 0 0 
 0  11 0    0 A 0 
=    
 0 0  11  0 0 A 

=diag[|A|.|A|.|A|]
Taking determinants of both sides, we get
|A adj. A|= |diag. [|A|, |A|, |A|]
or |A11 adj.A|= |A|n
 |adj.A| = |A|nă1 provided
|A|  0 i.e. A is non-singular.

(b) Adj. (Adj.A) = |A|nă2 A if A be non-singular

Put Adj.A = B then

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 QUIZRR 33
B adj.B = |B|In = diag. [|B|, |B, ...|B|]
 A (B adj.B) = A diag. [|B|, |B|... |B|]
= |B|A
Now put B = adj.A in (I)
 |B|=|adj.A|=|A|nă1
 A (adj.A) adj. (adj.A) = |A|nă1 A
|A| In adj. (adj. A) = |A|nă1 A
 adj. (adj.A) = |A|nă2 A

Particular Case : If A be 3 ï 3 matrix, then

adj.(adj.A) = |A|n ă 2 A
= |A|3 ă 2 A = |A|.A

2 5
Minor of 2 = = ă 12 ă 0 = ă 12
0 6
Cofactor of 2 = (ă 1)1 + 2 (ă 12) = 12 [ 2 occurs in the 1st row and 2nd column]

Inverse or reciprocal of a square matrix

Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a matrix B (if such a matrix exists) is called the inverse of A if AB = BA = In
Inverse of the square matrix A is denoted by Aă1.

Existence of the inverse :

The inverse of a square matrix A exists if and only if A is a non-singular matrix.

If part : Let A be non-singular square matrix of order n. Then |A|  0

adj.A
Let B =
A

Then AB = A ( adj A) 
A In
 In  A.(adj A)  A In  ...(1)
A A

a d j .A
Hence B i.e. is the inverse of matrix A (by definition of inverse)
A

Only if part : Let A be a square matrix of order n. Let inverse of A exist. Let B be the inverse of A.
Then by definition of inverse
AB = In  |AB|= |In| = 1
or |A| |B| = 1 [ |AB| =|A| |B|]
 |A|  0, because product |A| |B| is non-zero.
Hence A is non singular.

1 adj.A
Note : (i) A  (ii) AAă1 = In [From (1)]
A

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 34 QUIZRR
Theorems :

(i) If A and B be any two non-singular matrices, then AB is also a non-singular matrix and (AB)ă1 = Bă1 Aă1.
 A, B are non-singular  |A|  0, |B|  0
 |AB| = |A| |B|  0 Hence AB is non-singular.
Now AB (Bă1 Aă1)
= A {B(Bă1 Aă1)} = A {BBă1) Aă1} [by associative law]
= A {In Aă1} { BBă1 = In]
= AAă1 [ In Aă1 = Aă1]
= In
Hence Bă1 Aă1 is the inverse of AB
 (AB)ă1 = Bă1 Aă1
(ii) If A is a non singular matrix, then (Aă1)ă1 = A
Let A be a square matrix of order n,
Then Aă1A = In  inverse of Aă1 = A  (Aă1)ă1 = A

(iii) Ină1 = In as Ină1 In = In

Complex Conjugate (or Conjugaate) or a Matrix

If a matrix A is having complex numbers as its elements, the matrix obtained from A by replacing each element of A by its conjugate

( a  ib  a  ib) is called the conjugate of matrix A and is denoted by A.

For example :

 a  ib x  iy p  iq 
   i   i   i 
If A =  
 r  is   iv   i 
33

 a  ib x  iy p  iq 
  i   i   i 
then =  
A  r  is   iv   i 
33

Note : If all elements of A are real then A  A .

Properties of Complex Conjugate of a Matrix

(i) (A)  A, i.e., conjugate of the conjugate of a matrix is the matrix itself.

(ii) (A + B)  A  B, i.e., the conjugate of the sum of the two matrices is the sum of their conjugates.

(iii) ( kA)  kA, where k is any number.

(iv) (AB)  A.B, where A and B being conformable to multiplication.

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 QUIZRR 35

Conjugate Transpose of a Matrix :

The conjugate of the transpose of a matrix A is called the conjugate transpose of A and is denoted by A.

Thus, A = Conjugate of A´ = (A´)

 2  4i 3 5  9i 
 4   i 3i 
If A = 
 2 5 4  i 

 2  4i 4 2 
 3   i  5 
then Aă = (A´) = 
5  9i  3i 4  i 

Properties of Transposed Conjugate Matrix

(i) For any matrix A, (A)´  (A´), i.e., the transposed conjugate of a matrix is equal to the conjugate of its transpose.

(ii) For any matrix A, (A) = A

(iii) If A and B are two matrices conformable to addition, then (A + B) = A + B
(iv) For a matrix A, (k A) = kA, where k is a scalar.
(v) If A and B are two matrices conformable to the product AB, then (AB) = BA

Hermitian Matrix :

A square matrix A such that A´  A is called Hermitian matrix, provided aij = aij  a ji for all values of i and j or Aă1 =
A.
For example :

 a   i   i 
  i  x  iy
If A = 
   i   iy y 

 a   i   i 
  i  x  iy
 A´ = 
   i   iy y 

 a   i   i 
  i  x  iy  A
 (A´) = 
   i   iy y 

Hence A is Hermitian.

Skew-Hermitian Matrix :

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 36 QUIZRR

A square matrix A such that A´   A is called skew-hermitian matrix, provided aij = ă a ji for all values of i and j for A
= ă A.
For example :

 2i 2  3i  2  i
 2  3i  i 3i 
If A =  
 2  i 3i 0 

 2i 2  3i 2  i 
  2  3i  i 3i 
 A´ = 
  2  i 3i 0 

  2i 2  3i 2  i   2i  2  3i  2  i
  2  3i i  
 3i   2  3i i 3i 
 (A´) =  
  2  i  3i 0   2  i 3i 0 

 (A´) = ă A
or A = ă A
Hence A is Skew-Hermitian Matrix.

Properties of Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matrix

(i) The diagonal elements of a Hermitian matrix are necessarily real.

(ii) The diagonal elements of a Skew-Hermitian matrix are either purely imaginary or zero.
(iii) Every square matrix (with complex elements) can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian
matrices.

1 1
i.e., A = (A + A  )  (A  A  )
2 2

1 1
where (A + A  ) and (A  A  ) are Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian parts of A.
2 2

Illustration 26

 2  3i 2 5 
 
Express A as the sum of a Hermitian and a Skew-Hermitian matrix where A    3  i 7 3  i 
 3  2i i 2  i 

Solution :

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 QUIZRR 37

 2  3i 2 5 
We have A   3  i 7 3  i 

 3  2i i 2  i

2  3i  3  i 3  2i
 2 7 i 
 A´ =

 5  3  i 2  i 

2  3i  3  i 3  2i 
  i 
(A´) =  2 7
 5 3i 2  i 

2  3i  3  i 3  2i 
 2 7  i 
or A =

 5 3i 2  i 

 2  3i 2 5  2  3i  3  i 3  2i 
 A + A =
 3  i 7 3  i    2 7  i 
  
 3  2i i 2  i   5 3i 2  i 

 4 1 i 8  2i 
 1  i 14 3  2i 
=  ...(1)
 8  2i 3  2i 4 

 2  3i 2 5   2  3i  3  i 3  2i 
 3  i 7 3  i    3  i 7  i 
and A ă A =   
 3  2i i 2  i   3  2i 3i 2  i 

 6i 5  i 2  2i 
5i 0 3 
=  ...(2)
  2  2i  3 2i 

adding (1) and (2), we get

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 38 QUIZRR

 4  1  i 8  2i   6i 5  i 2  2i 
  1  i 14  
3  2i     5  i 0 3 
2A = 
 8  2i  2i 4   2  2i  3 2i 

 1 i   5 i 
 2   4  i   3i 
2 2 2 2 2  2i 
 1 i 3   5 i 
   7  1     0 3 
=  2 2 2   2 2 i 
Hence A
3 3
 4i i 2   1i  
 2   2 

Unitary Matrix :

A square matrix A is called a unitary matrix if AA = I, where I is an identity matrix and A is the transposed conjugate of A.

Illustration 27

1  1 1  i
Prove that the matrix   is unitary.
3 1  i  1 
Solution :

1  1 1  i
Let A =  
3 1  i  1 

1  1 1  i
 A´ =  
3 1  i  1 

1  1 1  i
 (A´) =  
3 1  i  1 

1  1 1  i
or A =  
3 1  i  1 

1  1 1  i 1  1 1  i
 AA =    
3 1  i  1  3 1  i  1 

1  3 0  1 0 
=   I
3  0 3  0 1 
Hence A is unitary matrix.

Properties of Unitary Matrix

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 QUIZRR 39
(i) If A is unitary matrix, then A´ is also unitary.
(ii) If A is unitary matrix, then Aă1 is also unitary.
(iii) If A and B are unitary matrices then AB is also unitary.

Illustration 28

a h g  x
If A.B.C are three matrices such that A   x y z  , B   h b f  , C   y
  find ABC.
 g f c   z 

Solution :
Since associative law holds for matrix multiplication, therefore A (BC) = (AB) C which can be written as ABC.

 a h g   x  ax  hy  gz 
 h b f   y   hx  by  fz 
Now BC =      
 g f c   z   gx  yf  zc 

 a h g   x   ax  hy  gz 
 h b f   y   hx  by  fz 
 A(BC) = [xyz]      
 g f c   z   gx  yf  zc 

= [x (ax + hy + gz) + y (hx + by + fz) + z (gx + yf + zc)]

= [ax2 + by2 + cz2 + 2hxy + 2gzx + 2fyz]

Illustration 29

1 2 3 

Find the transpose and adjoint of the matrix A, where A  0 5 0

 
 2 4 3 

Solution :

1 0 2 
 
Ist part : A´  2 5 4
 
3 0 3 

2nd part :
Let B be the matrix whose elements are cofactors of the corresponding elements of the matrix A. Then B =

 15 0  10 
 6 3 0 
 
  15 0 5 

 15 6  15
 0 3 0 
 adj. A = B´ =  
  10 0 5 
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 40 QUIZRR
Illustration 30

 0 1 2

Find the inverse of the matrix A  1 2 3

 
 3 1 1 

Solution :
Let B be the matrix whose elements are the cofactors of the corresponding elements of A. Then

  1 8  5   1 1  1
 1 6 3   8 6 2 
B=    adj A = B´ =  
  1 2  1    5 3  1

0 1 2
A  1 2 3
= 0 (ă 1) + 1.8 + 2 (ă 5) = ă 2
3 1 1

 1 1 1 
 2 2 2 
adj A adj A  
 A 1      4 3  1
A 2  5 3 1 
  
 2 2 2 

Illustration 31

 1 2 5
 2 3 1
Compute the inverse of the matrix A  ă1
  and verify that A A = I
  1 1 1 

Solution :
Let B be the matrix whose elements are co-factors of the corresponding elements of A, then

 2 3 5   2 3  13

B 3 6  3   3 6 9 
 adj A = B´ = 
  13 9  1   5  3  1 

1 2 5
A  2 3 1
= 1.2 + 2(ă 3) + 5.5 = 21
1 1 1

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 2 / 21 3 / 21  13 / 21
adj A adj A 
A 1
     3 / 21 6 / 21 9 / 21 
 A 21
 5 / 21  3 / 21  1 / 21 

 1 2 5
Also A   2 3 1 
 1 1 1 

 2  6  13 4  9  13 10  3  13 
 21 21 21 
  1 0 0 
 3  12  9  6  18  9  15  6  9  

1
A A   0 1 0   I
 21 21 21 
  0 0 1 
 5  61 10  9  1 25  3  1  
 21 21 21 

Illustration 32

 1 2 2
 
Let A   2 1 2  , prove that A2 ă 4A ă 5I = 0, hence obtain Aă1.
 2 2 1 

Solution :

1 2 2  1 2 2 
2 1 2  2 1 2 
A2 = A.A =   
2 2 1  2 2 1 

1  4  4 2  2  4 2  4  2  9 8 8 
2  2  4 4  1  4 4  2  2   8 9 8 
= 
2  4  2 4  2  2 4  4  1  8 8 9 

 9 8 8   4 8 8  5 0 0 
 8 9 8    8 4 8   0 5 0 
Now A2 ă 4A ă 5I =      
8 8 9  8 8 4  0 0 5 

9  4  5 8  8  0 8  8  0  0 0 0 
8  8  0 9  4  5 8  8  0   0 0 0   O
=    
8  8  0 8  8  0 9  4  5  0 0 0 

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Thus A2 ă 4A ă 5I = O [Here O is the zero matrix]

ă1 2 ă1 ă1 ă1
 A A ă 4A A ă 5A I = A O = O
or (Aă1A) A ă 4 (Aă1 A) ă 5Aă1 = O; or IA ă 4I ă 5Aă1 = O

1 2 2   4 0 0    3 2 2 
2 1 2   0 4 0    2  3 2 
 5Aă1 = A ă 4I =      
2 2 1  0 0 4   2 2  3 

 3 2 2   3 / 5 2 / 5 2 / 5 
  2  3 2    2 / 5  3 / 5 2 / 5 
1 1 
A
 5
 2 2  3  2 / 5 2 / 5  3 / 5 

Elemlentary operations or elementary transformations of a matrix :

Any of the following operations is called an elementary transformation.

(i) Interchanging any two rows of the given matrix. This transformation is indicated by Rij, if the ith row are interchanged.
or denoted by Ri  Rj
(ii) The multiplying every element of any row of the given matrix by a non-zero number. This transformation is indicated by Ri(k),
if the multiplication of the ith row by a constant k(k  0)
or denoted by Ri  k.Rj
(iii) Addition of a constant multiple of the elements of any row to the corresponding elements of any other row. This transformation
is indicated by Rij(k), if the addition of the ith row to the elements of the jth row multiplied by constant k(k  0).

or denoted by Ri  Ri + kRj

Note : Similarly we can deline the three column operations. Cij (Ci  Cj). Ci(k) (Ci kCi) and Cij(k) (Ci  Ci + kCj).

To compute the Inverse of a Matrix from elementary Row Transformation :

If A is reduced to I by elementary row (L.H.S.) transformation, then suppose I is reduced to P (R.H.S.) and not change A in
R.H.S.
i.e., A =I A
After transformation I = PA
then P is the inverse of A
 P = Aă1

Solution of simultaneous linear equations (Matrix Method)

Let us consider the following system of n linear equations in n unknowns x1, x2, ..., xn

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 43

a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn  b1 

a21 x1  a22 x2  ...  a2 n xn  b2 

... ... ... ...  ...(1)
an1 x1  an2 x2  ...  ann xn  bn 

If b1 = b2 = ... = bn = 0, then the system of equations (1) is called a system of homogeneous linear equations and if at least
one of b1, b2 ..., bn is non zero, then it is called a system of non homogeneous linear equations.

Solution of a system of equations :

A set of values 1, 2, ..., n of x1, x2, ..., xn respectively which satisfy all the equations of the given system of equations is
called a solution of the given system of equations.
The system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution exist otherwise it is said to be inconsistant.

 a11 a12 ... a1n   x1   b1 

a a    b 
... a2n  x
Let A =  21 22 , X   2, B =  2 
   ...      
     
 an1 an2 ... ann  bn  bn 

Then the system of equations (1) can be written as AX = B

Here A is a n ï n matrix and is called the coefficient matrix. Each of X and B is a n ï 1 matrix.
I. When system of equations is non-homogeneous :
(i) If |A|  0, the system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution given by X = Aă1 B
Proof : Since |A|  0, therefore Aă1 exist.
Now AX = B \ Aă1 (AX) = Aă1 B
or, (Aă1 A) X = Aă1B [by associative law for matrix multiplication]
or InX = Aă1B
or X = Aă1B [ InX = X]
(ii) If |A| = 0, the system of equations has no solution or an infinite number of solutions according as (adj A).B is non-zero
or zero.
II. When system of equations is homogeneous :
(i) If |A| 0, the system of equations has only trivial solution and number of solutions is one.
(ii) If |A| = 0, the system of equations has non-trivial solution and the number of solutions is infinite.
If the system of homogeneous linear equations has number of equations less than the number of unknowns, then it has
non-trivial solution.

Illustration 34

Solve the following equations by matrix method :

5x + 3y + z = 16
2x + y + 3z = 19
x + 2y + 4z = 25
Solution :

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44 QUIZRR

5 3 1   x 16 
 2 1 3  , X   y 19 
Let A=     and B =  
1 2 4   z  15 

Then the matrix equation of the given system of equations become AX = B

5 3 1 
Now A  2 1 3   5 (4  6)  3 (8  3)  1 (4  1)   22  0
1 2 4 

Hence A is non-singular. Therefore the given system of equations will have the unique solution given by X = Aă1 B
Let C be the matrix whose elements are the cofactors of the corresponding elements of A, then

2 5 3 
  2  10 8 
C    10 19  7   
 adj A = C´   5 19  13
 8  13  1   
 3  7  1 

  2  10 8 
adj A 1 
A 1
    5 19  13
 A  22
 3  7  1 

 2 / 22 10 / 22  8 / 22 16  1 
 5 / 22  19 / 22 13 / 22  19   2
     
  3 / 22 7 / 22 1 / 22  25 5

 x  1 
 y  2
      x = 1, y = 2, z = 5
 z  5

Illustration 35

 5 1 3   1 1 2
  3 2 1
Find the product of two matrices A and B where A  7 1  5 , B 
    and use it for solving the equations
 1 1 1   2 1 3 

x + y + 2z = 1
3x + 2y + z = 7
2x + y + 3z = 2

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 45

a b c
Remark. For reducing a 3 ï 3 matrix, A   d e f  to identify matrix by using elementary

 g h i 

row transformation, it is advisable to follow the order shown below :

>
 a b c 
 i ix viii 

>
 
 d e f 

<
 
 ii iii vii 
>
 g h i 

<
 
 iv v vi 
> >

(i) first reduce a to 1, (ii) then reduce d to 0,

(iii) then reduce e to 1 (by dividing), iv) then reduce g to 0 (by using R1),
(v) then reduce h to 0 (by using R2), (vi) then reduce i to 1 (by dividing),
(vii) then reduce f to 0 (by using R3), (viii) then reduce c to 0 (by using R2).

Illustration 33

 0 0 ă 1
Find the inverse of the matrix, A  3 4 5 by using elementary row transformations.

 ă 2 ă4 ă 7 

Solution : We have
A = I3A

 0 0 ă1  1 0 0 
 3 4 5  0 1 0  A
 
 ă 2 ă 4 ă 7 0 0 1

Applying R1  R3, we get

ă 2 ă 4 ă 7 0 0 1
 3 4 5  0 1 0  A

 0 0 ă1  1 0 0 

Applying R1  R1 + R2, we get

 1 0 ă 2 0 1 1
 3 4 5  0 1 0  A

 0 0 ă 1  1 0 0 

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46 QUIZRR
Applying R2  R2 ă 3R1, we get

 1 0 ă 2  0 1 1
 0 4 11   0 ă 2 ă 3 A
 

 0 0 ă 1  1 0 0 

1
Applying R2  R , we get
4 2

 1 0 ă 2  0 1 1
 11   2 3
 0 1   0    A
 4  3 4
 0 0  1  1 0 0 
 

Applying R3  ă R3, we get

 1 0 ă 2  0 1 1
 
11   2 3
 0 1   0    A
 4  4 4
 0   0 
 0 1  1 0

Applying R 2  R 2  11 R 3
4

 0 1 1
 1 0  2  11
 0 3
0    2
 1    A
 4 4 4
 0 0 1  1
 0 0 

Applying R1  R1 + 2R3

 2 1 1
1 0 0  11
0 1 0    2 3 
    A
 4 4 4
0 0 1  1
 0 0 

 2 1 1
 11  8 4 4
3  1 
 3 
 1  2
A     11 2
 4 4 4 4 
 1 
 4 0 0 
 0 0 

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  5 1 3  1 1 2 

Solution : AB  7 1  5  3 2 1 

 1 1 1  2 1 3 

  5  3  6  5  2  3  10  1  9 
 7  3  10 7  2  5 14  1  15 
=  
 1  3  2 121 2  1  3 

4 0 0  1 0 0 
 0 4 0   4 0 1 0   4I3
 
....(1)
0 0 4  0 0 1 

Also given system of equations in matrix from is BX = C ....(2)

 x 1 
where X   y and C  7 
   
 z  2 

From (2), X = Bă1C [multiplying both sides of (2) by Bă1 as Bă1 B = I]

A
From (1), AB  413  . B  I3
4

 5 7 6
 4  4  4 
 5 / 4 1 / 4 3 / 4  1    2
A 
1 / 4  5 / 4  7 
1  7 7 10   
B   7/4     1
4  4 4 4   

 1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  3   1
 1 7 2 
 4 4 4 

 x = 2, y = 1, z = ă1

Rank of a matrix

1 3 4 
Consider the matrix A   
2 6 8  2  3

Above is 2 ï 3 matrix.

Sub-matrix of order r :

If we retain any r rows and equal number of r columns we will have a square submatrix of order r whose determinant is called
minor of order r.

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In the above matrix we cannot have a square sub matrix of order 3 because there are no 3 rows though 3 columns are there. We

1 3 3 4 1 4
can at the most have minors of order 2 say , ,
2 6 6 8 2 8

or we can have minors of order 1 which means each element of the matrix is a minor of order 1. Similarly if a matrix A is 3 ï
4 then we can have minors of order 3, 2 and 1 only.

The rank of a given matrix A is said to be r if

(a) Every minor of A of order r + 1 is zero.

(b) There is at least one minor of A of order r which does not vanish.

The rank r of matrix A is written as (A) = r

Note : From above it clearly follows that the rank of a null matrix i.e., zero matrix all of whose elements are zeroes is zero.

Also the rank of a singular square matrix of order n cannot be n because minor of highest order i.e., |A| = 0 and there is only
one minor of highest order.

Working rule :
Calculate the minors of highest possible order of a given matrix A. If it is not zero then the order of the minor is the rank. If
it is zero and all other minors of the same order be also zero then calculate minors of next lower order and if at least one of them
is not zero then this next lower order will be the rank. If, however, all the minors of next lower order are zero then calculate
minors of still next lower order and so on.

Illustration 36

1 2 3 
A   2 4 7 
Find the rank of the matrix
 3 6 10 

Solution :
First method :

1 2 3 
A  2 4 7 
= 1 (40 ă 42) ă 2 (20 ă 21) + 3 (12 ă 12) = 0
3 6 10 

There will be square submatrices of A of order 2. Now we consider the determinants of these submatrices.

1 2  1 3 
(i)    4  4  0 (ii)   76 1 0
2 4  2 7 
Thus rank of A = 2
[Because there is at least one square submatrix of order 2 whose determinant is non-zero and determinants of all square submatrices
of A of order greater than 2 are zero. Only one such matrix exist and that is the matrix A itself.

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Second method : We put A in echelon form

1 2 3  1 2 3 
    R 2  R 2  2R1
Now A   2 4 7  ~ 0 0 1  
R  R 3  3R1
3 6 10  0 0 1   3

1 2 3 
0 0 1  [R  R  R ]
~   3 3 2
0 0 0 

This is the echelon form of matrix A.

 Rank A = number of non-zero rows in echelon form = 2

Solution of Equations

We have already introduced the following terms in relation to solution of equations.

i.e. Consistent (having solution). Inconsistent (having no solution), unique (only one solution) infinite (many solutions). Trivial
(all variables zero i.e. unique.

Representation of equations in matrix form

I. Intersecting lines. Unique solution. Consistent

x + 2y = 4
3x + y = 2

1 2   x   4 
or        or AX = B
 3 1   y  2 

1 2 4 
A is called coefficient matrix and C = [A, B] =   is 2 ï 3 matrix. C is called augmented matrix.
3 1 2 

Nature of solution

(a) Rank A = Rank C = n = 2 the number of unknown. Solution is unique and is obtained as under.

1 2 
Here A =  16 50
3 1 
 A is non-singular and Aă1 exists and

1 1  1  2
A 1  (adj.A) 
A  5   3 1 

Multiplying both sides by Aă1 we have

Aă1 (AX) = Aă1 B or X = Aă1 B

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 x 1  1  2  4 
or   =    
 y 5  3 1  2

1  0  0 
=    
5   10  2
 x=0
y=2

2nd Method by CramerÊs rule

x y 1
 
D1 D2 D

x y 1
  x y 1
4 2 1 4 1 2  
or or
2 1 3 2 3 1 0  10  5

(b) Homogeneous equations. Unique solution. Trivial.

x + 2y = 0

1 2   x   0 
3x + 2y = 0 or    
3 1   y 0 
AX = B

1 2 0 
C  [A, B]   
3 1 0 
Here as above Rank A = Rank C = n = 2 the number of unknown variables and hence the solution will be unique and is given
by X = Aă1 B

 x 1  1  2   0  0 
or       
 y 5   3 1  0  0 

 x = 0, y = 0

II. Coincident lines. Infinite solutions. Consistent

(c) x + 2y = 4
3x + 6y = 12

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1 2   x   4 
or      
3 6   y 12

1 2 4 
or AX = B C = [A, B] =  
3 6 12 

1 2 
Here A   0
3 6 
so that matrix A is singular and Aă1 will not exist
Apply R2 ă 3R1

1 2 4  1 2 
C  and A   
0 0 0  0 0 
Clearly Rank C = Rank A = 1 which is less than n = 2 the number of variables and hence the system of equations are
consistent and will have infinite solutions. As a matter of fact we have only one equation on two variables x + 2y = 4
(The second equation on dividing by 3 becomes the same as x + 2y = 4)

4c
 We can have infinite number of points on a line Choosing x = c we have y 
2
(d) Homogeneous equations
x + 2y = 0

 1 2   x  0 
3x + 6y = 0 or      
 3 6   y  0 
or Ax = B

Arguing as in (c) Rank C = Rank A = 1, |A| = 0. As a matter of fact we have only one equation x + 2y = 0. Rank C
= Rank A = 1, < n = 2 the number of variables.
Choosing y = c, x = ă 2c  (c, ă 2c) constitute infinite solutions.

III. Parallel lines. Inconsistent. No solution.

(e) x + 2y = 4

1 2  4 
3x + 6y = 7 or     
3 6  7 

1 2 4 
or AX = B C 
3 6 7 
|A| = 0 i.e., A is singular.
Clearly Rank A = 1 but Rank C = 2
Rank A < Rank C Inconsistent

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7
As a matter of fact the two equations are x + 2y = 4 and x  2 y  which are clearly inconsistent and have no solution.
3

Gist

I. Rank A = Rank C = n the number of variables then equations are consistent and have unique solution. A  0 sec (a), (b).

II. Rank A = Rank C = r < n the number of variables the equations are consistent and have infinite solutions, |A| = 0 sec (c), (d).

III. Rank A < Rank C

 Inconsistent, |A| = 0 sec (e).

Non-homogeneous equation : We will illustrate the method by two examples. We have discussed this topic in determinants.
Here we illustrate the method by use of matrices.

Illustration 37

Solve the following equations

5x ă 6y + 4z = 15
7x + 4y ă 3z = 19
2x + y + 6z = 46
Solution :

5  6 4   x  15 
    
The above equations can be written in matrix form as  7 6  3  y  19 
2 1 6   z  46 

or AX = B

5  6 4 
A  D  7 4  3
2 1 6 

Apply C1 ă 2C2, C3 ă 6C2 to make two zeros in R3

17  6 40
D =  1 4  27
0 1 0

= ă [ă 459 + 40] = 419  0.

 The matrix A is non-singular or rank of matrix A is 3. We will have a unique solution and the equations are consistent.

By Cramer’s rule.

x y z 1
  
D1 D2 D3 D

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where D1 is obtained from D by replacing the first column of D by bÊs i.e., 15, 19, 46.

15  6 4
D1 = 19 4  3
46 1 6

= 15 (27) ă 19 (ă 40) + 46 (2) = 1257

5 15 4 15 5 4
D2 = 7 19  3   19 7  3
2 46 6 46 2 6

= ă {15 (48) ă 19 (22) + 46 (ă 43) = 1676

5  6 15 
D3 = 7 4 19 
2 1 46 

= 15 (ă 1) ă 19 (17) + 46 (62) = 2514

x y z 1
   
1257 1676 2514 419
 x = 3, y = 4, z = 6.

2nd Method :
AX = B.
Since A is non-singular and hence its inverse exists. Multiplying both sides by Aă1 we get
Aă1 AX = Aă1B or IX = Aă1 B
or X = Aă1 B

adj.A
Now A 1 = A where

5 6 4
A = 7 4  3  419
2 1 6

Cofactors of elements of first row of |A| are 27, ă 48, ă 1

Cofactors of elements of 2nd row of |A| are 40, ă 22, ă 17
Cofactors of elements or 3rd row of |A| are 2, 43, 62
Above will be respective columns of adj.A

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 27 40 2 
 adj.A=   48 22 43
  1  17 62 

27 40 2
1 Adj.A 1
A    48 22 43
 A 419
 1  17 62

 X = Aă1 B

 x  27 40 2  15 
 y  1   48 22 43 19 
or   419   
 z    1  17 62 46 

 x  27.15  40.19  2.46 

 y  1   48.15  22.19  43.46 
or   419  
 z    1.15  17.19  62.46 

1257  3 
1 
1676   4 
= 419 
2514  6 

 x = 3, y = 4, z = 6

Illustration 38

Solve the equations

x+y+z =6
xăy+z =2
2x + y ă z = 1
Solution :

1 1 1   x  6 
1  1 1   y  2 
In matrix form the given equations are       or AX = B
2 1  1  z  1 

1 1 1 
A  1  1 1 
2 1  1

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1 1 1
A  D 1 1 1

2 1 1

Apply R2 ă R1, R3 ă 2R1,

1 1 1
0 2 0 60
=
0 1 3

i.e. matrix A is non-singular.

We will have unique solution and the equations are consistent.
 By CramerÊs rule,

x y z 1
  
D1 D2 D3 D

where D1 is obtained from D by replacing the first column of D by bÊs i.e., 6, 2, 1

6 1 1 6 1 1
D1  2  1 1   4  2 0

1 1 1 7 2 0

By R2 ă R1 and R3 + R1

4 2
 D1 =   8  14  6
7 2

1 6 1 1 6 1
1 2 1  0 4 0
D2 =
2 1  1 0  11 3

4 0
=  12
 11  3

1 1 6 1 1 6
D3  1  1 2  0 2 4
2 1 1 0  1  11

2 4
=  22  4  18
 1  11

x y z 1
   
6 12 18 6
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 x = 1, y = 2, z = 3.
Above gives the unique solution.

Illustration 39

Investigate for what values of , ø the simultaneous equations

x+y+z =6
x + 2y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + z = 

1 1 1   x   6 
1 2 3    y   10 
or      
1 2    z    

have, (a) no solution, (b) a unique solution, (c) an infinite number of solutions.
Solution :
(a) For no solution
Rank A  Rank C
(b) For unique solution i.e., coefficient matrix is non-singular.
Rank A Rank C = n
(c) For infinite number of solutions,
Rank A = Rank C = r where r < n
Augmented Matrix

1 1 1 6 
C   A, B  1 2 3 10 
Apply R3 ă R2
1 2   

1 1 1 6 
or 1 2 3 10  Apply R2 ă R1

0 0   3   10 

1 1 1 6 
~ 0 1 2 4 

 0 0   3   10 

1 1 1 
Also A ~ 0 1 2 
0 0   3 

(a)  = 3, ø  10.
In this case Rank A = 2 whereas Rank C = 3.
 Rank A  Rank C and hence no solution.

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(b) In case   3 then coefficient matrix A is non-singular Rank A = Rank C = 3, the number of variables. Hence we have
a unique solution which can be found by CramerÊs rule or by the help of inverse or by equivalent system of equations.
(c) In case  = 3 and ø = 10 then the ranks of both A and C will be 2 < n = 3 and the equations will be consistent. We
shall assign arbitrary value to 3 ă 2 = 1 variable and remaining r = 2 variables shall be found in terms of these.
The equivalent system of equations when  = 3 and ø = 10 are

1 1 1   x   6 
 0 1 2  y   4 
    
0 0 0   z  0 

or x + y + z = 6, y + 2z = 4, 0 = 0
Choose z=k  y = 4 ă 2k
 x = 6 ă y ă z = 6 ă (4 ă 2k) ă k = 2 + k.

Homogeneous Equations :

Refer chapter of determinants. If D = |A|  0 then the system of homogeneous equations have trivial solution i.e., x = 0, y =
0 and z = 0. If however |A| = 0 then the system of equations will have non-trivial solution. We will illustrate the same by following
examples.

Illustration 40

Solve completely the equations

x + 3y ă 2z = 0
2x ă y + 4z = 0
x ă 11y + 14z = 0
Solution :
AX = O

1 3  2 
A = 2  1 4 
1  11 14 

Reduce the matrix to Echelon form by applying elementary row, column operation

1 3  2 
A = 0  7 8 
by R2 ă 2R1, R3 ă R1
0  14 16 

= ă 112 + 112 = 0
Since |A| = 0 the system of equations with have non-trivial solution
Above is Echelon form of A and its rank is 2 the number of non-zero rows. Rank A = r < n where n = 3. Hence the system
has non-trivial solution. We shall assign arbitrary values to
n ă r = 3 ă 2 = 1 variable and remaining r = 2 variables shall be found in terms of these.
The equivalent system of equations is AX = O

1 3  2   x 
0  7 8   y   O
  
0  14 16   z 

x + 3y ă 2z = 0, ă 7y + 8z = 0 and ă 14y + 16z = 0

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS
 58 QUIZRR
The last two are identical.
Thus we have only two equations in three variables i.e., x + 3y ă 2z = 0 and y = 8z/7.
We choose z = k  y = 8k/7

24 10
and hence x = 2z ă 3y = 2k ă k k
7 7

Illustration 41

Discuss for all values of k the system of equations

x + (k + 4) y + (4k + 2) z = 0 or AX = O
2x + 3ky + (3k + 4) z = 0
x + 2 (k + 1) y + (3k + 4) z = 0
Solution :

1 k  4 4 k  2   x
 3k 3 k  4   y  O
The given equations can be written as 2
  
1 2 k  2 3 k  4   z 

1 k  4 4k  2
A  2 3k 3k  4
1 2k  2 3k  4

Apply R2 ă 2R1, R3 ă R1

1 k  4 4k  2
A  0 k  8  5k

0 k2  k2

= (k ă 8) (ă k + 2) + 5k (k ă 2)
or ă k + 2k + 8k ă 16 + 5k2 ă 10k = 4k2 ă 16
2

Now |A| = 0 when k2 = 4  k=2

Hence when k =  2 then |A| = 0 so that the matrix A is singular and hence the system will have non-trivial solution. But when
k   2 then |A|  0 that the system will have only trivial solution i.e. x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.

1 6 10  x 
 
For k = 2 the equivalent system of equations will be 0  6  10 y  O
 
0 0 0  z 

Clearly rank of A is 2 and we will assign arbitrary values to n ă r i.e. 3 ă 2 = 1 variable and remaining r = 2 variables shall
be found in terms of these
x + 6y + 10z = 0, ă 6y ă 10z = 0, 0 = 0
Only two equations in three variables.
Choose z = c  y = ă 5c/3 and x = 0
For k = ă 2 the equivalent system of equations will be

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1 2  6   x
0  10 10   y  0
  
0  4 4   z 

1 2  6   x 
 0 1  1   y  0
or   
0 1  1   z 

x + 2y ă 6z = 0, y ă z = 0 and y ă z = 0
Choose z = k  y = k and x = 4k

P ROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

Property I. The value of a determinant is not changed when rows are changed into corresponding columns.
Naturally when rows are changed into corresponding columns, then columns will be changed into corresponding rows.

a1 b1 c1
Proof : Let   a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

Expanding the determinant along first row,

a1 (b2c3 ă b3c2) ă b1 (a2c3 ă a3c2) + c1 (a2b3 ă a3b2) ...(i)

1 2 3
Example :   2 3 4  1 (15  4)  2 (10  0)  3 (2  0)   3
0 1 5

1 2 0
and ´  2 3 1  1 (15  4)  2 (10  3)  0 (8  9)   3
3 4 5

Clearly ´ = 

Property II. If any two rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged, the sign of the determinant is changed, but its
value remains the same.

1 2 3
Example :   2 3 4  1 (15  4)  2 (10  0)  3 (2  0)   3
0 1 5

2 3 4
and ´  1 2 3 [R1  R 2 ]
0 1 5

= 2 (10 ă 3) ă 3 (5 ă 0) + 4 (1 ă 0) = 3

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Property III.
The value of a determinant is zero if a ny two rows or columns a re identica l

1 2 3
Example :   2 3 4  1 (9  8)  2 (6  4)  3 (4  3)  0
1 2 3

Property IV.
A common factor of all elements of any rwo (or of any column) may be taken outside the sign of
the determinant. In other words if all the elements of the same row (or the same column) are
multiplied by a certain number, then the determinant becomes multiplied by that number.

32 24 16 4 3 2
Example : 8 3 5  8 8 3 5 [taking 8 common from Ist row]
4 5 3 4 5 3

1 3 2
= 8  4 2 3 5 [taking 4 common from the Ist column]
1 5 3

Property V.
If every element of some column or (row) is the sum of two terms, then the determinant is equal
to the sum of two determinants; one containing only the first term in place of each sum, the other
only the second term. The remaining element of both determinants are the same as in the given
determinant.

a1  1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 1 b1 c1
a   2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2   2 b2 c2
Proof : We have to prove that 2
a3  3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 3 b3 c3

a1  b1 c1  d1 e1 a1 c1 e1 a1 d1 e1 b1 c1 e1 b1 d1 e1
a  b2 c2  d2 e2  a2 c2 e2  a2 d2 e2  b2 c2 e2  b2 d2 e2
Note : 2
a3  b3 c3  d3 e3 a3 c3 e3 a3 d3 e3 b3 c3 e3 b3 d3 e3

Property VI.
The value of a determinant does not change when any row or column is multiplied by a number
or an expression and is then added to or subtracted from any other row or column.
Here it should be noted that if the row or column which is changed is multiplied by a number,
then the determinant will have to be divided by that number.

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1 2 3 5 2 13
Example :   2 3 4   7, ´  2 3 4 [R1  R1  2R 3 ]
2 0 5 2 0 5

= 5 (15 ă 0) ă 2 (10 ă 8) + 13 (0 ă 6)
= 75 ă 4 ă 78 = ă 7

7 6 19
1
´  2 3 4
3
R1  3R1  2R 3 2 0 5

[Here ´´ has also been obtained from  applying R1  3R1 + 2R3]

1 1
= [7 (15  0)  6 (10  8)  19 (0  6)]  ( 21)   7
3 3
In obtaining ´´ from , R1 has been changed and R1 has been multiplied by 3, therefore, the
determinant has been divided by 3

a1 b1 c1 a1  mb1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2  a2  mb2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3  mb3 b3 c3

Evaluation of determinant :

While evaluating the detrminants we use some following notations :

For example :
(1) Ri denotes the ith row & Ci denotes the ith column
(2) Ri  Rj denotes the exchange of ith and jth row and Ci  Cj denotes the exchange of ith
& jth column.
(3) Ri  Ri + Rj denotes the addition of  times the element of jth row.
Similarly Ci  Ci + Cj
(4) Ri  Ri denotes the multiplication of all elements of ith row by .
Trick : In evaluating determinants we always try to bring as many zeros as
possible by using the properties we did earlier.

Product of two determinants

a1 a2 a3 x1 x2 x3
Let 1  b1 b2 b3 and 2  y1 y2 y3
c1 c2 c3 z1 z2 z3

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then product of 1 and 2 is defined as

a1 x1  a2 x2  a3 x3 a1 y1  a2 y2  a3 y3 a1 z1  a2 z2  a3 z3
1 2  b1 x1  b2 x2  b3 x3 b1 y1  b2 y2  b3 y3 b1 z1  b2 z2  b3 z3
c1 x1  c2 x2  c3 x3 c1 y1  c2 y2  c3 y3 c1 z1  c2 z2  c3 z3

1 2 3 3 4 1
Example : Let 1   2 3 5   2  0  1 2
0 2 1 3 2 6

1.3  2.4  3 ( 1) 1.0  2 ( 1)  3.2 1 ( 3)  2.2  3.6

( 2).3  3.4  5 ( 1) ( 2).0  3 ( 1)  5.2 ( 2) ( 3)  3.2  5.6
Then 1 2 =
0.3  2.4  1 ( 1) 0.0  2( 1)  1.2 0 ( 3)  2.2  1.6

8 4 19
1 7 42
=
7 0 10

Note : (i) Here we have multiplied rows by rows. Since value of a determinant does not change
when rows and columns are interchanged, therefore, while finding the product of two determinants,
we can also multiply rows by columns or columns by columns.
Note : (ii) 12 = 21 (since in a determinant rows and columns can be interchanged)

An important result

a1 a2 a3 A1 A 2 A 3
2
If   b1 b2 b3 then B1 B2 B3  
c1 c2 c3 C1 C2 C3

Where capital letters denote the cofactors of corresponding small letters in  i.e. Ai = cofactor of
ai, Bi = cofactor of bi and ci = cofactor of ci in the determinant . We have seen that
a1A1 + a2A2 + a3A3 = 
b1B1 + b2B2 + b3B3 = 
c1C1 + c2C2 + c3C3 = 
and a1B1 + a2B2 + a3B3 = 0
b1A1 + b2A2 + b3A3 = 0
a1C1 + a2C2 + a3C3 = 0
c1A1 + c2A2 + c3A3 = 0
b1C1 + b2C2 + b3C3 = 0
c1B1 + c2B2 + c3B3 = 0

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Case I. When   0

A1 A 2 A 3
Let 1  B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3

a1 a2 a3 A1 A 2 A 3
Now 1  b1 b2 b3 B1 B2 B3
c1 c2 c3 C1 C2 C3

a1 A1  a2 A 2  a3 A 3 a1 B1  a2 B2  a3 B3 a1C1  a2C2  a3C3

b1 A 1  b2 A 2  b3 A 3 b1 B1  b2 B2  b3 B3 b1C1  b2 B2  b3C3
c1 A1  c2 A 2  c1 A 3 c1 B1  c2 B2  a3 B3 c1C1  c2C2  c3C3

 0 0
0  0
= = 3
0 0 

Thus 1 = 3   1 = 2 [   0]

Case II. When  = 0

Sub. Case (i) When all elements of the determinant  are zero. In this case cofactors of each
element of the detreminant  will be zero and hence 1 = 0
 1 = 2 [Here 1 = 2 = 0]
Sub. Case (ii) When at least one element of the determinant  is non-zero. There is no loss
of generality in assuming that a1  0.

a1 A1  a2 A 2  a3 A3    0 

Now
a1 B1  a2 B2  a3 B3  0  ...(i)
a1 C1  a2 C2  a3C3  0 

(i) is system of homogeneous linear equations in a1, a2, a3 where a1  0, therefore it has nontrivial
solution.

A1 A 2 A 3
B1 B2 B3
 = 0  1 = 0
C1 C2 C3

Thus 1 = 2 [  = 0 and 1 = 0]

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Illustration 42

a 2  x2 a b  cx a c  bx x c b
2

a b  cx b2  x 2 bc  a x   c x a
Show that
a c  bx bc  a x c2  x2 b  a x

Solution :

x c b
Let D   c x a
b a x

Cofactors of Ist Row of D are

x2 + a2, ab + cx, ac ă bx
Cofactors of 2nd Row of D are
ab ă cx, x2 + b2, ax + bc
and cofactors of 3rd row of D are :
ac + bx, bc ă ax, x2 + c2
 Determinant of cofactors of D is

x2  a2 ab  cx ac  bx
c 2 2
D = ab  cx x b ax  bc
ac  bx bc  ax x2  c2

a2  x2 ab  cx ac  bx
2 2
ab  cx b x bc  ax
= (Rows interchanging into columns)
ac  bx ax  bc c2  x2

= D2

2
x c b
= c x a ( Dc = D2, D is third order determinant)
b a x

a2  x2 ab  cx ac  bx x c b
2

ab  cx b2  x2 bc  ax   c x a
Hence,
ac  bx ax  bc c2  x2 b a x

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Express a Determinant into Product of two Determinants :

This method will be clear from few examples.

Illustration 43

2        
     2 (  )(  )  (   )   (  )  0
Prove that
    (   )   (  ) 2

Solution :

2      
   2 (  ) (   )  (   )   (  )
L.H.S. =
    (   )   (  ) 2

1 1 0 1 1 0
  0    0
= (Row by Row)
    0   0

= 0ï 0
= 0
= R.H.S.

Illustration 44

cos (A  P) cos (A  Q) cos (A  R)

Prove that cos (B  P) cos (B  Q) cos (B  R)  0
cos (C  P) cos (C  Q) cos (C  R)

Solution :

cos (A  P) cos (A  Q) cos (A  R)

cos (B  P) cos (B  Q) cos (B  R)
L.H.S. =
cos (C  P) cos (C  Q) cos (C  R)

cos A sin A 0 cos P sin P 0

cos B sin B 0  cos Q sin Q 0
= (Row by Row)
cos C sin C 0 cos R sin R 0

= 0ï 0
= 0
= R.H.S.
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Illustration 45
Prove that

(a 1  b1 )2 (a 1  b2 )2 (a 1  b3 )2
(a 2  b1 )2 (a 2  b2 )2 (a 2  b3 )2  2 (a 1  a 2 ) (a 2  a 3 ) (a 3  a 1 ) (b1  b2 ) (b2  b3 ) (b3  b1 )
(a 3  b1 )2 (a 3  b2 )2 (a 3  b3 )2

Solution :

(a1  b1 )2 (a1  b2 )2 (a1  b3 )2

(a2  b1 )2 (a2  b2 )2 ( a2  b3 )2
L.H.S. =
(a3  b1 )2 (a3  b2 )2 ( a3  b3 )2

a12  2a1b1  b12 a12  2 a1 b2  b22 a12  2a1 b3  b32

a22  2a2 b1  b12 a22  2a2 b2  b22 a22  2a2 b2  b32
=
a32  2a3 b1  b12 a32  2 a3 b2  b22 a32  2a3 b3  b32

a12 a 1 2
1  2b1 b1
1
a22 a2 1  1  2b2 b22
= (Row by Row)
a32 a3 1 1  2b3 b32

2 2
1 a1 a1 1 b1 b1
1 a2 a22  ( 2) 1 b2 b22
= (ă 1)
1 a3 a2 1 b3 b2
3 3

2 2
1 a1 a1 1 b1 b1
1 a2 a22  1 b2 b22
= (2)
1 a3 a2 1 b3 b2
3 3

= 2 (a1 ă a2) (a2 ă a3) (a3 ă a1) (b1 ă b2) (b2 ă b3) (b3 ă b1) = R.H.S.

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Illustration 46

1 a a2
1 b b 2  (a  b) (b  c ) (c  a )
Show that
1 c c2

Solution :

1 a a2
1 b b2
Let  =
1 c c2

2 2
0 ab a b
0 bc b2  c2
Now  = [R1  R1 ă R2, R2  R2 ă R3]
1 c c2

0 1 ab
0 1 bc
= (a ă b) (b ă c)
1 c c2

= (a ă b) (b ă c) (b + c ă a ă b)
= (a ă b) (b ă c) ( c ă a)

1 a a2
1 b b2
Note : Determinant is called a circular
1 c c2

determinant and its value can be directly used in solving problems.

Illustration 47

a b c
Let a , b, c be positive and not all equal. Show that the value of the determinant b c a
c a b

is negative. [IITă81]

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68 QUIZRR
Solution :

abc b c
 abc c a
[C1  C1 + C2 + C3]
abc a b

1 b c
1 c a
= (a + b + c)
1 a b

[Taking (a + b + c) common from first column]

1 b c
0 cb ac
= (a + b + c) [R2  R2 ă R1 and R3  R3 ă R1]
0 ab bc

= (a + b + c) {{c ă b} (b ă c) ă (a ă b) (a ă c)}
= (a + b + c) {bc + ca + ab ă a2 ă b2 ă c2}
= ă (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 ă bc ă ca ă ab)

1
= (a + b + c) [(a2 + b2 ă 2ab) + (b2 + c2 ă 2bc) + (c2 + a2 ă 2ac)]
2

1
= (a + b + c) [(a ă b)2 + (b ă c)2 + (c – a)2] ...(i)
2
 a, b, c are positive  a + b+ c > 0
Again since a, b, c are unequal   (a ă b)2 + (b ă c)2 + (c – a)2 > 0
 from (i),  < 0

Illustration 48

a2  1 ab ac
Prove that ab b2  1 bc  1  a 2  b2  c 2
ac bc c2  1

Solution :

a2  1 ab ac
2
ab b 1 bc
L.H.S. =
ac bc c2  1

Multiplying C1, C2, C3 by a, b, c respectively

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 69

a ( a2  1) ab2 ac2
1
= a2 b b (b2  1) bc2
abc
a2 c b2 c c ( c2  1)

Now taking common a, b, c from R1, R2, R3 respectively

a2  1 b2 c2
abc
= a2 b2  1 c2
abc
a2 b2 c2  1

1  a2  b2  c2 b2 c2
2 2 2
= 1a b c b2  1 c2 [C1  C1 + C2 + C3]
2 2 2 2 2
1a b c b c 1

1 b2 c2
1 b2  1 c2
= (1 + a2 + b2 + c2)
1 b2 c2  1

1 b2 c2
0 1 0
= (1 + a2 + b2 + c2) [R2  R2 ă R1 and R3  R3 ă R1]
0 0 1

= (1 + a2 + b2 + c2) (1.1.1)
= 1 + a2 + b2 + c2 = R.H.S.

Illustration 49

15  x 1 10
Solve the equation 11  3 x 1 16  0
7x 1 13

Solution :

15  x 1 10
Given 11  3 x 1 16  0
7  x 1 13

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15  x 1 10
or  4  2 x 0 6  0 [R2  R2 ă R1, R3  R3 ă R1]
8 0 3

or (ă 1) (ă 12 ă 6x + 48) = 0
or ă 36 + 6x = 0  x= 6

Illustration 50

a  x c b
c bx a 0
If a + b + c = 0, solve the equation
b a c x

Solution :

abcx c b
From given equation, a  b  c  x b  x a 0 [C1  C1 + C2 + C3]
abcx a cx

1 c b
1 b x a 0
or (a + b + c ă x)
1 a cx

1 c b
or (ă x) 0 b c x a b 0 [R2  R2 ă R1; R3  ă R1]
0 a c cb x

[ a + b + c = 0]
or x[(b ă c ă x) (c ă b ă x) ă (a ă c) (a ă b)] = 0
or x(x2 ă b2 ă c2 + 2bc ă a2 + ab + ca ă bc) = 0
or x (x2 ă a2 ă b2 ă c2 + ab + bc + ca) = 0
 x= 0
or x2 = a2 + b2 + c2 ă (ab + bc + ca)
1
= (a2 + b2 + c2) ă {(a + b + c)2 ă (a2 + b2 + c2)}
2

3
= (a2 + b2 + c2) [ a + b + c = 0]
2

3 2 2 2 
 x = 0, or x    (a  b  c )
2 
MATRICES & DETERMINANTS
 QUIZRR 71

Illustration 51

a bc a bc a a2 a3
b ca a bc  b b2 b3
Show without expanding that
c ab a bc c c2 c3

Solution :

a3 a2 bc a3 bc [R1  a2 R1
1
b3 ab2 c ab3 c R 2  b2 R 2
L.H.S. = a b c
2 2 2
c3 abc2 abc3 R 3  c2 R 3 ]

a3 a a 2 3
a a a
2

( abc) ( abc)
b3 b b2   b b3 b2
= a2 b2 c2 [C2  C2]
c3 c c2 c c3 c2

2 3
a a a
b b2 b3
= [C2  C3]
c c2 c3

Illustration 52

1  a1 a2 a3
Evaluate :   a 1 1  a2 a3
a1 a2 1  a3

Solution :

1  a1  a2  a3 a2 a3
  1  a1  a2  a3 1  a2 a3 [C1  C1 + C2 + C3]
1  a1  a2  a3 a2 1  a3

1 a2 a3
1 1  a2 a3
= (1 + a1 + a2 + a3)
1 a2 1  a3

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0 1 0
 R  R1  R 2 
0 1 1  1
= (1 + a1 + a2 + a3) R  R 2  R 3 
1 a2 1  a3  2

1 0
= (1 + a1 + a2 + a3)
1 1

= (1 + a1 + a2 + a3) (1 ă 0) = 1 + a1 + a2 + a3

Illustration 53

a  b  2c a b
c b  c  2a b  2 (a  b  c )3
Show that
c a c  a  2b

Solution :

2 ( a  b  c) a b
  2 ( a  b  c) b  c  2a b
[C1  C1 + C2 + C3]
2 ( a  b  c) a c  a  2b

1 a b
1 b  c  2a b
= 2 (a + b + c)
1 a c  a  2b

[taking 2 (a + b + c) common from first column]

0  (b  c  a) 0
0 (b  c  a)  ( a  b  c)
= 2 (a + b + c) [R1  R1 ă R2 and R2  R2 ă R3]
1 a c  a  2b

0 1 0
0 1 1
= 2 (a + b + c) (a + b + c)2
1 a c  a  2b

[taking (a + b + c) common from first and second rows]

= 2 (a + b + c) 1 {(ă 1) (ă 1) ă 1.0} = 2 (a + b + c)3.
3

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

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Illustration 54

a bc 2a 2a
2b bca 2b  ( a  b  c )3
Prove that
2c 2c ca b

Solution :

abc abc abc

2b bca 2b [R1  R1  R 2  R 3 ]
 =
2c 2c cab

1 1 1
2b b  c  a 2b
= (a + b + c) [taking (a + b + c) common from first row]
2c 2c cab

1 0 0
2b bca 0
= (a + b + c) [C2  C2 ă C1; C3  ă C1]
2c 0 cab

bca 0
= (a + b + c) [Expanding along R1]
0 cab

= (a + b + c) [ă (b + c + a) ï ă (c + a + b)]
= (a + b + c) (a + b + c)2 = (a + b + c)3

Illustration 55

x y z 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
Prove that x y z  x y z 2  ( y  z)(z  x )( x  y)( yz  zx  xy)
yz zx xy x3 y3 z3

Solution :

x2 y2 z2
1
x3 y3 z3
    = x. y.z [C1  xC1, C2  yC2, C3  zC3]
xyz xyz xyz

x2 y2 z2 x2 y2 z2 1 1 1
xyz 3 3 3 2 2
= x y z  1 1 1  x y z2
xyz
1 1 1 x3 y3 z3 x3 y3 z3

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1 0 0
2 2 2
x y x z  x2
2
= [C2  C2 ă C1;  C3 ă C1]
x3 y3  x3 z3  x3

( y  x) ( y  x) ( z  x)( z  x)
= 1
( y  x)( y  xy  x ) ( z  x)( z2  zx  x2 )
2 2

y x z x
= (y ă x) (z ă x)
y2  xy  x2 z2  zx  x2

[taking (y ă x) and (z ă x) common from first and second columns respectively

y x z y
= (y ă x) (z ă x) [C2  C2 ă C1]
y2  xy  x2 ( z2  y2 )  zx  xy

y x z y
= (y ă x) (z ă x) 2 2 ( z  y)( x  y  z)
y  xy  x

y x 1
= (y ă x) (z ă x) (z ă y) 2 2 ( x  y  z)
y  xy  x

= (y ă x) (z ă x) (z ă y) [(y + x) (x + y + z) ă (y2 + xy + x2)]

= (x ă y) (y ă z) (z ă x) (xy + yz + zx)

Illustration 56

2 3
x x 1 x
If x, y, z are all different and if y y 2 1  y3  0, prove that xyz = ă 1.
z z 2 1  z3

Solution :

2 3 2 2
x x 1 x x x 1 x x x3
y y2 1  y3  y y2 1  y y2 y3
 =
z z2 1  z3 z z2 1 z z2 z3

2 2
x x 1 1 x x
y y2 1  xyz 1 y y2
=
z z2 1 1 z z2

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

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2 2
x 1 x 1 x x
 y 1 y2  xyz 1 y y2
= [C2  C3 in first det.]
z 1 z2 1 z z2

2 2 2
1 x x 1 x x 1 x x
1 y y2  xyz 1 y y2  1 y y2
= [1 + xyz]
1 z z2 1 z z2 1 z z2

[C1  C2]
= (x ă y) (y ă z) (z ă x) (1 + xyz) [From value of a circular determinant]
  = 0  (x ă y) (y ă z) (z ă x) (1 + xyz) = 0
 1 + xyz = 0
[ x  y, y  z, z  x]
 xyz = ă 1

Illustration 57

bc a a
Evaluate b ca b
c c a b

Solution :

0  2c  2b
b ca b
 = [R1  R1 ă R2 ă R3]
c c ab

0  2c  2b
1
0 c (c  a  b) b(c  a  b)
= c [R2  cR2 ă bR3]
c c ab

1
= [c (ă 2bc) [c ă a ă b ă (c + a ă b)]]
c
= (ă 2bc) (ă 2a) = 4abc

Illustration 58
If a , b, c are all positive and p th, q th and r th terms of a G.P., then prove that

log a p 1
log b q 1 0
log c r 1

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Solution :
Let ÂAÊ be the first term and ÂRÊ common ratio of G.P.
Then, tp = ARp ă 1
= a
q ă 1
tq = AR = b
r ă 1
tr = AR = c
Now, log a = log ARp ă 1
= log A + log Rp ă 1
= log A (p ă 1) log R
Similarly, log b = log A + (q ă 1) log R
log c = log A + (r ă 1) log R

log a p 1 log A  ( p  1) log R p 1

log b q 1  log A  ( q  1) log R q 1
  =
log c r 1 log A  (r  1) log R r 1

log a p 1 ( p  1) log R p 1
log b q 1  ( q  1) log R q 1
=
log c r 1 (r  1) log R r 1

1 p 1 p1 p 1
1 q 1  log R q  1 q 1
= log A
1 r 1 r 1 r 1

 p p 1 1 p 1
 
q q 1  1 q 1
= log A ï (0) + log R 
 r r 1 1 r 1
 

= log R [0 ă 0] = 0

Illustration 59

x1 x2 xa

x2 x 3 xb 0
If a , b, c are in A.P., show that
x3 x4 x c

Solution :
If a, b, c are in A.P., then 2b = a + c

x1 x2 x a
x2 x3 xb
Let  =
x3 x4 xc

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Applying R1  R1 + R3

2x  4 2 x  6 2x  a  c
x2 x3 xb
 =
x3 x4 xc

Applying R1  R1 ă 2R2

0 0 a  c  2b
x2 x3 xb
 =
x3 x4 xc

0 0 0
x2 x3 xb
= [ 2b = a + c]
x3 x4 xc

= 0

Illustration 60

3x  8 3 3
3 3x  8 3
Solve = 0
3 3 3x  8

Solution :

3x  8 3 3
3 3x  8 3
= 0
3 3 3x  8

Applying C1  C1 + C2 + C3

3x  2 3 3
3x  2 3x  8 3
= 0
3x  2 3 3x  8

Taking 3x ă 2 common from C1

1 3 3
1 3x  8 3
(3x ă 2) = 0
1 3 3x  8

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Applying R2  R2 ă R1 and R3  R3 ă R1

1 3 3
0 3 x  11 0
(3x ă 2) = 0
0 0 3 x  11

Expanding by C1
 (3x ă 2) (3x ă 11)2 = 0
 3x ă 2 = 0 or 3x ă 11 = 0
 x = 2/3 or x = 11/3

Differential coefficient of a determinant

f1 ( x) f2 ( x) f3 ( x)
let y  g1 ( x) g2 ( x) g3 ( x)
h1 ( x) h2 ( x) h3 ( x)

where fi(x), gi(x), hi(x), i = 1, 2, 3 are differentiable function of x.

f1´ ( x) f2´ ( x) f3´ ( x) f1 ( x) f2 ( x) f3 ( x) f1 ( x) f2 ( x) f3 ( x)

dy
 g1 ( x) g2 ( x) g3 ( x)  g1´ ( x) g2´ ( x) g3´ ( x)  g1 ( x) g2 ( x) g3 ( x)
dx
h1 ( x) h2 ( x) h3 ( x) h1 ( x) h2 ( x) h3 ( x) h1´ ( x) h2´ ( x) h3´ ( x)

Illustration 61
If f, g and h are differentiable functions of x and

f g h f g h
( xf )´ ( xg )´ ( xh)´ f´ g´ h´
 = prove that ´ =
( x 2 f )´´ ( x 2 g )´´ ( x 2 h )´´ ( x 3 f ´´)´ ( x 3 g ´´)´ ( x 3 h´´)´

Solution :

f g h
( xf )´ ( xg)´ ( xh)´
 =
( x2 f )´´ ( x2 g)´´ ( x2 h)´´

f g h
xf ´  f xg´  g xh´  h
=
2 2 2
x f ´´  4 xf ´  2 f x g´´  4 xg´  2 g x h´´  4 xh´  2h

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f g h
xf ´ xg´ xh´
=
2 2 2
x f ´´  4 xf ´ x g´´  4 xg´ x h´´  4 xh´

by R3 ă 2R2 and R2 ă R1
Now apply R3 ă 4R2

f g h f g h
     = x.x2 f ´ g´ h´  f ´ g´ h´
f ´´ g´´ h´´ x3 f ´´ x3 g´´ x3 h´´

Now differentiate as explained in (b)

f´ g´ h´ f g h f g h
 ´ = f´ g´ h´  f ´´ g´´ h´´  f´ g´ h´
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
x f ´´ x g´´ x h´´ x f ´´ x g´´ x h´´ ( x f ´´)´ ( x g´´)´ ( x h´´)´

f g h
= 0+ 0 + f´ g´ h´
( x3 f ´´)´ ( x3 g´´)´ ( x3 h´´)´

In the second det. R2.R3 become identical after taking x3 common from R3.

Illustration 62
Let  be a repeated root of quadratic equation f(x) = 0 and A(x), B(x), C(x) be polynomial

A( x ) B( x ) C( x )
of degree 3, 4 and 5 respectively, then show that A() B() C() is divisible by f(x),
A´() B´() C´()

where dash denotes the derivative.

Solution :

A( x) B( x) C( x)
A() B() C()
Set P(x) = ...(1)
A´() B´() C´()

A´( x) B´( x) C´( x)

A() B() C()
Then P´(x) = + 0 + 0 ...(2)
A´() B´() C´()

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Since f(x) = 0 is a quadratic having a repeated root , we can write f(x) = a (x ă )2 where a is
a constant.
Now P(x) will be divisible by f(x) if P(x) and P´(x) are divisible by (x ă ) i.e. P () = 0 and
P´() = 0 which is obvious by (1) and (2) because of two identical rows.

Illustration 63

cos(  ) cos(  ) cos(   )

If  = sin(  ) sin(  ) sin(   ) then prove that  is independent of .
p   sin  p   sin  r   sin 

Solution :
 = f (). If will be independent of  if ´ () = 0

cos(  ) cos(  ) cos(   )

sin(  ) sin(  ) sin(  )
´ = 0 + 0 +
sin  sin  sin 

´ =  sin  sin ( +  ă  ă )

=  sin  sin ( ă ) = 0
  = constant i.e. independent of .

Illustration 64
If 11 + 22 + 33 =  11 +  22 +  33 = 0

3
 12   22   23  1 and 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 = (12   22   32 )(12   22  32 ) , then show that
2

2
1  2  3
1 2
1  2 3  (1   22   32 ).(12   22  32 )
4
1  2 3

Solution :

1  2 3 1  2  3
 2 3 1 2 3
We have  2 = 1
1  2  3 1  2  3

 12  11  1 1
=  11  12  11
 11  11  12
MATRICES & DETERMINANTS
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3
 12 2
() () 0
3
2
() ()  2 0
1
= 0 1 (Using the given relation)
0

2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
= (1   2   3 ) (1  2  3 )  (1   22  32 ) (12  22  32 )
4

1 2
= (1   22   23 ) (12  22  32 )
4

Illustration 65
Prove that the area of the triangle enclosed by the lines a 1x + b 1y + c 1 = 0, a 2x + b 2y + c 2

2
a1 b1 c1
1
= 0, a 3x + b 3y + c 3 = 0 is a 2 b2 c2  (a 1 b2  a 2 b1 ) (a 2 b3  a 3 b2 ) (a 3 b1  a 1 b3 )
2
a3 b3 c3

Solution :

a1 b1 c1
a b c
Consider the determinant  = 2 2 2
a3 b3 c3

If ´ is the det. formed by the cofactors of , then we know that ´ = 2 i.e.,

2
A1 B1 C1 a1 b1 c1
A 2 B2 C2  a2 b2 c2 ...(1)
A 3 B3 C3 a3 b3 c3

Now solving a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3 = 0, we get

x1 y1 1
 
b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2
b3 c3 c3 a3 a3 b3

x1 y 1
i.e.,  1 
A1 B1 C1

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 A1 B1 
Hence point of intersection of the above two lines is  . 
 C1 C1 
This gives once of the vertices of the triangle

 A 2 B2   A 3 B3 
Similarly other two vertices are  ,  and  ,  . Hence area of triangle
 C2 C2   C3 C3 

A 1 / C1 B1 / C1 1 A1 B1 C1
1 1
= A 2 / C2 B2 / C2 1 = A 2 B2 C2  (C1 C2 C3 )
2 2
A 3 / C3 B3 / C3 1 A 3 B3 C3

a1 b1 c1
1
a b c  ( a2 b2  a3 b2 ) ( a3 b1  a1 b3 ) (a1b2  a2 b1 )
= 2 2 2 2
a3 b3 c3

[Using (1) and substituting the values of C1, C2, C3]

Integration of a Determinant

f g h
If f ( x)  a b c
a1 b1 c1

when f, g, h are the function of x and a, b, c, a1, b1, c1 are constants, then

  
 f dx  g dx  h dx

 F( x) dx  a b c
a1 b1 c1

f a a1
F( x)  g b b1
Also if
h c c1


a a1
 f dx
 
then  F( x) dx   g dx b b1

 h dx c c1

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Illustration 66

sin x
sin5 x In sin x
sin x  cos x
n n
/2
If f ( x )  n  k  k find the value of 0 f ( x ) dx
k 1 k1
8  1 
ln ( )
15 2 2 4

Solution :

/2 / 2 /2 sin x

0 sin5 x dx 0 In sin x dx 0 sin x  cos x
n n
/2
0 f ( x) dx = n  k k
k1 k1
8  1 
In ( )
15 2 2 4

4 2  
.  In 2
5 3 2 4 8  1 
(By Walli's In ( )
formula) 15 2 2 4
n n
n n
= n  k k = n  k k
k1 k1
k1 k1
8  1  8  1 
In ( ) In ( )
15 2 2 4 15 2 2 4

= 0 (since R1 and R2 are identical)

Illustration 67

sec x cos x sec 2 x  cot x cos ecx

/2
Let f ( x )  cos 2 x cos2 x cos ec 2 x then find the value of 0 f ( x ) dx .
2 2
1 cos x cos x

Solution :
Applying C2  C2 ă cos2x C1

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sec x 0 sec 2 x  cot x cosec x

cos2 x cos2 x  cos4 x cos ec 2 x
then f(x) = (Expan. along C2)
1 0 cos2 x

sec x sec 2 x  cot x cosec x

2 4
= (cos x ă cos x) 1 cos2 x

= (cos2 x ă cos4 x) (cosx ă sec2 x ă cot x cosec x)

 1 cos x 
= cos2 x (1 ă cos2 x)  cos x   
 cos x sin2 x 
2

 1 cos x 
= cos2 x sin2 x  cos x   
 cos x sin2 x 
2

= cos3 x sin2 x – sin2 x – cos3 x

= – cos3 x (ă sin2 x + 1) ă sin2 x
f(x) = ă cos5 x ă sin2 x
/2 /2 /2
 0 f ( x) dx =  0 cos5 x dx  0 sin 2 x dx

4 2  1 
=   . .1    . 
5 3  2 2

 8 
=    [By WalliÊs formule]
 15 4 

System of liner Equations :

Definition 1 :
A system of linear equations in n unknowns x1, x2, x3, ..... xn is of the form :

 a11 x1  a12 x2  .....  a1n xn  b1 

 
 a21 x1  a22 x2  .....  a2n xn  b2 
 
..................................................... ...(A)
.....................................................
 
 an1 x1  an2 x2  .....  ann xn  bn 

If b1, b2, ..... bn are all zero, the system is called homoeneous and non-homogeneous if at least
one bi is non-zero.

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Definition 2.
The solution set of the system (A) is an n tuple (1, 2, ....., n) of real numbers (or complex
numbers if the coefficients are complex) which satisfy each of the equations of the sysem.

Definition 3.
A system of equations is called consistent if it has at least one solution; inconsistent if it does
not have any solution; determinate if it has a unique solution; indeterminate if it has more than
one solution.

Gist of discussion in simple language :

1. Consistent : Solution exists whether unique or infinite number of solutions.
2. Inconsistent : Solution does not exist.
3. Homogeneous Equations : Constant terms zero.
4. Trivial solution : All variables zero i.e., x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
5. Non-trivial Solution : Infinite number of solutions.
As a matter of fact on division by 2 the second equation reduces to first. Thus we have got only
one line 2x + 3y = 10 on which lie infinite number of points. Thus there are infinite number of
solutions and the system is consistent.
Solution of System of Linear Equations by Determinants (CramerÊs Rule)
System of linear equations in two variables :
Consider the system a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
Solving these equations, we get

b2 c1  b1 c2 a1 c2  a2 c1
x= ab a b , y=
a1b2  a2 b1
1 2 2 1

These can be exppressed in terms of determinants as :

c1 b1 a1 c1
c2 b2 a2 c2
x = a1 b1 y = a1 b1
a2 b2 a2 b2

Dx Dy a1 b1
 x , y where D  is the determinant of coefficient of x and y,
D D a2 b2

c1 b1
Dx = c b is obtained by replacing coefficient of x by constants c1, c2 in D and
2 2

a1 c1
Dy =
a2 c2
is obtained by replacing coefficient of y by constants c1, c2 in D.

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System of linear equations in three variables :
Consider the system a1x + b1y + c1z = d 1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d 2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d 3

a1 b1 c1

Let D =
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

a1 x b1 c1

Then, xD = a2 x b2 c2
a3 x b3 c3

Applying C1  C1 + yC2 + zC3

a1 x  b1 y  c1 z b1 c1 d1 b1 c1

xD =
a2 x  b2 y  c2 z b2 c2  d2 b2 c2  D x
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z b3 c3 d3 b3 c3

Dx
 x=
D

Dy Dz
Similarly, y= and z=
D D

a1 b1 c1
where, D  a2 b2 c2 , is the determinant of the coefficients of x, y and z.
a3 b3 c3

d1 b1 c1

Dx =
d2 b2 c2
d3 b3 c3

is obtained by replacing coefficients of x by constants d 1, d 2, d 3 in D.

a1 d1 c1

Dy = a2 d2 c2
a3 d3 c3

is obtained by replacing coefficients of y by constants d 1, d 2, d 3 in D.

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a1 b1 d1

Dz =
a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 d3

is obtained by replacing coefficients of z by constants d 1, d 2, d 3 in D.

Criterion for consistency

For system of lienar equations in two variables :
(i) If D  0, then the system is consistent and has a unique solution.
(ii) If D = 0, Dx = 0 and Dy = 0 then the system is consistent and has infinite number of
solutions.
(iii) If D = 0 and any one of Dx or Dy is non-zero, then the system is inconsistent (no solutions).

For system of lienar equations in three variables :

(i) If D  0, then the system is consistent and has a unique solution.
(ii) If D = 0, Dx = 0 and Dy = 0 and Dz = 0, then the system is consistent and has infinite
number of solutions.
(iii) If D = 0 and any one of Dx, Dy or Dz is non-zero, then the system is inconsistent.

Illustration 68
Solve the following system of equations by CramerÊs rule : x + y = 5, y + z = 3, x + z = 4
Solution :
Given system of equations is x + y = + 0z = 5, 0x + y + z = 3, x + 0y + z = 4

1 1 0
0 1 1
D = = 1 (1 ă 0) ă 1 (0 ă 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
1 0 1

5 1 0
3 1 1
Dx = ă 5 (1 ă 0) ă 1 (3 ă 4) = 5 + 1 = 6
4 0 1

1 5 0
0 3 1
Dy = = 1 (3 ă 4) ă 5 (0 ă 1) = ă 1 + 5 = 4
1 4 1

1 1 5
0 1 3
Dz = = 1 (4 ă 0) ă 1 (0 ă 3) + 5 (0 ă 1) = 4 + 3 ă 5 = 2
1 0 4

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Dx 6 D 4 Dz 2
Now, x= =  3; y  y   2 and z  1
D 2 D 2 D 2
 x = 3, y = 2 and z = 1

How to solve when D1 = D2 = D3 = 0

1. Put any variable let us say z = k
2. Consider any 2 equations and solve them for x & y using CramerÊs rule.

Illustration 69
Solve the following system of equations by CramerÊs rule :
x ă y + 3z = 6,
x + 3y ă 3z = ă 4,
5x + 3y + 3z = 10
Solution :

1 1 3
1 3 3
D =
5 3 3

= 1 (9 + 9) + 1 (3 + 15) + 3 (3 ă 15) = 18 + 18 ă 36 = 0

6 1 3
4 3  3
Dx =
10 3 3

= 6 (9 + 9) + 1 (ă 12 + 30) + 3 (ă 12 ă 30) = 108 + 18 ă 126 = 0

1 6 3
1 4 3
Dy =
5 10 3

= 1 (ă 12 + 30) ă 6 (3 + 15) + 3 (10 + 20) = 18 ă 108 + 90 = 0

1 1 6
1 3 4
Dz =
5 3 10

= 1 (30 + 12) + 1 (10 + 20) + 6 (3 ă 15) = 42 + 30 ă 72 = 0

 D = Dx = Dy = Dz = 0
Hence, system of equations is consistent and has infinite solutions.
Putting z = k and considering first two equations, we get

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x ă y = 6 ă 3k, x + 3y = ă 4 + 3k

1 1
Again, D = = 3+ 1= 4
1 3

6  3k 1
Dx = = 18 ă 9k ă 4 + 3k = 14 ă 6k
 4  3k 3

1 6  3k
Dy = = ă 4 + 3k ă 6 + 3k = ă 10 + 6k
1  4  3k

Dx 14  6 k 7  3 k
Now, x= = 
D 4 2

Dy  10  6 k  5  3 k
and y= = 
D 4 2

7  3k 5  3k
 x= , y= and z = k
2 2
By giving arbitrary values to k, we find that the given system has infinite number of solutions.

Illustration 70
Prove that the system of equation
3x ă y + 4z = 3
x + 2y ă 3z = ă 2
6x + 5y + z = ă 3
has at least one solution for any real . Find the set of solutions when  = ă 5.
[IIT ă 84]
Solution :

3 1 4
  1 2  3  3 (2  15)  1 (  18)  4 (5  12)  7 (  5)
6 5 

Case I :
When  5.  + 5  0. In this case  0, therefore given system of equations has unique solution.
Case II :
When  = ă 5.  + 5 = 0. In this case  = 0

3 1 4 3 3 4
Also 1   2 2  3  0, 2  1  2  3  0
3 5 5 6 3 5

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

90 QUIZRR

3 1 3
and 1  1 2 2 0
6 5 3

Hence in this case given system of equations has infinitely many solutions. Thus the given system
of equations has at least one solution.
Set of solutions : Putting the value of , given equations become
3x ă y + 4z = 3 ...(i)
x + 2y ă 3z = ă 2 ...(ii)
and 6x + 5y ă 5z = ă 3 ...(iii)
multiplying equation (i) by 2 and adding it to (ii), we get

4  7x
7x + 5z = 4 or z =
5
From (i), y = 3x + 4z ă 3
16  28 x 1  13 x
= 3x + 3
5 5
Thus solution is given by

xt 
1  13t 
y  where t is an arbitrary number.
5 

4  7t 
z
5

Illustration 71
For what values of p and q, the system of equations
2x + py + 6z = 8
x + 2y + qz = 5
x + y + 3z = 4
has (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (ii) infinitely many solutions.
Solution :

2 p 6
 2(6  q)  p (3  q)  6 (1  2)
 1 2 q
 12  2q  3 p  pq  6
1 1 3

= pq ă 2q ă 3p + 6 = (p ă 2) (q ă 3)

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 91

8 p 6
1  5 2 q
4 1 3

= 2 (6 ă q) ă p (15 ă 4q) + 6 (5 ă 8)
= 48 ă 8q ă 15p + 4pq ă 18 = 4pq ă 8q ă 15p + 30
= 4q(p ă 2) ă 15(p ă 2) = (4q ă 15) (p ă 2)

2 8 6
1 5 q  2(15  4 q)  8(3  q)  6(4  5)  0
2=
1 4 3

2 p 8
 2(8  5)  p(4  5)  8(1  2)
1 2 5
3 = 6 p8 p2
1 1 4

Case I : When   0 i.e. p  2, q  3, given system of equations has unique solution.

Case II : p = 2,  = 0, 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 0
 given system of equations has infinitely many solutions.
when q = 3, p  2,  = 0, 1  0
therefore, given system of equations has no solution.
Thus the given system of equation has
(i) unique solution when p  2, q  3
(ii) infinite number of solutions when p = 2
(iii) no solution when p  2, q = 3.

Illustration 72
Solve using CramerÊs rule :
1 1 1 2 1 3 3 1 1
   4,    0,   6
x y z x y z x y z
Solution :
1 1 1
D = 2 1  3  1 (1  3)  1 (2  9)  1 (2  3)
3 1 1

= 4 + 11 ă 1 = 14

4 1 1
0 1 3
D1/x =
6 1 1

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 92 QUIZRR
= 4 (1 + 3) + 1 (0 + 18) + 1 (0 ă 6) = 16 + 18 ă 6 = 28

1 4 1
2 0 3
D 1/y =
3 6 1

= 1 (0 + 18) ă 4 (2 + 9) + 1 (12 ă 0) = 18 ă 44 + 12 = ă 14

1 1 4
2 1 0
D1/z =
3 1 6

= 1 (6 ă 0) + 1 (12 ă 0) + 4 (2 ă 3) = 6 + 12 ă 4 = 14
1 D1 / x 28
Now, = = 2  x = 1/2;
x D 14

1 D1 / y  14
= =  1  y = ă 1;
y D 14

1 D1 / z 14
= = 1  z= 1
z D 14
 x = 1/2, y = ă 1 and z = 1

Illustration 73
If f (x) = a x2 + bx + c and f (0) = 6, f (2) = 11, f (ă 3) = 6, find a , b, c and determine the quadratic
function f (x) using determinants.
Solution :
f (0) = 6  c= 6
f (2) = 11  4a + 2b + c = 11
f (ă 3) = 6  9a ă 3b + c = 6
 We have
0a + 0b + c = 6
4a + 2b + c = 11
9a ă 3b + c = 6

0 0 1
4 2 1  0  0  1 ( 12  18)   30
D =
9 3 1

6 0 1
11 2 1  6 (2  3)  1 ( 33  12)  30  45   15
Da =
6 3 1

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 93

0 6 1
4 11 1   6 (4  9)  1 (24  99)  30  75   45
Db =
9 6 1

0 0 6
Dc = 4 2 11  6 ( 12  18)   180
9 3 6

Da  15 1 D b  45 3
Now, a= =  ; b  
D  30 2 D  30 2

D c  180
and c=  6
D  30

1 2 3
 f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = x  x6
2 2

Illustration 74
Let  and  be real. Find the set of all values of  for which the system :
x + (sin)y + (cos)z = 0
x + (cos)y + (sin)z = 0
– x + (sin)y ă (cos)z = 0
has a non-trivial solution. For  = 1, find all values of . [IIT ă 93]
Solution :
For nontrivial solution,

 sin  cos 
1 cos  sin   0
 = 0 or
 1 sin   cos 

or  (ă cos2 ă sin2) ă (ă sin cos ă sin cos) ă (sin2ă cos2) = 0 [Expanding along C1]
or ă  + 2sin cos + (cos2 ă sin2) = 0
or  = sin2 + cos2
When  = 1, sin2 + cos2 = 1
or sin2 = 1 ă cos2
or 2sin cos = 2sin2
or 2sin (cos ă sin) = 0
 sin = 0 or cos ă sin = 0
 sin = 0 or tan = 1.

Hence  = n or  = n + ; n  I
4

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

94 QUIZRR

Illustration 75

n! ( n  1)! (n  2)!
D
For a fixed positive integer n, if D  (n  1)! (n  2)! (n  3)! then show that  4 is
( n !)3
(n  2)! ( n  3)! (n  4)!

divisible by n. [IIT ă 92]

Solution :

1 n1 (n  1) (n  2)
D  n ! (n  1)! (n  2)! 1 n2 (n  2)(n  3)
1 n3 (n  3) (n  4)

1 n1 (n  1)2
 n ! (n  1)! (n  2)! 1 n2 (n  2)2
[C3  C3 ă C2]
1 n3 (n  3)2

1 a a2
1 b b2
= n! (n + 1)! (n + 2)! (ă 1) (ă 1) 2 [ = (a ă b) (b ă c) (c ă a)]
1 c c2

D 2.n ! (n  1)! (n  2)!

 
(n !) 3 n! n! n!

= 2 (n + 1) (n + 1) (n + 2) = 2 (n2 + 2n + 1) (n + 2)
= 2 (n3 + 4n2 + 5n + 2) = 2n3 + 8n2 + 10n + 4

D
or  4  n (2n2  8 n  10), which is divisible by n.
(n !)3

Illustration 76

x x x
C1 C2 C3
y y y
Evaluate C1 C2 C3
z z z
C1 C2 C3

Solution :

n n
We know that Cr  , where n  1.2.3... n and 0  1
r nr

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 95

x x x x ( x  1) x x ( x  1) ( x  2)
 C1   , xC2  , C3 
1 x1 1 2 3

x x ( x  1) x ( x  1) ( x  2)
1 2 3
y y ( y  1) y ( y  1) ( y  2)
Now 
1 2 3
z z ( z  1) z ( z  1) ( z  2)
1 2 3

1 x1 ( x  1) ( x  2)
xyz
1 y1 ( y  1) ( y  2)
= 2 3
1 z1 ( z  1) ( z  2)

1 x1 ( x  1)2
xyz
1 y1 ( y  1) 2
= 12 [C3  C3 + C2]
1 z1 ( z  1) 2

1 a a2
xyz
( x  y) ( y  z) ( z  x) 1 b b2
= 12
1 c c2

= (a ă b) (b ă c) (c ă a)]

Illustration 77

p b c
p q r
If a  p, b  q, c  r and a q c  0 , then find the value of   [IIT 91]
pa qb r c
a b r
Solution :
p b c
a q c 0
Given
a b r

pa bq 0
 R1  R1  R 2 
0 qb cr 0 R  R  R 
or  2 2 3
a b r

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

96 QUIZRR
or (p ă a) [(q ă b) r ă b (c ă r)] ă (b ă q) [0 ă a (c ă r)] = 0
or (p ă a) (q ă b) r ă b (p ă a) (c ă r) + a (b ă q) (c ă r) = 0
or (p ă a) (q ă b) r + b (p ă a) (r ă c) + a (q ă b) (r ă c) = 0
r b a
or   0
rc qb pa

r  b   q 
or   1    a  0  1  1
r  c qb  pa 

r q p p q r
or   2 or   2
rc qb pa pa qb rc

Illustration 78
Show that

( x  a )2 b2 c2
 a2 b2 c2 
a2 ( x  b )2 c2 = x 2 ( x  2a ) ( x  2b) ( x  2c )  x    
 x  2a x  2b x  c 2 

a2 b2 ( x  c )2

Solution :

x ( x  2a) x (2b  x) 0
R1  R1  R 2 ,
 0 x ( x  2b) x (2c  x)  
 R 2  R 2  R3 
a2 b2 ( x  c)2

x  2a  ( x  2b) 0
2 taking x common 
= x 0 x  2b  ( x  2c)  from R and R 
 1 2 
a2 b2 ( x  c)2

1 1 0
2
= x ( x  2a) ( x  2b) ( x  2c) 0 1 1
2 2
a b c2
x
x  2a x  2b x  2c

 a2 b2 c2 
= x2 ( x  2 a) ( x  2b) ( x  2c)  x    
 x  2 a x  2b x  2c 

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 97

1 1 0
= 0 1 0 [C3  C3 + C2 + C1]
2 2
a b
1
x  2b x  2b

2  a2 b2 c2 
= x ( x  2 a) ( x  2b) ( x  2c)  x    
 x  2 a x  2b x  2c 

Illustration 79
If a > 0, d > 0, find the value of the determinant

1 1 1
a a (a  d ) (a  d ) ( a  2 d )
1 1 1
a  d ( a  d ) (a  2 d ) (a  2d ) (a  3 d ) [IITă96]
1 b 1
a  2d (a  2d ) (a  3 d ) (a  3 d ) (a  4d )

Solution :

1

(a  d ) (a  2 d ) ( a  3 d ) 2 ( a  4 d )
2 3

( a  d ) ( a  2 d) a  2d a
( a  2d ) ( a  3d ) a  3d ad
( a  3d ) ( a  4 d ) a  4d a  2d

1
=
( a  d )2 ( a  2 d )3 ( a  3 d )2 ( a  4 d )

( a  d ) ( a  2 d) 2d a
( a  2d ) ( a  3d ) 3d ad
[C2  C2 ă C3]
( a  3d ) ( a  4 d ) 4d a  2d

1
=
a (a  d ) (a  2 d ) 3 ( a  3 d ) 2 (a  4 d )
2

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

98 QUIZRR

( a  d ) (a  2 d ) 2 d a
( a  2d) 2d 0 d
[R3  R3 ă R2, R2  R2 ă R2]
( a  3d ) 2d 0 d

 2d
= [2 d 2 (a  2d  a  3 d)]
a ( a  d ) ( a  2 d )3 ( a  3 d )2 ( a  4 d )
2

4d4
=
a (a  d )2 ( a  2 d )3 (a  3 d ) 2 ( a  4 d )

Illustration 80

a2 (s  a )2 (s  a )2
If 2s = a + b + c , show that (s  b)2 b2 (s  b)2 = 2s3 (s ă a ) (s ă b) (s ă c )
(s  c )2 (s  c )2 c2

Solution :
Let  = s ă a,  = s ă b,  = s ă c, then
 +  = 2s ă (b + c) = a
 +  = b and  +  = c,  +  +  = 3s ă (a + b + c) = 3s – 2s = s

(  )2 2 2
Now L.H.S. = 2 (   )2 2
2 2 (  ) 2

= 2 ( +  + )3

= 2 (s ă a) (s ă b) (s ă c) s3 = 2s3 (s ă a) (s ă b) (s ă c)

Illustration 81
Find the value of  lying between 0 and /2 and satisfying the equation :

1  cos2  sin 2  4 sin 4

2 2
cos  1  sin  4 sin 4 0
[IIT ă 88]
2 2
cos  sin  1  4sin 4

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 99

Solution :

2  4 sin 4 sin2  4 sin 4

Given equation becomes : 2  4 sin 4 1  sin2  4 sin 4 0
2  4 sin 4 sin 2  1  4 sin 4 

1 sin 2  4 sin 4 
or (2  4 sin 4) 1 1  sin 2  4 sin 4 0
1 sin 2  1  4 sin 4 

1 sin 2  4 sin 4
or 2 (1  2 sin 4 ) 0 1 0 0 [Applying R2  R2 ă R1 & R3  R1 ă R1]
0 0 1

or 2 (1 + 2 sin4) = 0 [Expanding along R1]

1    7 7
or sin 4      4            
2  6 6 24

Illustration 82
Let m and p be two positive integers such that m  p + 2.

m m m
Cp C p 1 Cp 2
m 1 m 1 m 1
I f  (m , p )  Cp C p 1 Cp 2
m2 m2 m2
Cp Cp 2 Cp 2

m2
C3
Show that  (m , p )  p2
 (m  1, p  1) . Hence or otherwise, prove that
C3

(m  2 C3 )(m  1 C3 )...(m  p  3 C3 )
 (m , p ) 
( p  2 C3 )( p  1 C3 )...(3 C3 )

Solution :
r.nCr = nn ă 1
Cr ă 1

n n n 1
 Cr  . Cr  1
r

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

100 QUIZRR

m m 1 m m 1 m m 1
. C p1 . Cp . Cp 1
p p1 p2
m1 m m1 m m1 m
Now (m, p)  . C p1 . Cp . Cp 1
p p1 p2
m  2 m 1 m  2 m1 m  2 m1
. C p1 . Cp . Cp 1
p p1 p2

Taking m common from R1, (m + 1) from R2, (m + 2) from R3, 1/p from C1, 1/(p + 1) from C2 and
1/(p + 2) from C3, we get

m1 m1 m 1
C p 1 Cp C p 1
m(m  1)(m  2) m m m
(m, p)  C p 1 Cp C p 1
p( p  1)( p  2)
m 1 m 1 m 1
Cp 1 Cp Cp 1

m2
C3
= p2
 (m  1, p  1)
C3

m2 m1
C1 C3
= p2
. p1
 (m  2, p  2)
C3 C3

m2 m1 m
C3 C3 C3
= p2
. p1
. p
 (m  3, p  3)
C3 C3 C3

(m  2 C3 )(m  1 C3 )...(m  p3

C3 )
= p2 p1 3 ...(i)
( C3 )( C3 )...( C3 )

m p m p m p
C0 C1 C2
m p1 m p1 m p1
Now  (m  p, 0)  C0 C1 C2
m p2 m p2 m p2
C0 C1 C2

(m  p)(m  p  1)
1 m p
2
(m  p  1)(m  p)
= 1 m p1 2
(m  p  2)(m  p  1)
1 m p2
2

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 101

(m  p)(m  p  1)
1 m p
2
0 1 m p
= = 1 [Applying R3 R3 ă R2 and R2  R2 ă R1]
0 1 m p1

(m  2 C3 )(m  1 C3 )...(m  p3

C3 )
Hence from (i),  (m, p) 
p2 p1 3
( C3 )( C3 )...( C3 )

Illustration 83

1 cos  cos 
If ,  and  are such that  +  +  = 0, then prove that cos  1 cos   0
cos  cos  1

Solution :

1 0 0
 C  C2  cos C1 
  cos  sin  2
cos   cos  cos   2 
2 C3  C3  cos  C1 
cos  cos   cos  cos  sin 

1 0 0
2     (   )  cos   cos(  ) 
cos  sin   sin  sin   
=
2   cos = cos cos  sin  sin  
cos   sin  sin  sin 

= 1 (sin2 sin2 ă sin2 sin2) = 0

Illustration 84

sin 2A sin C sin B

sin C sin 2B sin A  0
If A, B, C are the angles of a triangle, show that
sin B sin A sin 2C

Solution :

2sin A cosA sin C sin B

  sin C 2sin BcosB sin A
sin B sin A sin CcosC

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

102 QUIZRR

tan   tan  tan   tan  tan 

=  cos  cos  cos   0 0 1
sin2   sin 2  sin2   sin2  sin2 

[Applying C1  C1 ă C3 & C2  C2 ă C3]

sin(  ) sin(   )
tan 
cos  cos  cos  cos 
  cos  cos  cos  0 0 1
sin(  ) sin(   ) sin(  ) sin(  ) sin 2 

 sin  sin  sin(   ) 

 tan   tan     etc.
 cos  cos  cos  cos  

1 1
tan 
cos  cos  cos  cos 
=  cos  cos  cos . sin(  ) sin(  ) 0 0 1
sin(  ) sin(  ) sin 2 

 sin(   ) sin(  ) 
=  cos  cos  cos  sin(   ) sin(  ). ( 1)   
 cos  cos  cos  cos  
= sin( ă ) sin( ă ) [cos sin( + ) ă cos sin ( + )]

1 1 
= sin( ă ) sin( ă )  {sin(2  )  sin  }  {sin(2  )  sin } 
2 2 

1
= sin( ă ) sin( ă ) [sin(2 + ) ă sin (2 + )]
2

1
= sin( ă ) sin( ă ). 2cos ( +  + ) sin( ă )
2
= sin( ă ) sin( ă ) sin( ă ) cos ( +  + )

Illustration 85

n( n  1)
r x
2 n
If Dr  2r  1 y n 2
show that  Dr  0
r 1
n(3 n  1)
3r  2 z
2

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 103

Solution :
n
 Dr  D1  D2  ...  Dn
r1

n
n(n  1)
r x
2 n( n  1)
r 1 1  2  ...  n x
n
2
=  (3r  1) y n2 = 1  3  5  ....  2n  1 y n2
r 1 n(3n  1)
n 1  4  7  ....  3n  2 z
n(3n  1) 2
 (3r  2) z
2
r 1

n(n  1) n(n  1)
x
2 2
= n2 y n2
n(3n  1) n(3n  1)
z
2 2

= 0 [Since C1 and C3 are identical.]

Illustration 86

3
5 3  5i  4i
2
Without expanding the determinant show that the value of 3  5i 8 4  5i is real.
3
 4i 4  5i 9
2
Solution :

3
5 3  5i  4i
2
Let z = 3  5i 8 4  5i
3
 4i 4  5i 9
2

3
5 3  5i  4i
2
Then z  3  5i 8 4  5i
3
 4i 4  5i 9
2

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

104 QUIZRR

3
5 3  5i  4i
2
[Changing rows into corr
3  5i 8 4  5i
= esponding columns]
3
 4i 4  5i 9
2

= z

 z  z and hence z is real.

Illustration 87
If p(x), q(x) and r(x) are three polynomials of degree 2, then prove that

p( x ) q( x ) r(x)
p '( x ) q '( x ) r '( x )
is a independent of x.
p ''( x ) q ''( x ) r ''( x )

Solution :
Let p(x) = a1x2 + b1x + c1, q(x) = a2x2 + b2x + c2
and r(x) = a3x2 + b3x + c3
then p´(x) = 2a1x + b1, q´(x) = 2a2x + b2, r´(x) = 2a3x + b3
and p´´(x) = 2a1, q´´(x) = 2a2, r´´(x) = 2a3

p( x) q( x) r ( x)
Now   p '( x) q '( x) r '( x)
p ''( x) q ''( x) r ''( x)

a1 x2  b1 x  c1 a2 x2  b2 x  c2 a3 x2  b3 x  c3
2 a1 x  b1 2a2 x  b2 2a3 x  b3
=
2 a1 2a2 2a3

a1 x2  b1 x  c1 a2 x2  b2 x  c2 a3 x2  b3 x  c3
[R 2  R 2  xR 3 and
= 2 b1 b2 b3
[taking 2 common from R 3 ]
a1 a2 a3

c1 c2 c3
= 2 b1 b2 b3 [R1  R1 ă x2 R3 ă xR2]
a1 a2 a3

Clearly  is independent of x.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 105

Illustration 88
If f r (x), g r (x), h r (x), where r = 1, 2, 3 are polynomial in x such that f r (a ) = g r (a ) = h r (a ),

f1 ( x ) f 2( x) f3 (x )
r = 1, 2, 3 and F( x )  g 1 ( x ) g2 (x) g 3 ( x ) then find F´(a ). [IIT ă 85]
h1 ( x ) h2 ( x ) h3 ( x )

Solution :

f ´1 ( x) f ´ 2 ( x) f ´ 3 ( x) f1 ( x) f2 ( x) f3 ( x) f1 ( x) f ´ 2 ( x) f ´3 ( x)
F( x)  g1 ( x) g2 ( x) g3 ( x)  g´1 ( x) g´2 ( x) g´3 ( x)  g1 ( x) g2 (x) g3 ( x)
h1 ( x) h2 ( x) h3 ( x) h1 ( x) h2 ( x) h3 ( x) h´1 ( x) h´ 2 ( x) h´3 ( x)

f ´1 (a) f ´ 2 ( a) f ´3 ( a ) f1 (a) f2 (a) f3 (a)

 F´(a)  g1 (a) g2 (a) g3 (a)  g´1 (a) g´ 2 (a) g´ 3 (a)

h1 (a) h2 (a) h3 ( a) h1 (a) h2 (a) h3 (a)

f1 (a) f2 (a) f3 (a)

 g1 (a) g2 (a) g3 (a)  0  0  0  0.
h´1 ( a) h´ 2 ( a) h´ 3 ( a)

Since gr(a) = hr (a), hence in first determinant R2 & R3 are identical;

Since fr(a) = hr (a), hence in second determinant R1 & R3 are identical;
Since fr(a) = gr (a), hence in third determinant R1 & R2 are identical.

Illustration 89
Let  be a repeated root of the quadratic equation f (x) = 0 and A(x), B(x), C(x) be polynomials

A( x ) B( x ) C( x )
of degree 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Show that ( x )  A() B() C() is divisible by f (x),
A´() B´() C´()

where dash denotes the derivative.

Solution :
Since f (x) = 0 is a quadratic equation with repeated root , therefore f (x) = ar (x ă )2 where
a is a constant.
Clearly, (x) is a polynomial of degree at most 5.
Eqn. (x) = 0 will behave two roots equal to  if () = 0 & ´() = 0

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

106 QUIZRR

A'( x) B'( x) C'( x)

Now,  '( x)  A() B() C() [ A(), A´() etc. are constants]
A´() B´() C´()

A() B() C()

 ()  A() B() C()  0 [ R1 & R2 are identical]
A´() B´() C´()

A´() B´() C´()

And ´()  A() B() C()  0 [ R1 & R3 are identical]
A´() B´() C´()

Thus,  () = 0 and ´ () = 0.

Hence equation (x) = 0 has two roots equal to .
Therefore, (x) = (x ă )2 (x) where (x) is a polynomial of degree at most 3.

2 ( x) ( x)
Now  ( x)  a( x  ) .  a( x  )2 . g( x), where g ( x) 
a a
Thus (x) = f (x).g (x), where g (x) is a polynomial in x.
Hence (x) is divisible by f (x).

Illustration 90


u 2 u3
/2 2
1  cos 2nx
If u n   d x , then find the value of the determinant   u 4 u5 u6
1  cos 2 x
0 u7 u8 u9

Solution :

/ 2
1  cos 2 x /2 
We have, u1   1  cos 2 x
dx  [ x]0 
2
0

/ 2
2cos(2n  2) x  {cos(2n  4) x  cos(2nx)}
Now 2un  1  (un  un  2 ) 
 1  cos2 x
dx
0

/2
2cos(2n  2) x  2cos (2n  2) x cos 2 x
=  1  cos 2 x
dx
0

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 107

/2 /2
 sin(2n  2) x 
=  2cos (2n  2) x dx  
 n1 
0
0
0

Hence un + un + 2
ă 2un + 1
= 0

u1 u2 u3 u1  2u2  u3 u2 u3
Now   u4 u5 u6  u4  2u5  u6 u5 u6
u7 u8 u9 u7  2u8  u9 u8 u9

Applying C1  C1 ă 2C2 + C3, we obtain

0 u2 u3
= 0 u5 u6  0 [C1  C1 ă 2C2 + C3]
0 u8 u9

Illustration 91
Consider the system of linear equations in x, y, z
(sin 3) x ă y + z = 0
(cos 2) x + 4y + 3z = 0
2x + 7y + 7z = 0
Find the value of  for which this system has non-trivial solutions.
Solution :

sin 3  1 1
The system will have a non-trivial solution if cos 2 4 3  0
2 7 7

or (28 ă 21) sin 3 ă (ă 7 ă 7) cos 2 + 2 (ă 3 ă 4) = 0

or 7 sin 3 + 14 cos 2 ă 14 = 0
or 3 sin ă 4 sin3 + 2 (1 ă 2 sin2) ă 2 = 0
or 4sin3 + 4 sin2 ă 3 sin = 0
or sin (2 sin ă 1) (2 sin + 3) = 0
 sin = 0 which gives  = n,

1
or sin   which gives  = n + (ă 1)n./6,
2
where n is an integer
[Note that sin  ă 3/2]

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

108 QUIZRR

Illustration 92
Three vectors a , b, c are given by
(a) a  i  3 j  2 k, b  2i  4 j  4 k, c  3i  2 j  k
(b) a = i + j + k, b = 2i + 3j ă k, c = ă i ă 2j + 2k
Determine whether the systems of vectors in (i) and (ii) are linearly independent or dependent.
Solution :
Consider the linear relation
xa + yb + zc = 0 ...(i)
If, x, y, z are all zero, then it is L.I. and if x, y, z are not all zero, then it is L.D.
On putting the values of a, b, c as given and combining the terms of i, j, k, we have
(a) (x + 2y + 3z) i + (ă 3x ă 4y + 2z) j + (2x ă 4y ă z) k = 0
We know that i, j, k being non-coplanar represent at a L.I. system. Hence all the scalars
in the above must be zero.
 x + 2y + 3z = 0
ă 3x ă 4y + 2z = 0
2x ă 4y ă z = 0
Above represents a homogeneous system of equations

1 2 3
Apply C2  2C1
3 4 2
Its  = and C3  3C1
2 4 1

1 0 0
  14  88
 3 2 11
=  74  0
2 8 7

Henec the above system has only trivial solution i.e. all x, y, z will be zero. Hence the vectors
a, b, c are L.I.
(b) In this case proceeding as above

1 2 1
Apply C3  C2
2 3 1
 =
2 1 1

The columns C1 and C3 become identical so that  = 0. Hence the system has non-trivial
solution i.e. all x, y, z are not zero. Hence the vectors a, b, c are L.D.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

 QUIZRR 109

Illustration 93

a 0 1  a 1 1  f  a 2 
A   1 c b  , B  0 d c  , U   g  , V   0 
      . If there is vector matrix X, such that AX = U has
 1 d b   f g h   h  0
 

infinitely many solutions, then prove that BX = V cannot have a unique solution. If a fd
 0 then prove that BX = V has no solution. [IIT ă 2004]
Solution :
  0, Unique solution (Intersecting lines)
 = 0, 1 = 0, 2 = 0, Infinite solutions (Identical lines)
 = 0, 1  0, 2  0, No solution (Parallel lines)
AX = U has infinite many solutions.
  = 0, 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 0

A  0, A1  0, A 2  0, A 3  0.

a 0 1
1 c b 0
A 0 
1 d b

or ab (c ă d) + 1 (d ă c) = 0
or (c ă d) (ab ă 1) = 0
 ab = 1 or c = d ...(1)

f 0 1
g c b 0
A1  0 
h d b

Above is possible if g = h and c = d ...(2)

as in that case R2 and R3 become identical.

a f 1
1 g b 0
A2  0 
1 h b

Above is possible if g = h ...(3)

as in that case R2 and R3 become identical

a 0 f
1 c g 0
A3  0 
1 d h

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

110 QUIZRR
by virtue of relations in (2)
BX = V
|B|  0 for unique solution
and |B| = 0 for no unique solution.

a 1 1
B  0 d c  0 as C and C are identical by virtue of relations in (2).
2 3
f g h

BX = V has no solution, then |B| = 0, |B1| = 0 but |B2| = a2 cf = a2 df = a (adf)  0 as adf  0.

Similarly |B3| = a2 df  0
Hence there is no solution.

MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

INVERSE CIRCULAR
FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 3

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

D efin it io n
Inverse functions relating trigonometrical ratios are called inverse trigonometric functions. The
definition of different inverse trigonometric functions can be given as follows :

 
If sin = x, then  = sină1x, provided ă1 < x < 1 and 
2 2

If cos = x, then  = cosă1x, provided ă1 < x < 1 and 0 <  < 

 
If tan = x, then  = tană1x, provided ă  < x <  and  
2 2
If cot = x, then  = cotă1x, provided ă  < x <  and 0 <  < 


If sec = x, then  = secă1x, provided x < ă1 or x > 1 and 0    ,  
2

 
If cosec = x, then  = cosecă1x, provided x < ă1 or x > 1 and    ,   0.
2 2
Note : In the above definition restricitons on  are due to the consideration of principal values
of inverse terms. If these restrictions are removed, the terms will represent inverse trigonometric
relations and not functions.
For clear understanding let us consider one example.

1
Let sin  
2


 sin   sin
6


   nx  (1) n where n  0,  1,  2, ...
9

Putting different values of n, we can get different values of .

Thus, infinite number of values of  can be obtained. These values of  are represented by Arc
sinx..
This means Arc sinx represents the angle whose sine is equal to x.
... ă1 < sin < 1 and sin = x ... ă1 < x < 1

Thus, Are sinx is defined only when ă1 < x < 1.

Clearly for every x [ă1, 1], infinite number of values of Arc sinx will be obtained i.e., Arc sinx
denotes the general value of satisfying sin = x.

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 4 QUIZRR
Pr incip al value
Numerically smallest angle is known as the principal value.
Since Inverse trigonometrical terms are in fact angles, definition of principal value of inverse
trigonometrical term is the same as the definition of the principal value of angles.

1 1
Suppose we have to find the principal value of sin
2

1 1
For this, let sin 1   then sin  
2 2

11 7  5 13 17

   ........  , , , , , , ........
6 6 6 6 6 6

 1
Among all these angles is the numerically smallest angle satisfying sin   and hence
6 2

1 
principal value of sin 1 
2 6

M et hod for find ing p r incip al value

Step I. Mark the quadrant in which the angle may lie.
Step II. Mark the direction to be taken. Select anticlockwise direction for 1st and 2nd quadrants
and select clockwise direction for 3rd and 4th quadrants.
Step III. Find the angles in the first circle.
Step IV. Select the numerically smallest angle. i.e., in the first rotation.
In case, two values, one with positive sign and the other with negative sign, qualify
for principal value, we conventionally select the angle with positive sign as principal
value.

Illustration 1

 1
Find the principal value of sin 1    .
 2

Solution : 2

 1 1
Let sin 1      then sin    .
 2 2
 0
Since sin is negative,  will lie in 3rd in 4th quardrant.
ă5 ă
Hence for principal value, we will select clockwise direction. 6 6

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 5

 5
The angles in the first circle are  and  .
6 6


Hence principal value .
6

Illustration 2

3 12 16
Prove that, sin 1  cos 1  sin 1
5 13 65

Solution :

3 3
Let sin 1  , so that sin  
5 5,
5 3
9 4
and therefore cos   1   
25 5
4

12 12
Let cos 1  , so that cos  
13 13

144 5
and therefore, sin   1  
169 13

16 16
Let sin 1  so that sin  
65 65 13 5
We have then to prove that

 ă  = 
12
i.e. to show that sin ( ă ) = sin 
Now, sin ( ă ) = sin cos  ă cos sin

3 12 4 5 36  20 16
= .  .    sin 
5 13 5 13 65 35

Hence the relation is proved.

Illustration 3

1 1 
Prove that 2tan 1  tan 1 
3 7 4

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 6 QUIZRR
Solution :

1 1
Let tan 1  , so that tan a 
3 3

1 1
and let tan 1  , so that tan  
7 7

We have then to show that


2a   
4

2tan 
Now, tan 2 
1  tan2 

2
3 6 3
 
= 1 8 4
1
9

tan 2  tan 
Also, tan(2  ) 
1  tan 2 tan 

3 1

21  4 
= 4 7   1  tan
3 1 28  3 4
1 .
4 7


2   
4

Illustration 4

1 1 
Prove that 4 tan 1  tan 1 
5 239 4
Solution :
1 1
Let tan 1  so that tan  
5 5

2
2 tan  5 5
Then, tan 2   
1  tan a 2 1 12
1
25
INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 7

10
120
and tan 4 12 
25 119
1
144


So that tan 4 is nearly unity, and 4 therefore, nearly .
4


Let 4   tan 1 x
4

120   1x
  tan   tan 1 x  
119 4  1x

1 1 
Hence, 4 tan 1  tan 1 
5 239 4

Illustration 5

1 1 1 a b
Prove that tan a  tan b  tan
1  ab

Solution :
Let tană1 a = , so that tan  = a,
and let tană1 b = , so that tan  = b,

 ab ab
Also, let tan 1     so,that  
 1  ab  1  ab

We have then to prove that

 +  = 

tan   tan  ab

Now tan (  )    tan 
1  tan  tan  1  ab

So, that relation is prove.

The above relation is merely the formula

tan x  tan y
tan ( x  y) 
1  tan x tan y

expressed in inverse notation

For put tan x = a, so that x = tană1 a,
and tan y = b, so that y = tană1 b,

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 8 QUIZRR

ab
Then, tan ( x  y) 
1  ab

ab
x  y  tan1
1  ab

ab
i.e. tan 1 a  tan 1 b  tan 1
1  ab

ab
In the above we have tacitly assumed that ab < 1, so that is positive, and therefore
1  ab

ab
tan 1 lies between 0Ĉ and 90Ĉ.
a  ab

ab
If, however, ab be > 1, then a  ab is negative, and therefore according to our definition

ab
tan 1 is a negative angle. Here  is there a negative angle and, since tan ( + ) = tan
a  ab
, the formula should be.

ab
tan 1 a  tan 1 b    tan 1
1  ab

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

It is evident that the sine function over the domain of all real numbers is not a one-to-one
1 
function. For example, suppose that we consider the solutions for sin x  . Certainly, is a
2 6

5 13 17 7 11

solution, that there are infinitely many more solutions, such as , , , , etc. as
6 6 6 6 6
indicated in fugure.
y

x
11 7  5 13 17
6 6 6 6 6 6
ă1

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 9

However we can form a one-to-one function from the sine y

function, and not eliminate any values from its range, by
1
 
restricting the domain to the interval   x  . There · 
2 2 2
x
fore, we have a new function by the equation y = sin x

  2
with a domain of  x and a range of ă1 < y < 1. ă1
2 2
(figure)

Inverse Sine Function

The inverse sine function is defined by y = sină1 x if and only if x = sin y

 
where ă1 < x < 1 and   y
2 2

In definition, the equation y = sină1 x can be read by as y is the angle whose sine is x. Therefore,
1   1 
y  sin 1 means by y is the angle, between ă and , inclusive, whose sin is , thus y  .
2 2 2 2 6
(The angle could also be expressed as 30Ĉ.)
Principal value of sină1x itself its value as inverse functions are consider as function only for a
particular interval. So their is no need to define separate principal value.

Illustration 6

 1  1  
Evaluate cos  sin    
  2 

Solution :

  1 
The expression cos  sin 1     means the cosine of the angle between ă(/2) and /2, inclusive,
  2 
whose sine is ă1/2. We know that the angle between ă(/2) and /2, inclusive, whose sine is ă1/
2 is ă(/6), then cos( / 6))  3 / 2.

  1  3
Therefore, cos  sin 1     
  2  2

Inverse Consine Function :

The other trigonometric functions can also be used to introduce inverse function. In each case, a
restriction needs to be place on the original domain to create a one-to-one function that contains

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

10 QUIZRR
the entire range of the original function. Then a corresponding inverse function can be defined.
By restricting the domain of the cosine function to real numbers between 0 and , inclusive, a one-
to-one function with a range between ă1 and 1, inclusive, is obtained. Then the following definition
creates the inverse cosine function.
The inverse cosine function or are cosine function is defined by
y = cosă1 x = arccos x if and only if x = cos y
where ă1 < x < 1 and 0 < y < 

Illustration 7

1
Solve y  cos ( 3 / 2)) for y, whre 0 < y < .
Solution

The expression y  cos1 ( 3 / 2)) can be interpreted as the angle whose consine is ( 3 / 2) . We
know that y = 5/6.

Illustration 8

 1
Evaluate sin  cos 1 
 2

Solution :

 1
The expression sin  cos1  means the sine of the angle, between 0 and , inclusive, whose
 2

cosine is 1/2. We know that /3 is the angle whose cosine is 1/2 and we now that sin ( / 3)  3 / 2 .

Therefore, sin  cos1   3 / 2

1
 2

Inverse Tangent Function :

By restricting the domain of the tangent function to real numbers between ă(/2) and /2, ă(/2)
and /2 are not included since the tangent is undefined at those values) a one-to-one function is
obtained. Therefore, the inverse tangent function.
The inverse tangent function or arctanget function is defined by
y = tană1 x = arctan x if and only if x = tan y
where ă < x <  and ă(/2) < y < /2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 11

Illustration 9

Solve y  tan 1 ( 3 / 3)) for y, where ă 90Ĉ < y < 90Ĉ.

Solution :

The expression y  tan 1 ( 3 / 3)) can be interpreted as the angle between ă90Ĉ and 90Ĉ whose

tangent is ( 3 / 3) . We know that y = ă30Ĉ.

G r ap hs of Basic I nver se T r igonomet r ic Funct ion :

y y



2 
(ă1,0) 2
x´ x x´ x
(1,0) (ă1,0) O (1,0)
 
2 2
y = sină1x y = cosă1x
y´ y´

y y


2 

x
ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3 4 x


2 y = cotă1x
y = tană1x

y
y

2 
2

x 
ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3 4 x
 ă1 0 1


2 
2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 12 QUIZRR
Domain and R ange of I nver se T r igonomet r ic Fuct ions :
Function Domain Range

  
y = sină1x [ă1, 1]  2 , 2 
 

y = cosă1x [ă1, 1] [0, ]

  
y = tană1x (ă, )  2,2
 

y = cotă1x (ă, ) (0, )

    
y = secă1x (ă, ă1]  [1, )  0, 2    2 , 
   

    
y = cosecă1x (ă, ă1]  [1, )   2 , 0    0, 2 
   

(a) 1st quadrant is common the range of all the inverse functions.
(b) 3rd quadrant is not used in inverse fuctnions


(c) 4th quadrant is used in the clockwise direction i.e.   y  0
2

(d) No inverse function is periodic.

Pr op er t ies or I nver se T r igonomet r ic Funct ions :

PROPERTY 1 :

 
(i) sină1 (sin x) = x. Provided that   x 
2 2


2

2
y=ă

x
ăx

y=

xă
y=
2

ă


(+

y=

3
y=

2 2
x)

x
ă2 3 ă O   2
2 2


2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 13

(ii) cosă1 (cos x) = x, Provided that 0 < x < .

y=ă


2

y=
x+

2
2

x
y=
y=

ăx
x
ă2  O   2
2 2

 
(iii) tană1 (tan x) = x, Provided that   x 
2 2

y

2
2


x+

x+

y=

xă
y=

y=

y=
2 x
2 3 ă  O   3


ă2
2 2 2 2
x
y=


2

(iv) cotă1(cot t) = x, Provided that 0 < x < 

a
+x

ăx
ăx

x
x

2
+
ă
3

2

y=
y=

y=

y=

y=

y=

 x
2

ă3 5 ă2 3 ă  O   3 2 5 3
2 2 2 2 2 2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

14 QUIZRR

 
(v) secă1(sec x) = x, Provided that 0  x   or  x  
2 2

2

y=
y=

x
x+

y=

2
ăx
y=

ăx
x
ă2 3 ă  O   3 2
2 2 2 2

 
(vi) cosecă1(cosec x) = x Provided that   x  0 or 0 x 
2 2


y=

2
x
2

y=
y=
2
x+

(

xă
ă
+x
y=

y=
x
x
)

5 ă2 3 ă  O   3 2 5
2 2 2 2 2 2

Illustration 1 0

 2 
Find the angle sin 1  sin 
 3 

Solution :

 2 
sin 1  sin 
3 
Let


2  
 sin   sin and    
3 2 2

   
= sin      sin   
 3 3 3

 2  
i.e. sin 1  sin  
 3  3

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 15

PROPERTY 2 :
(i) sin (sină1x) = x, Provided that ă1 < x < 1
Let sin  = x .....(1)
 = sină1 x .....(2)
Substituting the value of  in (1) from (2), sin(sină1x) = x.
Here x is a number and will have no unit.

(ii) cos(cosă1x) = x, Provided that ă1 < x < 1

(iii) tan(tană1x) = x,
Provided that ă < x < 

(iv) cot (cotă1x) = x,

Provided that ă < x < 

(v) sec(secă1)x = x,
Provided that ă < x < 1 or 1 < x < 

(iv) cosec (cosecă1x) = x,

Provided that ă < x < ă1 or 1 < x < 

PROPERTY 3 :

(i) sină1(ăx) = ăsină1x Provided that ă1 < x < 1

Let sină1(ăx) = 
or ăx = sin  x = ăsin or x = sin(ă)
or ă = sină1x or  = ăsină1x
sină1(ăx) = ăsină1x
(ii) cosă1(ăx) =  ă cosă1x Provided that ă1 < x < 1
(iii) taină1(ăx) = ătană1x Provided that ă < x < 
(iv) cotă1(ăx) =  ă cotă1x Provided that ă < x < 
(v) secă1(ăx) =  ă secă1x Provided that ă < x < 1 or 1 < x < 
(vi) cosecă1(ăx) ă cosecă1x Provided that ă < x < ă1 or 1 < x < 

Illustration 1 1
Evaluate the following :

1  3
(i) tană1(ă1) (ii) cotă1 (ă1) (iii) sin   
 2 

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 16 QUIZRR
Solution :
Here we have to take principal values of the inverse functions.
(i) Let tană1 (ă1) = 

 
Then tan    1 and  
2 2


The only value of  in the given interval to satisfy tan    1 is  .
4

Hence, tană1(ă1) =   .
4

(ii) Let cotă1(ă1) = , then cot = ă1 and 0 <  < .

3 3
  i.e. cot 1 (1)  .
4 4

 3
(iii) Let sin 1     
 2 

3  
 sin    and    
2 2 2

  3 
  i.e. sin 1     
3  2  3

Illustration 1 2

  1    1    3 
(i) sin   sin 1    
3  2 
(ii) sin arc cos    
  2 
(iii)  tan
1
 
 3  cos 1    
  2  

Solution :

  1 
(i) sin   sin 1   
 3  2 

  1  1 
= sin    sin   2  [... sină1 (ăx) = ă sină1x, x > 0]
 3   

  
= sin     sin  1.
 3 6  2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 17

  1   1  1  1  1 1 
(ii) sin  arc cos     sin   cos1   cos   2     cos 2 
  2   2    

  2 3
= sin      sin  .
 3 3 2

   3 
(iii)

 
sin  tan 1  3  cos1  
 
2  


   
= sin        sin    1.
 3 6 2 

Illustration 1 3

1 5
Evaluate tan  cos 1 
 2 3 

Solution :

 5 5
cos1   2 then cos2  and 0  2  
Let  3  3
 

5
Now, cos 2 
3

1  tan2  5 1  tan 2  3
or, 2
 or 2

1  tan  3 1  tan  5

2 tan 2  3  5
or,  [By componendo and dividendo]
2 3 5

3 5 3 5
or, tan 2   .
3 5 3 5

3  5  3  5 
2

or, tan 2    tan  

4 2


But 0 < 2 <  0   
2
  lies in the first quadrant.

3 5
Hence  is tan  
2
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 18 QUIZRR
PROPERTY 4 : Conversion Property :

1 1
(i) sin 1  cosec 1   ;  1  x  1 and cosec 1 x  sin 1   , x  R  (1,1)
x
  x

1 1
Let sin 1 x  y  x  sin y  cosecy   y  cosec 1
x x

1
 sin 1 x  cosec 1  
 x

1 1
(ii) cos1 x  sec 1    1  x  1 and sec 1 x  cos 1   , x  R  (1, 1)
x x

1 1  1  1 1
(iii) tan x  cot   x  R and cot 1 x  tan 1   , x  0    tan 1   x  0
x x x

1
   tan 1   x  0
x

PROPERTY 5 :


1. sin 1 x  cos 1 x  x [1,1]
2


2. tan 1 x  cot 1 x  xR
2


3. sec 1 x  co sec 1 x 
2

PROPERTY : 6
(1) If x > 0, y > 0 then

 x y
tană1x + tană1y = tan 1   if xy < 1
 1  xy 

1  x  y 
=   tan   if xy > 1
 1  xy 

(2) If x > 0, y > 0 then

 x y
tană1x ă tană1y = tan 1  
 1  xy 

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 QUIZRR 19

(3) If x > 0

sin 1 x  cos 1 1  x2 , cos 1 x  sin1 1  x2 



2  1  x  1
x 1 1  x
sin 1 x  tan 1 , 1
cos x  tan 
1  x2 2 

Illustration 1 4

1  3  1  5 
Obtain the values of cos     sin    in terms of cosă1 function.
 5  13 

Solution :

 3  5 
cos1     sin 1   
 5  13 

 4 5   -1  3  1  3  1  5  1  5  
=    sin 1  sin 1  as cos      cos   & sin     sin  
 5 13    5  5  13   13 

4 4
Let sin 1    sin  
5 5

5 5
sin 1    sin  
13 13

3 12 4 5 16
consider cos ( + ) = cos cos ă sin sin = .  . 
5 13 5 13 65

16
  +  = cosă1 (,   quadrant 1)
65

16  16 
 Given quantity =  ă cosă1 = cosă1   
65  65 

Property-7

2x
(i) 2tană1 x = tană1 , ă 1 < x < 1
1  x2
2x
(ii) 2tan x = sină1 , ă 1 < x < 1
1  x2

1  x2
(iii) 2tan ă1
x = cos ă1 ,x > 0
1  x2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

20 QUIZRR
Solution :

 
(i) Let x = tan;  (using ă 1 < x < 1)
4 4

1 2tan 
R.H.S. = tan
1  tan2 

= tană1 tan 2
= 2 = 2 tană1 x = L.H.S.
 
(ii) Let x = tan,  (using ă 1 < x < 1)
4 4

2 tan 
R.H.S. = sin 1
1  tan 2 

= sină1 sin 2

  
= 2    2  
 2 2 
= 2 tană1x = L.H.S.
(iii) Let x = tan, 0 <  < /2 (using x > 0)

1  1  tan  
2
R.H.S. = cos 
 1  tan 2  
 

= cosă1 cos 2
= 2
= 2tană1 x
= L.H.S.

Illustration 1 5
Show that tană1 1/3 + tană1 1/2 = /4.
Solution :
L.H.S. = tană1 1/3 + tană1 1/2

 1 1 
1
 3  2  11 
= tan     1
 1  1 1   3 2 
 3 2

 5/6  
= tan 1  1
  tan 1  4 = R.H.S.
 5 / 6 

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 21

Illustration 1 6

1 1 1 
Prove that 2 tană1 + tană1 + 2 tană1 
5 7 8 4
Solution :
1 1

1 1 1 5 8  tan 1 1
2 tană1 + tană1 + 2 tană1 = 2 tană1 1 1 7
5 7 8 1 .
5 8

1
2.
1 1 3  tan 1 1
= 2 tan 1  tan 1  tan 1
3 7 1 7
1
9

3 1

3 1 25 
= tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 4 7  tan 1  tan 1 1  45 
4 7 3 1 25 4
1 .
4 7

Illustration 1 7

 a (a  b  c )   b (a  b  c )   c (a  b  c ) 
Prove that tan 1    tan
1
   tan
1
 
 bc   a c   ab 

Solution :

 a (a  b  c)   b ( a  b  c) 
   
 bc   ac   c ( a  b  c) 
L.H.S. = tan 1  tan 1  
 ab 
 a (a  b  c)   b (a  b  c) 
1  .  
 bc   ac 

 a b c (a  b)  1  c( a  b  c) 
= tan 1    tan  
 
abc 1  ( a  b  c) / c   ab 


 ( a  b  c) c    c (a  b  c  
= tan 1    tan
1
  
 ab    ab  

 c ( a  b  c)    c (a  b  c
=   tan 1  1
  tan      
 ab    ab  

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

22 QUIZRR
PROPERTIES 8 :

 2 2
sină1 x + sină1 y = sină1  x 1  y  y 1  x  where x  0, y  0, x2 + y2  1
 

 2 2
sină1 x + sină1 y =  ă sină1  x 1  y  y 1  x  where x  0, y  0, x2 + y2 > 1
 

 x 1  y2  y 1  x2 
sină1 x ă sină1 y = sină1   ; 0  0, y  x where x  0, y  0

 2 2
cosă1 x + cosă1 y = cosă1  xy  1  x 1  y  where x  0, y  0
 

 2 2
cosă1 x + cosă1 y = cosă1  xy  1  x 1  y  where 0  x  y
 

Illustration 1 8


If sină1 6x + sină1 6 3 x =  2 , then find the value of x

Solution :

sină1 6 3 x =  ă sină1 6x = ă (sină1 1 + sină1 6x) = sină1 (1. 1  (6 x)2 )  6 x. 1  1)
2

 ă sin 1 1  36 x2  sin 1 ( 1  36 x2 )

 6 3 x   1  36 x2

2 1 1
 108x2 = 1 ă 36x2  144x2 = 1  x   x 
144 12

1
But only x   satisfies the equation.
12

Illustration 1 9

1 1 1
Prove that tan 1  tan 1  sin 1  cot 1 3  45
2 3 5

1 1

1 1
Solution : tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 2 3  tan 1 1  45
2 3 1 1
1 .
2 3

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 23

Let cotă1 3 =  or cot  = 3

1
 sin   
10

 1 
  sin 1  
 10 

1 1 1
 sin 1
1
 cot 1 3 = sin  sin 1
5 5 10

1  1 3 1 2  1 5 1
= sin  .  .   sin  sin 1  45
 5 10 10 5  10 2

Illustration 20

3  12  1  33 
sin 1    cos 1    cos  
 
5  13   65 

Solution :

1  3  1  12  1 4 1  12   cos1 x  sin 1 1  x2 

L.H.S. = sin    cos   or cos  5   cos  13 
 
5  
13      

 4 12 16 155   4 12 9 25 
or cos1    1 1  or cos
1
   
 5 13 25 169   5 13 25 169 

 48 15  1  33 
or cos1    or cos   = RHS
 65 65   65 

PROPERTY-9

 1 2 1 1
sin (2 x 1  x , if   x
 2 2
 1
(i) 2sin 1 x     sin 1 (2 x 1  x2 ) , if  x1
 2
 1 2 1
    sin (2 x 1  x ) , if  1  x  
 2

Let sină1 x =  then sin = x

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 24 QUIZRR

 cos   1  sin 2  
so, sin 2 = 2 sin cos or sin 2  2 x 1  x2  

or 2  sin 1 (2 x 1  x2 ) or 2sin 1 x  sin 1 (2 x 1  x2 )

 1 3 1 1
sin (3 x  4 x ) , if   x 
2 2

1  1 3 1
(ii) 3sin x     sin (3 x  4 x ) , if  x  1
 2
 1 3 1
    sin (3 x  4 x ) , if  1  x   2


Let sină1 x =  then x = sin

Now, sin 3 = 3 sin ă 4sin3 or sin 3 = 3x ă 4x3
or 3 = sină1 (3x ă 4x3) or 3 sină1 x = sină1 (3x ă 4x3)

cos 1 (2 x2  1) , if 0  x  1
(iii) 2 cos1 x  
1 2
2  cos (2 x  1) , if  1  x  0

Let cosă1 x =  then x = cos

so, cos 2 = 2 cos2 ă 1 or cos 2 = 2x2 ă 1
or 2 = cosă1 (2x2 ă 1) or 2 cosă1 x = cosă1 (2x2 ă 1)

 1 3 1
cos (4 x  3 x) , if  x  1
2

 1 1
(iv) 3 cos1 x  2  cos1 (4 x3  3 x) , if   x 
 2 2
 1 3 1
2  cos (4 x  3 x) , if  1  x  2


Let cosă1 x =  then x = cos

Now, cos 3 = 4 cos3 ă 3 cos or cos 3 = 4x3 ă 3x
or 3 = cosă1 (4x3 ă 3x) or 3 cosă1 x = cosă1 (4x3 ă 3x)

2tan  sin 2 
2x 1  2 x 
Again, sin 2  or 2  2  sin  
2
1  tan2  1 x 1  x 

 2x  1  tan 2 
 2 tan1 x  sin 1   and cos 2 
 1  x2  1  tan 2 
 

1  x2  1  x2 
cos2  2  cos1 
 1  x2 
or or
1  x2  

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 25

  3 x  x3  1 1
 tan 1   , if   x
 2 
  1  3x  3 3

  3 x  x3  1
3 tan 1 x     tan 1  , if x 
 1  3 x2 
(v)
   3

 
1 3 x  x
3
1
    , if x  
 1  3 x2 
 tan
   3

Let tană1 x = 0 then x = tan

3 tan   tan3  3 x  x3  3 x  x3 
Now, tan 3  or tan 3  or 3  tan 1 
1  3x2 2
1  3 tan 2   1  3 x 

 3 x  x3 
3 tan 1 x  tan 1 
 1  3 x2 
or
 

Illustration 21

 4x   x
sin 1  2   2 tan 1    is independent at x thenă
 x  4  2
 

(A) x  [3, 4] (B) x  [ă 2, 2] (C) x  [ă 1, 1] (D) x  [1, ]

Solution :

 4x   x  2.( x / 2)  1 x x x
(B) sin 1  2   2 tan 1     sin 1    2 tan  tan 1  2 tan 1  0
x  4    2
  2  ( x / 2)  1  2 2 2

x
Hence,  1; |x|  2  2  x  2
2

Illustration 22

1 1 1 1 1
Prove that 3 tan  tan 1    tan 1
4 20 4 1985

Solution :

3 tan   tan3 
Since tan 3 
1  3 tan 2 

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

26 QUIZRR

  1   1 3 
 3     
 3 tan 1
1
 tan 1  4 4  1 47
 or 3 tan 1  tan 1
4 1  4 52
 1  3  
  4  


47 1

1 1 47 1 992
 3 tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 52 20  tan 1
4 20 52 20 47 1 993
1 .
52 20

1
1
1 1 1 1 1985 1984 992
and   tan  tan  tan 1  tan 1
4 1985 1 1986 993
1
1985

Illustration 23
To solve 2tană1 (cos x) = tană1 (2 cosecx)
Solution :

2cos x 2 cos x 2
tan 1  tan 1 (2 cosecx) or  or sinx (sinx ă cosx) = 0
2
1  cos x sin x sin x

Hence, either sinx = 0  x = n.

 
or sinx ă cosx = 0  x  n 
4 4

Illustration 24

1   
Prove that tan 1  tan 2   tan 1  cot    tan 1 (cot3 )  0, if  
 2  4 2


 , if 0   
4
Solution :

Case I : If 0    , then cot > 1, cot3 > 1
4

 cot   cot  
3
 tană1 (cot) + tană1 (cot3) =  + tană1  4 
 1  cot  

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 27

1 
 cot  .cosec 2  .sin 4   1   sin  cos  
=   tan  4 4     tan  2 2 
 cos   sin    cos   sin  

1  1  1  1  
=   tan   tan 2     tan  tan 2  since 2  and tan 2 > 0
 2  2  2

1 
 tan 1  tan 2   tan 1  cot    tan 1 (cot 3 )  
2 

 
Case II : If    , 0 < cot < 1, 0 < cot3 < 1
4 2

 1 
 tană1 (cot) + tană1 (cot3) = tană1  tan 2 
 2 

1 
= ă tană1  tan 2  {since 2 >  and tan2 < 0}
2 
tan 2 
 tană1  ă1 ă1 3
 + tan (cot) + tan (cot ) = 0
 2 

Illustration 25
If cosă1x + cosă1y + cosă1z = 
prove that x 2 + y2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
Solution :
Given cosă1x + cosă1y + cosă1z = 
 cosă1x + cosă1y =  ă cosă1z = cosă1(ă z)
 cos [cosă1x + cosă1y] = cos [cosă1(ă z)]
Let cosă1x = A
cosă1y = B
 cos (A + B) = cosA cosB ă sinA sinB

 cos(A + B) = xy ă 1  x2 1  y2

 2 2
 (A + B) = cosă1  xy  1  x 1  y 
 

 
cos1 xy  1  x2 
1  y2  cos1 ( z)  xy  1  x2 1  y2   z

 (xy + z)2 = (1 ă x2) (1 ă y2)  x2y2 + z2 + 2xyz = 1 ă x2 ă y2 + x2y2

 x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xyz = 1
Hence, proved.

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

28 QUIZRR

Illustration 26
Write in the simplest form :

 cos x   3
tan 1   where   x 
 1  sin x  2 2
Solution :

   
 x   sin   x  
tan 1 
cos 1  2  
  tan 
 1  sin x     
 1  cos  2  x  
  

   x   x
 2sin  4  2  cos  4  2  
= tan 1        tan 1  tan    x      x
  
   x    4 2  4 2
 2 cos2    
 4 2 

Differ ent iat ion and int egr at ion of inver se t r igonomet r ic funct ions :
To differentiate the arc tangent function, we imitate the method we used to differentiate the
logarithm function. Namely, if y = tană1 (x), then tan (y) = x, so

d d dy
tan( y)  x Hence sec 2 ( y) 1
dx dx dx

dy 1
from which it follows that dx 
sec 2 ( y)
Now, sec2(y) = 1 + tan2(y) = 1 + x2,

dy 1
so we have dx 
1  x2

Hence we have demonstrated the following proposition.

d 1
Proposition : tan 1 ( x) 
dx 1  x2

1 1
As a consequence of the proposition, we have  1  x2 dx  tan ( x)  c

1 + x2 is an irreducible polynomial. We will see more example of this type in the following
examples.

d 8x
Using the chain rule, we have tan 1 (4 x2 ) 
dx 1  16 x4

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 29

1
Evaluating  tan ( x) dx is similar to evaluating  log( x) dx. That is, we will use integration by
parts with
u = tană1(x) v=x

1
du  dx dv = dx
1  x2

1 x
Then,  tan x dx  x tan 1 x   1  x2 dx
Using the substitution, u = 1 + x2
du = 2x dx,

1
we have, du  x dx, from which it follows that
2

x 1 1 1 1
 1  x2 dx  2  u du  2 log u c
2
log(1  x2 )  c

1 1
Thus,  tan ( x) dx  x tan 1 ( x)  log(1  x2 )  c
2

Illustration 27

1
To evaluate  1  4 x2 dx, we make the substitution
u = 2x
du = 2 dx

1 1 1 1 1 1
Then
1
du  dx, so  1  4 x2 dx  2  1  u2 du  2 tan (u)  c  tan1 (2 x)  c
2 2

Illustration 28

1 1 1 
Prove that 4tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 
5 70 99 4

Solution :

We have to prove that 4 tan 1 1    tan 1 1  tan 1 1 ...(1)

5 4 70 99

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

30 QUIZRR

 1 
2.  1 2 x 
1  1  1  5  1
 2 tan x  tan 
Now, L.H.S. = 4 tan    2 tan  
 1  x2 
5 1  1 
 25 

 5 
2.
1 5 1  12  1 120
= 2 tan  tan    tan
12 1  25  119
 
144 

 1 1 
  
1 1
tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  70 99 
70 99 1  1 . 1 
 70 99 

 29  1
= tan 1    tan 1
 6931  239

 1 1
 R.H.S. =  tan 1  tan 1 1  tan 1
4 239 239

 1 
1 1  239   tan 1 240
= tan  
1  1  238
 
239 

1 120
= tan
119

 L.H.S. = R.H.S. Hence the result.

Illustration 29

1  1
Prove that cos  sin 1 a  has six values and that the product of the six values is  (1  a 2 ) .
3  16

Solution :


If  = sină1 a and t  cos then sin = a and cos2 = 1 ă a2,
3


cos   cos3.  4t3  3t and t satisfies the polynomial equation of 6th degree
3

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 31

16t6 ă 24t4 + 9t2 ă 1 + a2 = 0

1 1  a2  1
This has 6 roots and accordingly cos  sin a  has six values whose product is
3  16

Illustration 30

 a b x  b  a cos x 
Show that 2tan 1  tan   cos1  a  b cos x  for 0 < b  a , and x  0.
 a  b 2   

Solution :

ab
0 < b a,  is real.
ab

 ab x
Now, L.H.S. = 2 tan 1  tan 
 a  b 2 

 ab x
1  tan 2   1 1  x 
2
1 ab 2   2 tan 1
x  cos 
= cos  
1  ab x  1  x2 
tan 2 
 ab 2 

 2 x
  2 x  2 x
 a  b   a  b  tan 2  1
 a  1  tan 2   b  1  tan 2  
   
= cos1   = cos 
 a  b   a  b tan 2 x    2 x   2 x 
 2   a  1  tan 2   b  1  tan 2  
 

= tan

 cot A 1  cot 2 A
1     tan 1  cot A 
 
 1  cot 4 A  2
   1  cot A 

 1 
   tan A 
= tan 1  tan A   tan 1 
1  1   tan2 A  1 
 
 tan 2 A 

 1 2 tan A  1 
= tan 1   . =  tan 1  tan 2A 
 2 1  tan2 A  2 
 

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 32 QUIZRR

1 
 tan 1  tan 2A   tan 1 (cot A)  tan 1 (cot 3A)  0
2 


Case II : When 0  A 
4
cotA > 1 and cot3A > 1.
 cotA.cot3A > 1
Hence, tană1 (cotA) + tană1 (cot3A)

1  cot A  cot A 
3
=   tan  3 
 1  cot A.cot A 

 1 1 1  x  y  
 tan x  tan y    tan   if x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1]
  1  xy 

1  1 
=   tan  tan 2A  [as shown in case I]
2 

1 
 tan 1  tan 2A   tan 1 (cot A)  tan 1 (cot3 A)  
 2 

Hence the result.

Illustration 31

1 x y
If cos  cos1  , prove that 9x 2 ă 12xy cos + 4y2 = 36 sin2
2 3

Solution :

x 1 y
Let cos1  , and cos 
2 3

x y
 cos   and cos  
2 3

Given,  +  =  
cos ( + ) = cos
or, cos cos ă sin sin = cos

x y x2 y2
or, .  1 . 1  cos 
2 3 4 9

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 33

xy 4  x2 . 9  y2
or,   cos 
6 6

or, (xy ă 6cos)2 = (4 ă x2) (9 ă y2)

or, x2y2 + 36cos2 ă 12xycos = 36 ă 9x2 ă 4y2 + x2y2
or, 9x2 ă 12ycos + 4y2 = 36 (1 ă cos2)
or, 9x2 ă 12xycos + 4y2 = 36 sin2.

Illustration 32

xr yr zr
If r = x + y + z, prove that tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 
yz zx xy

Solution :

xr yr zr
Let  ,   and 
yz zx xy

Then L.H.S. = tană1  + tană1 + tană1

1         
= tan 1 
       

xr yr zr xr yr zr
Now,  +  +  ă  =    . .
yz zx xy yz zx xy

x r  y r z r r r
= 
xyz xyz

r [ x  y  z] r r
= 
xyz xyz

r r r r
=  0 [ x + y + z = r]
xyz xyz

xr yr yr zr zr xr
Also, 1 ă  ă  ă  = 1 ă .  .  .
yz zx zx xy xy yz

r r r
= 1  
z x y

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

34 QUIZRR

1 1 1  1 1 1 1
= 1r   0  x  y  z  r 
 x y z  
 L.H.S. = tană10
= n [ tană10 =   tan = 0   = n]
= ă , 0,  [for principal values]
= [since sum of three positive angles cannot be zero or negative]
= R.H.S.
Note 1 : For principal values

     
  tan 1   ,   tan 1   ,   tan 1  
2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3
   tan 1   tan 1   tan 1  
2 2

Hence, we have selected ă , 0 and  only, which satisfy the above condition.

xr
2. tană1 = tană1
yz´

xr xr
 is positive, for principal value tană1 will represent a positive angle i.e. tană1 is
yz yz

a positive angle. Similarly, tană1 and tană1 are also positive angles. Sum of three positive
angles is positive. Hence only  has been selected out of ă , 0 and .

Illustration 33

pq qr r  p
If p > q > 0 and pr < ă 1 < qr, then prove that tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 
1  pq 1  qr 1  rp
Solution :

1 pq
Since, p, q > 0, therefore for pq > 0, tan  tan 1 p  tan 1 q ...(1)
1  pq

1 r p
Since qr > ă 1, tan  tan 1 q  tan1 r ...(2)
1  qr

1 r p
Since pr < ă 1 and r < 0 tan    tan 1 r  tan 1 p ...(3)
1  rp

1 pq qr r p
On adding (1), (2) and (3) we get tan  tan 1  tan 1 
1  pq 1  qr 1  rp

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 35

Illustration 34


If tană1y = 4tană1x ( x  tan ), find y as an algebraic function of x and hence prove that
8


tan is a root of the equation x 4 ă 6x 2 + 1 = 0.
8

Solution :

2x
We have tană1y = 4 tană1x = 2tană1 (as |x| < 1)
1  x2

4x
(1  x2 ) 4 x (1  x2 )  2x 
= tan 1 2
 tan 1 4 2  as 2
 1
4x x  6x  1  1 x 
1 2 2
(1  x )

4 x (1  x2 )
 y
x4  6 x2  1

 
If x  tan  tană1y = 4 tană1x =  y =   x4 ă 6x2 + 1 = 0
8 2

Illustration 35
Show that (sină1 x)3 + (cosă1 x)3 = 3 has no real solutions for  < 1/32.
Solution :
LHS = (sină1 x + cosă1 x) ((sină1 x)2 ă (cosă1 x) (sină1 x) + (cosă1 x)2) = 3


 ((sin 1 x) 2  (cos1 x) (sin 1 x)  (cos1 x)2 )  3
2

  2  2
   3cos1 x sin 1 x   3    3 .  sin 1 x  3 (sin 1 x)2  2
2 
 4  8 2 2 2

 12y2 ă 6y + 2 (1 ă 8) = 0, where y = sină1 x ...(1)

In order to eq. (1) to have real roots we must have

1
D  0  362 ă 4.122 (1 ă 8)  0  3 ă 4 + 32 > 0   
32

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

36 QUIZRR

Illustration 36
Find the positive integral solutions x and y of the equation.

 x  y
sin 1    cos1  tan 1 (3)
 1  x2  1 y 2
 

Solution :

 x  y
We have, sin 1    cos1  tan 1 (3)
 1  x2  1 y 2
 

1
tană1x + tană1 = tană1 3
y

1
tană1 x ă tană1 3 = tană1 y

1 3x 1 1
tană1 3 ă tană1 x = tană1 y  tană1 1  3 x  tan y

since x and y are positive integers  x = 1, 2  x = 1, y = 1

x = 2, y = 7

Illustration 37

Solve cos1 x 3  cos 1 x  

2

Solution :

1 1 
Given, cos x 3  cos x  ...(i)
2


or, cos1 x 3   cos1 x
2 1
1ăx2
 
or, cos cos1 x 3  cos   cos1 x 
 2 

x
or, x 3  sin cos1

or, x 3  sin sin 1 1  x2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 37

or, x 3  1  x2
Squaring we get 3x2 = 1 ă x2

1
or, 4x2 = 1  x  
2

1
Check : When x  ,
2

1  3  1  1 
L.H.S. of eqn. (i) = cos  2   cos  2 
   

  
=   = R.H.S. of equation (i)
6 3 2

1
When x   ,
2

 3 1  1 
L.H.S. of equation (i) = cos1     cos   

 2   2

1  3  1  1 
=   cos  2     cos  2 
   

  3
=     R.H.S. of equation (i)
6 3 2

1
 x is the only solution.
2
Note :
1. As squaring has been done during the solution process it is necessary to check roots.
2. While solving inverse trigonometric equations roots must be checked.

1
3. Here x   is an extraneous root.
2

Illustration 38
The greater of the angles [IIT ă 89]


A  2 tan 1 2 2  1 and
1 3
B  3 sin 1    sin 1 is...
3 5

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

38 QUIZRR
Solution :

A = 2tan
1

2 2 1 
= 2tană1 (2 ï 1.414 ă 1)
= 2tană1 (1.828)

= 2 ï (> 60Ĉ)  tan 60  3  1.732  tan 1 (1.732)  60

 
> 120Ĉ

1  1  1 3
B = 3sin    sin 5
 
3  

 1 1 
3
3  23  3
= sin 1 3   4     sin 1   = sin 1    sin 1  
 3  3   5  27  5

= sină1 (0.852) + sină1 (0.60)

= (< 60Ĉ) + (< 45Ĉ)
< 105Ĉ
 A > B. Hence greater angle is A.

3
[Note : sin 1  sin 1 (0.86)  60
2

 1 
sin1  1
  sin (.71)  45
 2
 sină1 (0.852) < 60Ĉ and sină1 (0.60) < 45Ĉ]

Illustration 39

 a x  y  a 2  a1   a3  a2 
Prove that tan 1  1   tan
1
   tan
1
   ...
 x  a y
1   1  a a
2 1  1  a 3a 2 

 a  an  1 1  1  1 x
tan 1  n   tan    tan
 1  a n a n 1   an  y
Solution :
When ever we have to sum trigonometric inverse terms we try to express each term as difference
of two inverse terms and then add.

 y 
1  a1 x  y  1
 a1  x  1 1 y
Here, tan    tan 
y
  tan a1  tan
 x  a y
1   1  a1  x
 x

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 39

 a  a1 
tan 1  2 1 1
  tan a2  tan a1
 1  a a
2 1

 a  a2 
tan 1  3 1 1
  tan a3  tan a2
 1  a a
3 2

 a  an 1 
tan 1  n 1 1
  tan an  tan an1
 1  an an1 

 1 
tan 1  1
  cot an
a
 n

y
Adding we get L.H.S. = tană1 an + cotă1 an ă tană1
x

 y  1 1 
=  tan 1  tan an  cot an  2 
2 x  

y x
= cot 1  tan1  R.H.S.
x y

Illustration 40
Find the sum : cotă1 2 + cotă1 8 + cotă1 18 + ... to infinity.
Solution :
Let tn denote the nth terms of the series.
then, tn = cotă1 2n2
or, tn = cotă1 (2n ă 1) ă cotă1 (2n + 1) ...(1)
[ cotă1 (2n ă 1) ă cotă1 (2n + 1)

1  (2n  1) (2n  1)  1 
= cot  
 (2n  1)  (2n  1) 

 (4 n2  1  1) 
= cot 1  1 2
  cot 2n ]
 2 

Putting n = 1, 2, 3, ... etc. in (1), we get

t1 = cotă1 1 ă cotă1 3
t2 = cotă1 3 ă cotă1 5

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

40 QUIZRR
ă1 ă1
t3 = cot 5 ă cot 7
tn = cotă1 (2n ă 1) ă cotă1 (2n + 1)
adding, Sn = cotă1 1 ă cotă1 (2n + 1)
as n  , cotă1 (2n + 1)  0


Hence the required sum = cot 1 1 
4

Illustration 41

2x
Show that the function y = 2tană1 x + sină1 is a constant for x  1. Find the value of
1  x2
this constant.
Solution :
Note that since x > 1, we can not write

 2x 
sin 1   2 tan 1 x, (for principal values)
 1  x2 
 

Working Rule : To prove that the given function is a constant, any one of the following methods
can be used.
1. Express both terms in the same inverse function and simplify. If y is independent of x, then
it will be a constant.
II. Since y = f (x)

dy
 if  0, y will be a constant.
dx

Here we will use method I.

Case I : For x = 1, the given function is

2.1  
y = 2tană1 1 + sină1  2.   
11 4 2

2x
Case II : for x > 1, 2tană1 x =  ă sină1
1  x2

2x
 2tană1x + sină1 = 
1  x2

2x
Thus, for x  1, 2tană1x + sină1 = 
1  x2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 41

Illustration 42
Using Mathematical Induction, prove that [IITă91]

1 1  1  1  n 
tan 1    tan 1    ...  tan 1  2   tan  
 3 7  n  n  1  n  2

Solution :

   n 
We have to prove that tan 1  1   tan 1  1   ...  tan 1 1
 tan1  ...(1)
3 7  n2  n  1  
 n  2
 

when n = 1

1  1 
L.H.S. of (1) = tan  
3

1  1  1
R.H.S. of (1) = tan  2  tan 1
1  1  1   
3
 

Hence result (1) is true for n = 1 ...(A)

Suppose that the result (1) is true for n = m

1 1  1   m 
i.e. tan 1    tan 1    ...  tan
1
 2   tan
1
 
3    m  2
7  m  m  1

1
Adding tan 1 to both sides, we get
2
(m  1)  (m  1)  1

  1  
Now, tan 1  1   tan 1  1   ...  tan 1  2
1
  tan 
1

    2
3 7  m  m  1  (m  1)  (m  1)  1 

1  m  1  1 
= tan    tan  
 m  2 
2
 (m  1)  (m  1)  1 

1  m  1  1 
= tan    tan  2 
m  2  m  3m  3 

1  m  1  2 
= tan    tan  
m  2
2
 2m  6 m  6 

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 42 QUIZRR

1  m   1  m  1  1  m  
= tan     tan    tan  
 m  2   m  3  m  2 

 m  1 1  m  1 
tan 1    tan  
 m  3  m  1  2

 the result (1) is true for n = m + 1 also it is true for n = m ... (B)
From (A) & (B), we can say that result (1) is true for any natural number n.
Hence the result.

m 1 1  m 
Note : tan 1    tan  
m  3 m  2

 m 1 m 
  
 m3 m2   (m  1) (m  2)  m (m  3) 
= tan 1 = tan 1  
  m  1 m   (m  2) (m  3)  m (m  1) 
1   . 
  m  3  m  2 

 m2  3m  2  (m 2  3m)  1  2 
= tan 1   = tan  2

 2m  6m  6 
2 2
 (m  5m  6)  m  m 

 1 
= tan 1 
 m  3m  3 
2
 

Illustration 43
If x 1, x 2, x 3, x 4 are the roots of the equation x 4 ă x 3 sin2 + x 2 cos2 ă x cos ă sin = 0, prove

that tană1 x 1 + tană1 x 2 + tană1 x 3 + tană1 x 4 = n + ă . Where n is an integer.
2

Solution :
Since x1, x2, x3, x4 are the roots of the equation x4 ă x3 sin2 + x2 cos2 ă x cos ă sin = 0

( sin 2)
  x1  x2  x3  x4   1
 sin 2

x1x2 = cos2
x1x2x3 = cos and x1 x2 x3 x4 = ă sin
Now, tan [tană1 x1 + tană1 x2 + tană1 x3 + tană1 x4]

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 43

 x1   x1 x2 x3 sin 2  cos 
= 1 = 1  cos 2  sin 
 x1 x2  x1 x2 x3 x4
2sin  cos   cos  cos  (2sin   1)
= 2 = sin  (2sin   1)
2sin   sin 

= cot

 
or, tan (tană1 x1 + tană1 x2 + tană1 x3 + tană1 x4) = tan    
 2 


 tană1 x1 + tană1 x2 + tană1 x3 + tană1 x4 = n + .
2

Where x = 0,  1,  2, ... i.e. x is an integer.

[ tan = tan   = n + ]
Note
1. If x1, x2, x3, x4 are the roots of equation ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0 then,
b
sum of roots is x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 =  .
a

b
i.e.  x1  a

c
sum of the product of roots taken two at a time i.e.  x1 x2  a
b
sum of the product of roots taken three at a time i.e.  x1 x2 x3  a

e
Product of roots i.e. x1 x2 x3 x4 =
a
2. We can mark the similarity of results from solution of quadratic equation.
b
If ax2 + bx + c = 0 and x1 and x2 be the roots of this equation then sum of roots = x1 + x2 = .
a

c
Product of roots = x1 x2 
a

s1  s3
3. tan (a1 + a2 + a3 + a4) =
1  s2  s4
Where s1 = tan1 = tan1 + tan2 + tan3 + tan4.
s2 = tan1 tan2
s3 = tan1 tan2 tan3
s4 = tan1. tan2. tan3.tan4

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

44 QUIZRR

Illustration 44

3
If cosă1 x + cosă1 y + cosă1z =  and x + y + z = , then prove that x = y = z.
2

Solution :
Let cosă1 x = , cosă1 y = , cosă1 z = 
 cos = x, cos = y, cos = z
Also,  +  +  = 

3
From equation, x  y  z 
2

3
or, cos + cos + cos = ...(1)
2

Let z = cos + cos + cos and angle  be fixed

 
then z = 2 cos cos  cos 
2 2

        
= 2sin cos  cos   2  2  2 
2 2  

  
Since  is fixed cos  and sin are fixed. Only changing term is cos
2 2

cos   
Clearly, z will be maximum if  1 i.e.,  = 
2

Thus, when angle  is fixed, z will be maximum if  = 

Similarly when angle  is fixed, z will be maximum if  = 
and when angle  is fixed, z will be maximum if  = 
 z will be maximum if  =  =  = 60Ĉ [  +  +  = ]
3
 zmax = cos60Ĉ + cos60Ĉ + cos60Ĉ =
2

3
Thus, the maximum value of cos + cos + cos = and is possible only when  =  = 
2

3
from (1), cos + cos + cos = , which is the maximum value
2
  =  = 
x= y= z

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 45

Illustration 45
Convert the trigonometric function sin [2cosă1 {cot (2tană1 x)}] into an algebraic function
f (x). Then from the algebraic function find all the values of x for which f (x) is zero. Express
the values of x in the form a  b where a and b are rational numbers.

Solution : Given expression

= sin [2 cosă1 {cot (2 tană1 x)}]

  1 2 x  
= sin 2cos 1 cot tan 
  1  x2  

  1 1  x
2 
= sin 2cos1  cot cot 
  2 x  

 1 1  x 
2
= sin  2 cos 
 2 x 

 2
2. 1  x . 1   1  x  
2 2
1
= sin.sin   
2x  2 x  
 

1 1  x2 1  x2
[Let cos    cos  
2x 2x

2
2
 1  x2 
and sin   1  cos   1    ]
 2x 

Now, sin2 = 2 sin cos  2 = sină1 (2sin cos)

 2 
1   1  x2  1  x2 

 2 x 
= sin  2. 1 .
  2x 
 

2
1  x2  1  x2 
. 1
 2 x 
= 2
2x  

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

46 QUIZRR

2
1  x2  1  x2 
From question, f ( x)  2 1
 2 x 
2x  

when f(x) = 0, we have

1  x2  1  x2 
. 1 0
 2 x 
2
2x  

or, (1  x2 ). 4 x2  1  x4  2 x2  0

or, (1  x2 ). 6 x2  1  x4  0

 either 1 ă x2 = 0 or, 6 x2  1  x4  0

 x=  1 or, x4 ă 6x2 + 1 = 0

6  36  4.1.1
 x2 =
2

= 32 2

= (1  2)2

 x = (1  2)

 x = + 1, (1  2)

Illustration 46
Solve the equation sin (2 cosă1 (cot (2 tană1 x))) = 0
Solution :
sin (2 cosă1 (cot (2 tană1 x))) = 0
 2 cosă1 (cot (2 tană1 x)) = n, n  I

n
 cosă1 (cot (2 tană1 x)) = , nI
2

Since we are interested only in principal values  n = 0, 1, 2

 cosă1 (cot (2 tană1 x)) = 0, /2, 

  
 cot (2tană1 x) = 1, 0, ă 1  2tană1 x = m + , m  , m 
4 2 4

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 47

Hence again we are interested in principal values.

  3
i.e. ă  < m + <   m = 0, ă 1  2 tană1 x = and  and correspondingly
4 4 4

   3 
x  tan   , tan  
8  8 

     3 
Similarly, ă  < m ă <   m = 0, ă 1  x  tan   , tan  8 
4  8   

  
ă  < m + <   m = 0, ă 1  x  tan   
2  4

   3 
Hence the results are x   tan   ,  tan   ,  tan  
 
4  
8  8 

Illustration 47

  x 
1  1  x 2 
Given 0  x  then the value of tan  sin 1     sin x  is
1
2   2 2  
  

(a) ă 1 (b) 1

1
(c) (d) 3
3

Solution :
Ans. (b). Put x = sin

 1 1    
sin1  sin   cos    sin 1 sin       
 2 2   4 4

   
 E  tan        tan  1
 4  4

Illustration 48
If cosă1 p + cosă1 q + cosă1 r = , then prove that p 2 + q 2 + r 2 + 2pqr = 1
Solution : cosă1 p + cosă1 q + cosă1 r = 

 cos 1 [ pq  1  p2 . 1  q2 ]    cos 1 r  cos 1   r 

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

48 QUIZRR

 pq  (1  p2 ) (1  q2 )   r

or (pq + r)2 = (1 ă p2) (1 ă q2)

or p2q2 + r2 + 2pqr = 1 ă p2 ă q2 + p2q2
or p2 + q2 + r2 + 2pqr = 1

Illustration 49

9
If sină1 x + sină1 y + sină1 z = 3/2, then the value of x 100 + y100 + z 100 ă 101 101 is
x  y  z101

(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
Solution :
Ans. (a). We know that |sină1 x| /2
Hence from the given relation we observe that each of sină1 x, sină1 y and sină1 z will be /2 so
that x = y = z = sin (/2) = 1 

9
3 0
3

Illustration 50

2MN 2 pq 2MN
tan 1 2 2
 tan 1 2 2
 tan 1 where M = mp ă nq, N = np + mq
M N p q M2  N2

Solution :

2MN 2pq 2MN 2x

Dividing , and by m2, p2 and M2 respectively, 2 tană1 x = tană1
M2  M2
2
p q 2
M 2  N2 1  x2

n 1 q
L.H.S. = 2tană1 m  2 tan p

pn  mq 1 N
= 2tană1 pm  nq  2 tan M  R.H.S.

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 49

Illustration 51

p2 2 pq q2
If cosă1 (p/a ) + cosă1 (q/b) = , then  cos   2  sin 2 
a2 ab b

Solution :

  
1  p q p2   q2 
cos .  

1    1  2    
We have a b  a 2   b 
 

pq  p2   q2 
or  1  2   1  2   cos 
ab  a  b 
 

2
 pq  p2 q2 p2 q2
  ab  cos    1   
  a2 b2 a2 b2

p2 q2 2 pq
or  cos2   cos 
2 2
a b ab

p2 q2 p2 q2
= 1  
a2 b2 a 2b2

p2 2 pq q2
or  cos   2  1  cos2   sin2 
a2 ab b

Illustration 52

Solve the equation : tană1 2x + tană1 3x = n + (3/4).

Solution :

2x  3 x 3
L.H.S. = tan 1  n 
1  2 x.3 x 4

5x 3
or 2
 tan  1
1  6x 4

or 6x2 ă 5x ă 1 = 0  (x ă 1) (6x + 1) = 0
 x = 1, ă 1/6

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

50 QUIZRR

Illustration 53

1 x  1 1 x  1
Find whether x = 2 satisfies the equation tan x  1  tan  tan 1 ( 7).
x

If not, then how should the equation be re-written ?

Solution :

x 1 x 1

tan 1 x 1 x  tan 1 ( 7)
x1 x1
1 .
x1 x

2 x2  x  1
 7 or 2x2 ă x + 1 = ă 7 + 7x
1 x
or 2x2 ă 8x + 8 = 0 or x2 ă 4x + 4 = 0
or (x ă 2)2 = 0  x = 2.
But if we put x = 2 in the given equation the L.H.S. is + ive and R.H.S. is ă ive. Hence x = 2

1 x  1 1 x  1
does not satisfy. We will have to write the equation as tan x  1  tan    tan 1 ( 7).
x

Now x = 2 will make both sides + ive.

x1 x1 x1

Note : Here xy  x  1 x  x  1

 R.H.S. =  + tană1 (ă 7)

Illustration 54
Solve for x, sin [2 cosă1 cot (2 tană1 x)] = 0.
Solution :

2x 1  x2
2 tan 1 x  tan 1  cot 1
1  x2 2x

1  x2
 cot (2 tan 1 x) 
2x

 1 1  x 
2
 L.H.S. = sin 2cos 0
 2 x 

Now 2cosă1 z = cosă1 (2z2 ă 1)

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 51

1  x2  (1  x2 )2 
 2cos 1  cos1  2.  1
2x  4x 2


 x4  4 x2  1 
= cos1  
 2 x2 

 x4  4 x2  1 
 L.H.S. = sin cos1 0 ...(1)
 2 x2 

Again sin cosă1 t = sin sină1 1  t2  0 ,

 1 ă t2 = 0
Hence from (1), we have
(x4 ă 4x2 + 1)2 ă (2x2)2 = 0
or (x4 ă 4x2 + 1 ă 2x2) (x4 ă 4x2 + 1 + 2x2) = 0
or (x4 ă 2x2 + 1) (x4 ă 6x2 + 1) = 0
From Ist factor (x2 ă 1)2 = 0, x =  1
From 2nd factor x4 ă 6x2 + 9 = ă 1 + 9
or (x2 ă 3)2 = 8

x2  3  2 2  (1  2)2

 x   (1  2)

Illustration 55

c1 x  y c  c1 c  c2 1 x
Prove that tan 1  tan 1 2  tan 1 3  ...  tan 1  tan 1
c1 y  x 1  c 2 c1 1  c3 c 2 cn y

Solution :

1 x / y  1 / c1
T1 = tan 1  ( x / y).(1 / c )
1

1 x 1 1
= tan y  tan c etc.
1

 L.H.S.

 1 x 1 1   1 1 1 1  1 1 1 x
=  tan y  tan c    tan c  tan c   ...  tan c  tan y
 1  1 2 n

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

52 QUIZRR

Illustration 56

 x ( x  y  z)   y ( x  y  z)   z ( x  y  z) 
tan 1    tan
1
   tan
1
 
 yz   zx   xy 

Solution :
Put x + y + z = r

 rx   ry  r / xyx) ( x  y)
 tan 1    tan
1 1
 zx  = tan 
 yz    (1  r / z)

1 (rz) /( xy) ( x  y)   rz   1  rz 
= tan  =   tan1      =   tan  
 ( x  y) xy
     xy 

 rx   ry   rz 
 tan 1    tan 1  zx   tan
1
  
 yz     xy 

Illustration 57
Solve for x the following equations

x x
sec 1  sec 1  sec 1 b  sec 1 a
a b
Solution :

1 a 1 1 b
From the given equation we have cos  cos1  cos 1  cos1
x a b x

  
a 1   a2   1  
cos1  .    1    1  
or  x a   x2   a 2  
  

 
1  1 b  1  b2  
cos .   1    1  
= b x  b2   x2  
 

1 x2  a 2 a2  1 1 b2  1 x2  b2
or   
x ax x bx

or b2 (a2 ă 1) (x2 ă a2) = a2 (b2 ă 1) (x2 ă b2)

or x2 (a2b2 ă b2 ă a2b2 + a2) = a2b2 (a2 ă 1 ă b2 + 1)
or x2 (a2 ă b2) = a2b2 (a2 ă b2)  x = ab.

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

 QUIZRR 53

Illustration 58
Sum the following series :
1 1 1
tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  ... n and  or
3 7 13

1 1 1
tan 1 2
 tan 1 2
 tan 1  ...
111 1 2 2 1  3  32
Solution :

1 1 (n  1)  n
Tn = tan  tan 1
1nn 2 1  (n  1)n

= tană1 (n + 1) ă tană1 n
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, ..., n and adding, we get
Sn = tană1 (n + 1) ă tană1 1
   
 S = tană1  ă   
4 2 4 4

Illustration 59

 3  3  3
cot 1  1    cot 1  22    cot 1  32    ... 
 4  4  4
Solution :
2
 2 3 1 4 n  3
Tn = cot ă1
 n    cot
 4 4

 1  1
n  2  n  2
4 1 1    
= tan 1  tan 1 = tan
 3  1  1  1
4  n2   1   n2   1   n   n  
 4  4  2  2

1  1 1  1
= tan  n    tan n  2
 2  
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, ..., n and adding

1  1 1 1
Sn = tan  n    tan
 2 2

 1 1
 S =  tan 1  cot 1  tan 1 2
2 2 2

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

LIMITS
 QUIZRR 3

INT RODUCT ION

Concept of limit : Before giving formal definition of limit we consider the following examples :

x2  4
Example : Let f be a function defined by f ( x) 
x2

Thus f(x) is defined for all x except x = 2

22  4 0
At x = 2, f ( x)  
22 0

Thus at x = 2, f(x) is not defined because denominator can never be zero

x2  4  x  2  x  2 
When x  2, x ă 2  0  f ( x)   x2
x2 x2

Now we consider the values of f (x) when x  2, but is very-very close to 2 and x < 2.

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999

f(x) = x + 2 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999

It is clear from the above table that as x approaches 2 i.e., as x  2 through the values less than
2, the value of f (x) approaches 4 i.e. f (x)  4.
We will express this fact by saying that left hand limit of f (x) as x  2 exists and is equal to
4 and in symbols we shall write
Lt f(x) = 4 or Lt f(x) = 4
x 2 ă 0 x 2 ă
Again we consider the values of f (x) when x  2, but is very-very close to 2 and x > 2.

x 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001 2.00001

f(x) = x + 2 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001

It is clear from the table given above that as x approaches 2 i.e., as x  2 through the values
greater than 2, f (x) approaches 4 i.e., f (x)  4.
We will express this fact by saying that right hand limit of f (x) as x  2 exists and is equal
to 4 and in symbols we will write.
Lt f(x) = 4 or Lt f(x) = 4
x 2 + 0 x 2 +
Thus we see that f (x) is not defined at x = 2 but its left hand and right hand limits as x  2
and are equal.
When Lt f (x) and Lt f (x) are equal to the same number l, we say

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 4 QUIZRR

that Lt f(x) exists and is equal to l.

x 2
Here in the example considered Lt f(x) = Lt f(x) = 4
x 2 ă 0 x 2 + 0
 Lt f(x) exists and is equal to 4.
x 2

Ri g h t h a n d a n d L e f t h a n d l im i t s
If x approaches a from the right, that is, from larger values of x than a, limit of f as defined before
is called the right hand limit of f (x) and is written as

lim f ( x) or f  a  0 
x a  0

The working rule for finding the right hand limit is :

„Put a + h for x in f (x) and make h approach zero‰.

In short, we have f (a + 0) = hlim f  a  h

0

Similarly if x approaches a from the left, that is, from smaller values of x than a, the limit of f
is called the left hand limit and is written as
lim f ( x) or f  a  0 
x a  0

In this case, we have f  a  0   lim  a  h 

h0

If both right hand and left hand limits of f(x), as x  a, exist and are equal in value, their
common value, evidently, will be the limit of f(x), as x  a. If, however, either or both of these
limits do not exist, the limit of f(x) as x  a does not exist. Even if both these limits exist but are
not equal in value then also the limit of f(x) as x  a does not exist.
Definition of limit : We say that limit of f(x) as x tends to a exists and is equal to a real number
l if as x approaches a (through the values less than or greater than a) the values of f (x) approach
a definite unique real number l. In other words if for every  > 0, however small, there exists
 > 0, such that
l ă  < f (x) < l +  i.e. |f (x) ă l| <  for all x for which
a ă  < x < a + i.e. |x ă a| < 

Lt f ( x)
In this case we write xa = l

Lt f ( x)
Thus the statement x  a = l means that the values of f (x) will approach the number l or are
equal to l as the values of x approach the number a from either direction.

ă 
a

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 5

l Meaning of x   : by x  , we mean that x is greater than any positive number

however large and it is not a fixed number.
x   and and x =  will mean the same thing.
l Meaning of x  ă  : by x  ă  we mean that x is smaller than any negative number
however small, x  ă  and x = ă  will mean the same thing.

l Meaning of Lt f ( x)  l : We say that Lt f ( x)  l if as x becomes larger and larger, f (x)

x x

becomes closer and closer to l.

l Meaning of Lt f ( x)   : We say that Lt f ( x)   if as x approaches a through values less

x a x a

than or greater than a, f (x) becomes greater than any positive number however large.

l Meaning of Lt f ( x)    : We say that Lt f ( x)    if as x approaches a through the

x a x a

values less than or greater than a, f (x) becomes smaller than any negative number however
small.
For the existence of the limit of f (x) at x = a , it is necessary and sufficient that
(i) f (a ă 0) = f ( a + 0) and
(ii) they both should be finite

Illustration 1

 5 x  4, 0 x 1
If f  x    3 show that lim f ( x ) exists.
 4 x  3 x , 1 x  2 x 1

Solution : We have,
LHL of f (x) at x = 1
lim f ( x)  lim f 1  h 
= x  1 h 0

= hlim 5 1  h   4  lim 1  5h  1
0 h0
RHL of f (x) at x = 1
lim f ( x)  lim f 1  h 
= x  1 h0

4 1  h   3 1  h   4 1  3 1  1
3 3
= hlim
0

Thus RHL = LHL = 1. So xlim f ( x) exists and is equal to 1.

1

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 6 QUIZRR

Illustration 2
Evaluate the right hand limit and left hand limit of the function

x4
 ,x4
f  x   x  4
 x4
 0,

Solution : RHL of f (x) at x = 4

4h4
= lim f ( x)  lim f  4  h   lim 
x  4 h0 h0 4h4

h
= lim 1
h 0 h

LHL of f (x) at x = 4

4h4
= lim f ( x)  lim f  4  h   lim 
x  4 h0 h0 4h4

h h
= lim  lim  1
h0  h h 0  h

This RHL  LHL. So, xlim f ( x) does not exist.

4

Illustration 3

1
e /x  1
Show xlim
0 1
/x
does not exist.
e 1

Solution :

1
/x
e 1
Let f  x   1 . Then,
e /x  1

lim f (x)  lim f (0  h)

LHL = x  0 h 0

 1 1 /h 
1
/h  /e  1
e 1   0 1  1
lim 1
 lim 
= h0 h0  1 1  01
e /h 1  /e
/h
 1
 

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 7

 1 1
/h 1 
as h  0  h  e  1/ e / h  0  ...(i)
 

lim f ( x)  lim f  0  h
RHL = x  0 h 0

 1
/ 
1/  1  1/ e h 
e h 1
lim  lim  
= h  0 e1 / h  1 h  0  1
/h  [Dividing numerator and denominator by e1/h]
1  1 / e 
 

10
= 1 L.H.L.  R.H.L., Hence Limit does not exit
10

Illustration 4

 x
Solve lim sin  , where [.] denotes the greatest integer function.
x0 x

 x
Solution : Here lim sin x  , since we have greatest integral function we must define function.
x0  
Now, RHL (put x = 0 + h)

 sin 0  h 
lim  ,
h 0  0  h 

sin h
we know  1 as h  0 but less than 1 as h > sin h
h

lim 0  0   sin h  
     0 as h  0 
h0   h  
 RHL = 0
again LHL (put x = 0 ă h)
 0h
lim sin ,
h 0  0h

sin h
we know  h   1 as h  0 but greater than ă 1.

lim 1   1   sin h  
      1 as h  0 
h0   h  
 LHL = ă 1
 limit does not exists as RHL = 0 and LHL = ă 1.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 8 QUIZRR

I n d e t e r m in a t e Fo r m s Or M e a n i n g l e s s Fo r m s :
Following seven forms are called indeterminate forms :
0 
1. 2. 3. 0. 4.  ă  5. 1 6. 00 7. 0
0 

0
1. Indeterminate form : When numerator  0 and denominator  0, the form is called
0
0
indeterminate form . Here it should be noted that neither denominator nor numerator
0
should be zero rather they should tend to zero.

x2  1  0 
Example : lim  form 
x  1 x  1 0 


2. Indeterminate form : when numerator   and denominator  , the form is called


indeterminate form .


log ex   
Example : lim  form 
x x   
3. Indeterminate form 0. : when one factor  0 (but not equal to zero) and other factor
 , the form is called Indeterminate form 0.

 
lim   x  tan x
Example : x    2  [0. form]
2

4. Indeterminate form ă : when given expression is the difference of two functions both
of whom tend to , the form is called Indeterminate form  ă 
5. Indeterminate form 1   : when base  1 (but no equal to 1) and power  , the form
is called Indeterminate form 1.

Lt  sin xtan x
Example : x   [1 form]
2

6. Indeterminate form 00 : When base  0 + 0 (but base is not equal to zero) and power
 0 (but power is not equal to zero), the form is called the indeterminate form 00.
tan x
Example : x Lt  sin x [00 form]
0

7. Indeterminate form 0 : When base   and power  0 (but power is not equal to zero),
the form is called the indeterminate form.

Example : Lt  cot xsin x [0 form]

x0

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 9

So m e i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f l i m it s

If xlim f ( x) and lim g ( x) exists, then

a xa

1. lim  f ( x)  g( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g( x)

xa xa xa

2. lim  f ( x)  g( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

xa xa xa

3. lim c. f ( x)  c lim f ( x) , where c is a constant

xa xa

   
4. lim  f ( x). g( x)   lim f ( x)  . lim g ( x) 
x a x  a   x  a 

lim f ( x)
 f ( x)  x  a
5. lim   , provided lim g( x)  0, g( x)  0
x  a  g( x)  lim g( x) xa
x a

6. If f (x) < g(x) for all x, then xlim f ( x)  lim g( x)

 a x a

7. If f (x)  g(x) for all x, then xlim f ( x)  lim g( x)

a xa

So m e I m p o r t a n t Ex p a n s i o n s :
1. Binomial Expansion :
(i) If n is a positive integer, then
(1 + x)n = 1 + nC1x + nC2x2 + ...... + nCnxn

n n  n  1 2
= 1 x x  ...  xn (valid for all x)
1! 2!
(ii) If n is a negative integer or fraction, then

n  n  1  2 n  n  1 n  2  3
1  x n  1  nx  x  x  ... to 
2! 3!
where ă 1 < x < 1

xn  a n
2.
xa

 xn 1  axn  2  a 2 x x  3  ...  a n 1 
x2 x3 xn
3. (i) ex  1  x    ...   ... to  , valid for all x
2! 3! n!

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 10 QUIZRR

x x2 x3
(ii) e x  1    ...   ... to  valid for all x
1! 2! 3!
4. (i) ax = exlogea

x2
(ii) ax = 1 + x(loga) +  log a 2  ... to 
2!

x2 x3 x4
5. (i) loge (1 + x) = x     ... to ,  1  x  1
2 3 4

x2 x3 x4
(ii) loge (1 ă x) =  x     ... to ,  1  x  1
2 3 4

x3 x5 x7
6. sin  x     ...
3! 5! 7!

x2 x4 x6
7. cos x  1     ...
2! 4! 6!

x3 2 5
8. tan x  x   x  ...
3 15

Sp e c i a l n o t e s o n i n f i n i t y
Ć Infinity is a very big number which is not find on number line. No variable is equal to
infinity. Hence ordinary laws of algebra do not apply on 

eg.  ă   0, 1

(it is so because we do not know how big value is for ).
Ć Whenever the denominator becomes 0, the expression becomes undefined and it is not equal
to 

1
  (undefined)
0
but in case of limits

  finite no.    
lim    0; lim  
     finite no. 

 0    b b
lim    0 & lim   if a  0
  non zero   a a
(here  means approaching)
Do not confuse the above limits with the following limits.
LIMITS & CONTINUITY
 QUIZRR 11

So m e l im i t s w h i c h a r e o b v i o u s

0 lim  0.x  0

1. lim    0 2.
x  0  x x

3. lim  x0 1 4. lim 1 x  1

x x

5. lim
x
 x2  x2   0 6. lim
x2
x   x2
1

0
(a) (i) is undefined if denominator is equal to zero
0

x x
(ii) Lt does not exist if denominator is equal to zero as is undefined.
x0 0 0

0
(iii) (Indeterminate) when numerator  0 and denominator  0
0

(b) 0. = 0
But (tends to zero) . is indeterminate.
(c) 1 = 1, if base is equal to 1.
But 1 is indeterminate when base  1
(d) 0 = 1, if power is equal to zero
But 0 is indeterminate when power  0

(e) (i) Lt  x0  1 , if power is equal to zero

x0

(ii) Lt  0  x  0, if base is equal to zero

x0+0

(iii) Lt 0x does not exist if base is equal to zero as 0x, when x < 0 is undefined.
x00

(iv) 00 is not defined if base is equal to zero and power is equal to zero.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 12 QUIZRR

Pro p e r t i e s o f i n f i n i t y :
(i)   c = 
(ii)  +  = 
(iii) . = 
(iv)  (ă ) = ă , (ă ). = ă 
(v) = 
(vi) c. = , if c > 0
= 0, if c = 0
= ă  if c < 0
0. = 0
But (tends to zero). is indeterminate
In fact c.  , if c > 0
c. = 0, if c = 0
c.  ă , if c < 0

(vii) c = , if c > 1
= 0, if 0  c < 1
= 1, if c = 1
In fact c  , if c > 1

c  0, if 0 < c < 1
c = 0, if c = 0

c = 1, if c = 1

1 = 1, if base = 1
But (tends to 1) is indeterminate.

M e t h o d t o Ev a l u a t e t h e L i m i t o f a Fu n c t io n :
There are a number of methods to evaluate the limit of a function but for the sake of convenience,
we divide the problems in two types. If f (x) is a function of x then x is the independent variable.
Type I. We will call those problems in which the independent variable tends to  or ă  as
problems of Type I.
Type II. We will call those problems in which independent variable x does not tend to 
or ă  as problems of Type II.
x
 a
Examples : (i) 1   Lt is a problem of type I, as here independent variable x  
x x

a x  bx
(ii) Lt is a problem of type II as here independent variable x does not tend to  or ă .
x0 x
Note : Here  is the independent variable and x is a constant.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 13

Again for the sake of convenience we divide problems of each type in three categories.
Category A. Problems involving only algebraic functions.
Category B. Problems involving non-zero constant powers of sin, cos, tan, cot, sec or cosec of a
variable angle.
Category C. Problems involving exponential or logarithmic functions.
Examples :

x4  a4
(i) Lt . This problem is of category A of type II.
xa xa

x  sin x
(ii) Lt . This problem is of category B of type II.
x0 x

(iii) Lt  sin xtan x . This problem is of category C of type II.

x0

log  x  1
(iv) Lt . This problem is of category C of type II.
x2 x2

x2  x2  1
(v) Lt . This problem is of category A of type I.
x x4  2

1
(vi) Lt2n sin . This problem is of category B of type I.
x n

2x
 1
(vii) 1  
Lt . This problem is of category C of type I.
x x

T y p e I . Ca t e g o r y (A )
Problems involving algebraic expressions.
Working Rule :

N
1. First of all simplify the given expression in the form of .
D

2. (i) Then divide each terms of the numerator and denominator by xn where x is the
independent variable and n is the highest power of x in the numerator and denominator
taken together.

c c
(ii) Then put  0 , where c is a constant and k > 0. This is because  0 as x  .
k
x xk

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

14 QUIZRR

3. Alternatively, take out term containing highest power of x in the numerator and denominator
as common and finally put
xk = 0, if k < 0
= , if k > 0
= 1, if k = 0
Tip : Simply check the powers in numerator & denominator.

axn  bxn  ...

for if
pxd  qxd 1  ...

(i) n > d; result is 

(ii) n < d; result is 0

a
(iii) n = d; limit is  
 p

Illustration 5

x4  2x3  3  12 22 32 n2 
(a) Find Lt (b) Find 
Lt    ...  
x   2x 4  x  2 n    n 3 n3 n3 n 3 

Solution :

2 3
 1
4
x  2x  3 3 x x4  1
Lt Lt
(a) = x 1 2 2
x   2 x4  x  2  
3 4
x x

 2 3 2 
Since as x  ,  0, 4  0 and 4  0 
 x x x 

 12 22 32 n2 
(b) Lt     ...  
n    n3 n3 n3 n3 

12  22  32  ...  n2 n  n  1  2n  1  n  1 2n  1
= Lt = Lt  Lt
3
n n3 n 6n n 6 n2

= Lt

n 2n2  3n  1  = Lt
2
3

1
n n2 2 1
 
n 6 n2 n 6 6 3

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 15

Illustration II

(a) Find x Lt

x  xc  x  (b) Lt
x  
 2
 x  4x 


x 2  4x 


x2  1  3 x2  1
(c) lim
I : x 4 4
x  1  5 x4  1

Solution :

(a) Lt
x
x  xc  x 

Lt
x  xc x  x c  x 
= x
 x c  x 
x x  c  x  c x
Lt  Lt
= x
 xc  x  x x c  x

c c
Lt  Lt
= x xc x x x c
 1
x x x

c c c
Lt  
= x 1 c 1 11 2
x

Lt  x2  4 x  x2  4 x 
(b) 
x 

 x2  4 x  x2  4 x   x2  4 x  x2  4 x 
 
  
Lt
= x  x2  4 x  x2  4 x 
 
 

Lt
 x2  4 x   x2  4 x  Lt
8x
=
x x2  4 x  x2  4 x x x2  4 x  x2  4 x

8
Lt
x x2  4 x  x2  4 x
=
x
LIMITS & CONTINUITY
16 QUIZRR

8
= Lt
x x2  4 x x2  4 x

x2 x2

 
Here x  0  x   x2 for example  4     4 2   16 
 

8 8 8
Lt   4
x 4 4 11 2
1  1
x x
(c) dividing the numerator & denominator by x (which is the greatest power of x possible)

x2  1 3 x2  1

lim x x
x   4 x4  1 5 4
x 1

x x

x2  1 3 x2  1

lim x x
= x   4 x4  1 5 x4  1

x x

1 1

   
/2 /3
x2  1 x2  1

lim x x
1 1
= x
x  x 
4 /4 4 /5
1 1

x x

1 1/ 1/
/3 2 3
 x2  1  1 /  x2  1   1  1 1 
  2  1  2    
 x2   x3 
     x   x x3 
lim lim
1 1 1
= x = x
   1  /4
/4 /
 x4  1 1/
5
 1 1  5
  x4  1  1     
     x4   x x5 
4  x5    
 x   
 
1
as x    0 (for p > 1)
xp

1  0   0
= 1  0  01
 
LIMITS & CONTINUITY
 QUIZRR 17

T y p e I I . Ca t e g o r y A .
When x  a , where a is a fixed real number.
Problems in which algebraic functions occur.
Working Rule :
Limits of functions involving only algebraic functions and when independent variable does not
tend to  or ă  can be evaluated by using the following formula

xn  a n
Lt  na n  1
x  a x a

There are other methods also to evaluate such limits.

There are 3 methods to solve these kind of questions.
(a) Direct substitution

for a limit, xlim f ( x), we can directly substitute x = a in the limit only if the following
a

constraints are not there

Ć lim f ( x) is of type 1 (intermediate form)

xa

Ć lim f ( x) is undefined.
xa

(b) Factorisation
Factorization method can also be used to solve these kind of questions.

P  x
for lim , if P (a) = 0 & xlim Q  a  0
x  a Q  x a

(note Q (a)  0, otherwise the function is undefined) then we can say that (x ă a) is a factor
of both P (x) & Q (x)

P  x  x  a  N  x  lim N  x
 lim  lim
x  a Q  x x  a  x  a  D  x x  a D  x

repeat this procedure of cancellation until you get to a useful result.

(c) Rationalisation

0
If we get form in the problems involving roots then we must rationalise them to get the
0
common factor, which will be cancelled out.

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

18 QUIZRR

Illustration 6
Illustrations based on factorization

 x3  a3  x3  x2  3x  9
(a) lim  2  (b) lim
x  a  x  a x  x 3 x 2  4x  3

x3  2x2  9x  4 x7  2x5  1
(c) lim (d) lim
x 4 x 2  2x  8 x  1 x3  3x2  2
Solution :
 x3  a3 
(a) given lim  
x  a  x2  ax 

we know x3 ă a3 = (x ă a) (x2 + ax + a2)

 x  a   x2  ax  a2 
 lim
xa x x  a

= lim
 x2  ax  a2  =
3a 2
 3a
xa x a

x3  x2  3 x  9
(b) given lim
x3 x2  4 x  3
if we put x = 3 in numerator & denominator we get 0 in both, i.e. (x ă 3) is a factor of both
numerator & denominator.

( x  3) (x2  2 x  3)
 limit becomes, lim
x3 ( x  3)  x  1 
now we can put x = 3
9  6  3 18
=  9
2 2
(c) [When x = 4 numerator and denominator become zero]

x3  2 x2  9 x  4
Lt
x4 x2  2 x  8

x3  4 x2  2 x2  8 x  x  4  x  4   x2  2 x  1
= Lt  Lt
x4 x2  4 x  2 x  8 x4  x  4  x  2

x2  2 x  1 23
= Lt 
x4 x2 6

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 19

x3  2 x2  9 x  4
Second Method : Lt
x4 x2  2 x  8

 x3  43   x2  42   x  4
  ( x  4)  2   ( x  4)   ( x  4)
 x4   x4   x  4 
Lt    
= x4  x2  4 2  x  4
  ( x  4)  2   ( x  4)
 x4   x  4 
 

x3  43  x2  4 2  x  4
2 9 
x4  
Lt  x4  x  4
= x4 x2  42  x  4
2 
x4  x  4

3.42  2.2.41  9 23
= 
1 6
2.4  2

(d) When x = 1 numerator and denominator both become zero and hence (x ă 1) is a factor of both

x7  2 x5  1
Now Lt
x  1 x3  3 x2  2

x7  x6  x6  x5  x5  x4  x4  x3  x3  x2  x2  x  x  1
= Lt
x1 x3  x2  2 x2  2 x  2

x6 ( x  1)  x5 ( x  1)  x4 ( x  1)  x3 ( x  1)  x2 ( x  1)  x ( x  1)  ( x  1)
= Lt
x1 x2 ( x  1)  2 x ( x  1)  2( x  1)

( x6  x5  x4  x3  x2  x  1) 3
= Lt  1
x1 2
x  2x  2 3

x7  2 x5  1
Second Method : Lt
x  1 x3  3 x2  2

 x7  17   x5  15 
  ( x  1)  2   ( x  1)
 x1   x1 
 Lt    
x1 x 1 
3 3 x 1 
2 2
  ( x  1)  3   ( x  1)
 x1   x1 
   

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 20 QUIZRR

 Lt

7(1)6  2 5(1)4   Lt
7  10
x  1 3(1)  3  2(1) 
2 x  1 36

3
 Lt = 1
x  1 3

Qu e s t io n b a s e d o n f o r m u l a

Illustration 7

1 /6
x 4  625 x2
(a) lim lim
(b) x  64 1 / 3
3
x 5 x  125 x 4

1 1
( x  h) / n  x / n 1  x 5 1
(c) lim (d) lim
x 0 h x 0 3x  5x2

Solution :

x4  625
(a) given lim
x  5 x3  125

x4  54
if we write it like lim
x  5 x3  53

x4  54
lim
x5 x5
= x3  53
x5

4.53 20
& now we can use the formula = 
3.52 3

x1 / 6  2
(b) lim
x  64 x1 / 3  4

1 1 1
x 2
6 x 6   64  6  1 1 
Lt  Lt   64  6  2,  64  3  4 
x  64 1 x  64 1 1  
x 4
3 x 3   64  3

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 21

1
1 1
1 1
x   64  6
6 (64) 6 5 2
1  
 Lt  6   64  6 3
x  64 x  64 1 1
1 2
1  64  3
1 3
x 3   64  3
x  64

1
 
1 
1 1 1 1 1
  64  6  26 6  . 
2 2 2 2 4

1 1

(c) Lt
 x  h n  xn
h0 h

1 1
 x  h n  xn
 Lt [ when h  0, x + h  x]
 x  h  x  x  h  x
1 1n
1 n 1 1
=  x  x n
n n
Note : Here h is variable and x is a constant.

Lt
1  x5 1
(d)
x0 3 x  5 x2

 Lt
 1  x   15
5
. x  Lt
1  x   15
5

5.14 5

x  0 1  x   1 x  0 1  x   1 3 3
x  3  5x 3  5x

Lt
1  x5 1
Second Method :
x0 3 x  5 x2

 Lt
1  5 x  10 x2  10 x3  5 x4  x5   1
x0 x  3  5x

=  Lt
5x  10 x2  10 x3  5x4  x5 
x0 x  3  5 x

 Lt
5 x  10 x  10 x2  5 x3  x4 .x  5
x0 x  3  5x 3

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

22 QUIZRR

Illustration 8
Illustrations based on rationalization

1  x2  1  x
x2 a  2x  3x
lim Lt ,a 0
(a) lim (b) x  2 2 (c)
x 0 x x 4 x2 x a 3a  x  2 x

Solution :

(a) [Given function 1  x2  1  x is of the form a  b]

1  x2  1  x
Lt
x0 x

  
1  x2  1  x   1  x2  1  x 
 Lt 
x0 x   
  1  x2  1  x 

1  x2  1  x  x2  x
 Lt  Lt
x 0
x  1  x2  1  x  x0  2
 1 x  1  x  x
   

x  x  1 x1
 Lt  Lt
x0   x0  
x  1  x2  1  x  2
 1  x  1  x
   

1 1
 
1 1 2

x2 0 
Lt  form 
(b) x  2 x2  4  x  2  0 

 x1  21   x1  21 
  ( x  2)   . ( x  2)
 x2   x2 
   Lt  
 Lt
 x2  22  x2  2 2 
x2 1
x 2 1
 x 2 x1  21 
  ( x  2)  ( x  2)  . x2
 x2  x2  x2 x2 
   

 x1  21 
 . x2
 x2 
 Lt   
1.0

0
0
x2  2 2  2.21  1 3
 x 2  x1  21 
 x2 x2 
 

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 23

Second Method
x2 x2
 Lt  Lt
x2 x2  4  x2 x2  x  2  x  2  x2

x2 x2 0
 Lt Lt  0 [I.I.T. 78]
x2 ( x  2)  x21 x2 x2 1 21

(c) Required limit

a  2 x  3a 3 x  3a
. 2 x  a   .3( x  a)
 a  2 x   3a 3 x  3a
 Lt
xa 3a  x  4 a  x  a
. ( x  a)  2   ( x  a
 3a  x   4 a  xa 

1 1 1 1
( a  2 x) 2   3a  2  3 x 2  3a  2 .3
. 2
a  2 x  3a 3 x  3a
 Lt
xa 1 1  1 1 
 3 a  x 4 a 
 2  2 .  2  x  a 2
 2 

 3a  x   4 a  xa 
 
 

T y p e I I . Ca t e g o r y B
Problems in which non-zero constant powers of sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec of variable
angle occur (problems involving trigonometrical expressions).

Working Rule :
1. First of all see whether independent variable tend to zero or not. If the independent variable
x  a, where a  0, then put x = a + h. Then go on simplifying only those factors of the
numerator and denominator which tend to zero till sin or tan occurs as a factor where
  0.

sin  sin 
2. Then write sin   . and tan   . and use the formula
 

sin  tan 
Lt  1, Lt  1 whichever is required.
0  0 

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

24 QUIZRR

Illustration 9

sin a  tan x 
(a) Find Lt (b) Lt
  0 tan b x  0 tan x
Solution :
 sin a 
sin a  a  a
Lt  Lt  
(a)   0 tan b   0  tan b 
 b  b
 

 sin a 
  a 1.a a
a 
 Lt   
  0  tan b  1.b b
 b
 b 

(b) x  x radian
180
x
tan
180 . x
x x 180
tan
tan x 180  Lt 180 
Now x Lt  Lt 
0 x x0 x x0 x 180

Illustration 1 0

x  cos x  cos 2 x  cos x  cos 3 x

(a) Find Lt (b) Lt
x 0 sin x x  0 x (sin 3 x  sin x )

sin  cos x  cos x

tan x  sin x lim
(c) Lt (d)  sin x  cos ec x
x  0 1  cos x x 
2

Solution :

x  cos x  cos 2 x  x  cos x  cos 2 x 

Lt  Lt
(a) = x0 sin x x0 sin x
.x
x
[Here factor (cos x + cos 2x), does not tend to zero, hence it is not necessary to simplify it]
cos x  cos 2 x 1  1
Lt  2
= x0 sin x 1
x

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 25

x  3x 3x  x
2sin sin
cos x  cos 3 x 2 2
Lt  Lt
(b) x  0 x(sin 3 x  sin x) x  0 x.2cos x  3 x sin 3 x  x
2 2

2 sin 2 x sin x sin 2 x

 Lt  Lt
x  0 2 x cos 2 x sin x x  0 x cos 2 x

sin 2 x sin 2 x
.2 x .2
2x 2x 2
 Lt  Lt  2
x  0 x cos 2 x x  0 cos 2 x 1

sin x
 sin x
tan x  sin x cos x
(c) Lt  Lt
x  0 1  cos x x  0 1  cos x

sin x  sin x cos x sin x 1  cos x

 Lt  Lt
x  0 cos x (1  cos x) x  0 cos x (1  cos x)

 Lt tan x  0
x0 [By the definition of limit because the form is not indeterminate]

sin  cos x cos x

lim
(d)  sin x  cosec x
x
2

sin  cos x  cos x sin x

 lim
 sin 2 x  1
x
2

[sin (cos x) sin x] sin (cos x) sin x

lim   lim
= x  cos x = x
 cos x
2 2


as x  cos x  0,
2

sin x
 we can use rule
x

 lim sin x  1
= 
x
2

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

26 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 1

 sin x 
 Using lim  1  Evaluate the following limits :
 x 0 x 

tan x  3 tan x  sin x

lim Lt
 9x 2 2
(a) x   (b)
x 0 x3
3

tan x  tan y a sin x  x sin a

(c) Lt (d) lim
x  y x  y x a ax 2  a 2 x
Solution :


tan x  tan
tan x  3 3
lim  lim
(a)  9 x2  2 
x x 9 x2  2
3 3

sin  A  B
Using tan A ă tan B = we get,
cos A cosB

 
sin  x  
lim  3 
 
x  cos x cos  3 x    3 x   
3 3

1 1
  sin  
  using lim  1  2
cos cos      
3
0   3
3 3

sin x
 sin x
tan x  sin x
(b) Lt  Lt cos x
x0 x3 x0 x3

x
sin x 1  cos x sin x.2sin2
 Lt  Lt 2
x0 x3 cos x x0 x3 cos x

2 2
 x  x
sin  2 sin 
 sin x   2  x  sin x   2 1
2 x
 .    2  x.  x  .
 x   x  2  x   4 1
    2.1.12
 Lt  2   2  4 1
 Lt  
x0 x3 cos x x0 cos x 1 2

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 27

(c) [Here independent variable x is not tending to zero rather x is tending to y, hence put x = y + h]
Let x = y + h, then as x  y, h  0

tan x  tan y tan  y  h   tan y

Now Lt  Lt
x y x y h0 y h y

1  sin  y  h  sin y 
 Lt   
h  0 h  cos  y  h  cos y 

sin  y  h  cos y  cos  y  h sin y

 Lt
h0 h cos  y  h  cos y

sin  y  h  y
 Lt
h  0 h cos  y  h  cos y

sin h 1 1
 Lt . 1  sec2 y
h0 h cos  y  h  cos y 2
cos y

a sin x  x sin a
(d) lim
xa ax2  a2 x

a sin x  x sin x  x sin x  x sin a

 lim
xa ax  x  a 

 lim
 a  x sin x  x  sin x  sin a 
x a ax  x  a 

 lim
 a  x sin x  lim sin x  sin a
x  a ax  x  a  x a a x  a

xa  ( x  a) 
2cos ( )  sin

sin a
 lim 2 2  sin a cos a
   
a2 x a 2a  ( x  a)  a 2 a
 2 

Illustration 1 2

tan 2 x  x Lt f ( x ) sin      x  sin      x  sin 2x

(a) If f ( x )  3 x  sin x , find x  0 (b) Lt .x
x 0 cos 2 x  cos 2x

a  h  sin  a  h   a 2 sin a
2
Lt
1  cos x cos 2 x cos 3 x
(c) Lt (d)
h 0 h x 0 sin 2 x

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

28 QUIZRR

Solution :

tan 2 x  x
(a) Lt f ( x)  Lt [IIT-71]
x0 x  0 3 x  sin x

 tan 2 x   tan 2 x 
  2x  x  2  1 2  1 1
2x  2x 
 Lt   Lt   
x0  sin x  x0 sin x 31 2
3x   x 3
 x  x

sin      x  sin      x  sin 2x

(b) Lt .x
x0 cos2x  cos 2x

sin      x  sin      x  sin 2x

 Lt .x
x0 2sin      x.sin      x

 sin      x sin      x sin 2x 

 .     x  .    x  .2x 
 Lt 
   x     x 2x x
x0  sin      x
.      x.
sin      x
.    x

 2 
    x     x 

sin      x sin      x sin 2x

.      .      .2
 Lt
    x     x 2x
x0 sin      x sin      x
2 .    . .   
    x     x

1.       1.       1.2 4 2
  
2.1      1.     

2   2 2
   2
2

=  cos  + sin  = sin  ă  cos 

Lt
 a  h 2 sin  a  h   a2 sin a
(c) [IIT-79]
h0 h

 Lt
 a2  2ah  h2  sin  a  h  a2 sin a
h0 h

 a2 (sin  a  h   sin a 
 Lt  

2 ah  h2 sin  a  h  
h0 h  h
 

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 29

 2 2a  h h 
 a .2cos 2 sin 2 
 Lt   (2 a  h) sin(a  h) 
h0 h 
 

h
sin
2a  h 2 .h
2 a2 cos
2 h 2
= a2cosa + 2a sin a
 Lt 2  Lt  2a  h  sin  a  h 
h0 h h0

(d) cos x cos 2x cos 3x

1
= (cos 2x cos 3x cos 2x)
2

1
= [(cos 2x + cos 4x) cos 2x]
2

1
= [2 cos2 2x + 2 cos4x cos 2x]
4

1
= [1 + cos 4x + cos 2x + cos 6x]
4

1  cos x cos 2 x cos 3 x

Now Lt
x0 sin2 2 x

1
1 1  cos 2 x  cos 4 x  cos6 x
 Lt 4
x0 sin 2 2 x

1  cos2 x  1  cos4 x  1  cos6 x

 Lt
x0 4sin2 2 x

2sin 2 x  2sin2  2sin2 3 x

 Lt
x0 4 sin 2 2 x

2 2 2
 sin x   sin 2 x   sin 3 x 
2  . x2  2   . 4 x2  2   .9 x
2

 Lt  x   2x   3x  28 7
2
 
x0  sin 2 x  2 16 4
4  .4 x
 2x 

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 30 QUIZRR

T y p e I . Ca t e g o r y B .
Trigonometric Problems in which variable tends to infinity.
There are no formulas as such for this type.

Illustration 1 3

 sin x  1
(a) Lt   (b) Lt 2 x tan  
x   x  x  x

Solution :

sin x
(a) We have Lt
x x

we know ă 1 < sin x < 1, for all values of x  R & and as x  , 1  0

x
 Limit be comes

Lt ( 0)
(a number between (ă1, 1)
x

= 0
Note : You can though remember this limit.

1
(b) Lt 2 x tan  
x  x

1
put x  , so as x   h  0
h

2
Lt tan ( h)
h0 h

 tan h 
= 2 as Lt  1
 h 0 h 

Illustration 1 4

 x  cos x 
Find the Limit, Lt  
x   x  sin x 

Solution :

x  cos x
Given Limit is Lt
x x  sin x

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 31

cos x
1
Lt x
= x sin x
1
x

10  cos x sin x 

Lt  Lt 0 using the same concept as in 
= x 
x 1  0  x  x

= 1.

T y p e I I . Ca t e g o r y C
Problems containing exponential and logarithmic functions :
Working Rule :
Using the following formulae whichever is required

a f (x)  1
(i) Lt  log e a
f ( x) 0 f ( x)

This formula should be used only when base is a constant and power is a variable.
Special Case :

ef ( x)  1
Lt 1
f ( x)  0 f ( x)

(ii) Lt [1  kf ( x )] f (x)
 ek
f ( x) 0

This formula should be used when both base and powers are variables.

(iii)

This formula should be used in case of logarithmic function.

log{1  f ( x )}
(iv) Lt 1
f ( x) 0 f (x)

= Lt eg ( x) [ f ( x) 1]
x a

Here x  a, f ( x)  1 and g( x)  

This formula should be used only when indeterminate form is 1 .

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

32 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 5

 log x  ex  1  x
(a) Lt   (b) Lt
x 1  x  1  x 0 x2

 log( x  h)  log x 
(c) Lt  
h 0  h 
Solution :

 log x 
(a) given limit is Lt 
x  1  x 1 

replacing x by h + 1, {limit also changes}

log (1  h)
= Lt
h 0 1 h 1

log (1  h)
= Lt 1
h0 h

ex  1  x
(b) Lt
x0 x2

 ex  1 
in this question if we try to use the formula  x  , then it will not be solved, why ?
 
Because we will get zero in numerator & denominator, which becomes unsolvable

ex  1 1

x x ( 1)  1 0 form
Lt  Lt 
x0 x x0 x 0

so either we use LÊ hospitals or we go for expansion series.

Here we will go for expansion series

 x x2 x3 
1    ...   1  x
 1 2! 3! 
= Lt  
x0 2
x

 x2 x2   1 x x2 
= Lt    ...  Lt    ... 
x  0  2! 3!  = x  0  2 3! 4! 
  

1
putting x = 0 in the rest =
2

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 33

(c) Given limit is,

a
This is a simple limit, just use log properties i.e. log a ă log b = log
b
 x h 
log  
= Lt  x 
h0 h

1 h 1  h 
log   log  
 x   x 
Lt  Lt
= h0 h h  0 h
x
x

1  (1  h) 
=    Lt log  1
 x  h0 h 

Illustration 1 6

x
( a b) x  a x  b x  1 e tan  e x
(a) Evaluate lim (b) Evaluate lim
x 0 x2 x  0 tan x  x

3x  5x 6 x  2x  3 x  1
(c) lim (d) lim
x 0 x x 0 sin 2 x
Solution :

(ab) x  a x  b x  1  3 x  1 5x  1 
(a) lim 3 x  5x 
x0 x2
(c) lim = lim  
x0 x x  0  x x 

a xb x  a x  bx  1 3
= lim 2 = log 3 ă log 5 = log
x0 x 5

a x (bx  1)  (b x  1)
= lim 
x0 x2

= lim 
( a x  1)  (b x  1)
 lim
ax  1
 lim
bx  1   = log a ï log b
x  0 x x  0 x x  0 x

x ex   e
 tan x  x  1
etan  ex  
(b) lim  lim
x  0 tan x  x x  0  tan x  x

= lim

ex etan x  x  1  = e0 ï 1 [as x  0, tan x ă x  0]
x0  tan x  x
= 1ï 1= 1

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6 x  2x  3 x  1
(d) lim
x0 sin 2 x

 2 x  1 3 x  1) x2 2x  1
lim lim
3x  1
lim
 x 
2

x x  0 x x  0  sin x 
= lim =
x0 x2 sin 2 x x0

= log e 3 log e 2

T y p e 1 . Ca t e g o r y C
Problems involving exponential & logarithmic functions.
1. If power is variable, express the given expression as power of e. Use the formula, ax = ex log a

2. Use expansion series where required

1 k
3. Use the formula Lt 1  k f (x) f ( x)  e where k is constant
f ( x)  0

Illustration 1 7
Find the limit

 1 1 
x
 a Lt x ex  e x 
(a) Lt  1   (b)  
x   x x 
 

Solution :
We try to convert these questions to type 2 only so that we can use formulas.

x
 a
(a) Given, 1  
Lt
x   x

1
Now here it is a type II question only. Compare it with formula Lt 1  ax x .
x 0

if you put x  1 , limit changes to

h

1
= Lt 1  ah  h
h0

1
= ea {using Lt 1  x  x  e}
x0

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 1 1
 x  
Lt x  x  e x 
(b) x0  
 

1
again putting x = x 
h

Lt
1 h
h0 h

e  e h 
 eh  1 ( e h  1)   eh  1  e h  1 
= Lt    = Lt    Lt  
h  0  h h h  0  h  h  0  h 


in second limit put h = ă h

 eh  1   eh  1 
= 1 ă h Lt   = 1 + 1  Lt 1 
 0   h   h  0 h 

= 2

Illustration 1 8

1 x
 1 
(a) lim 1  2 x  x (b) lim  1  
x 0 x  x2 

2x  1
 x  1 lim x cot 2 x
(c) lim   (d)
x    x  2 x 1

Solution :

1
(a) lim 1  2 x  x
x0

using formula

1
1 
= lim 1  2 x 2 x  x   2 x
x0  

2x
 e
lim
x0 x
= eă2

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x
 1 
(b) lim  1  
x x2 

1
our formula is lim 1  f ( x)  f ( x)  e where f (x)  0
x0

1
here f ( x)  2 which as x  , f(x)  0, hence we can apply the same formula.
x

x x2
 1   1   1 
 lim  1    lim  1  2  x  2 
x 2 x
x  x   x 

x 1
lim lim
= ex   x2 x x
e
= e0 = 1

2x  1
 x  1
(c) lim  
x    x  2

2 x 1 2 x 1
 x1   3 
= lim  1   1 = lim  1  
x x  2  x x  2

again we can apply the concept as used in previous question

3
lim  2x  1
= e x  x  2 = e6

(d) lim xcot x

x1

= xlim 1  ( x1) cot zx

1

lim x1 x1

lim lim
= ex  1  x  1 cot zx = x  1 tan x or = x1 tan (   zx)
e e

x1
lim
= x  1 tan  (1  x)
e

 1  1  x  tan  
=
lim
x  1  tan z (1  x) as tim  1
e  0  

1
=
e
LIMITS & CONTINUITY
 QUIZRR 37

So m e c o n f u s i n g l im i t s

Illustration 1 9

x
(a) lim (b) xlim  x  3
x 0 x 0

(c) lim sin

x 0
1
x x 0
1
 
(d) lim x sin / x

Solution :
(a) for the limit to exist LHL & RHL should be equal lets take LHL first

x  x gives (  x) for negative nos. & since x is 

lim  
x0 x approaching from negative side, x gives   x 

x
= lim  1 ...(i)
x0 x

Now, RHL

x
lim
x  0 x as x  0 i.e. from positive side x returns  x
x
= lim x  1 ...(ii)
x0

from (i) & (ii) LHL  RHL, hence limit does not exist.

(b) lim  x  3
x0

again we will find LHL & RHL for this question

LHL
lim  x  3
x  0

= hlim 0  h  3
0

lim   h  3
= h  0  

This will be a number between (ă 4, ă 3) and we know that for this the value of greatest
integer function is ă 4.

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38 QUIZRR
ă
 LHL = 4

RHL
lim  x  3
x  0

= hlim 0  h  3
0

lim  h  3
= h0  

this will be a number between (ă 3, ă 2) and hence greatest integer function returns ă 3
 RHL = ă 3
Now, LHL  RHL
Hence limit does not exist.

1
(c) lim sin  
x0  x

1
now as x  0    
 x

1
but for sin   or sin () is not a finite value. In fact it is a oscillatory value between
 x
[ă 1, + 1] because we dont know the value of 
Note : Some of the students get confused in this, in fact some think that sin ()   which
is absolutely wrong as sin x can never return a value other than [ă 1, 1].
Since the limit is not finite, limit does not exists.

1
(d) lim x sin  
x0  x
This is a very important limit. Let us solve it.

1
We already solved the part lim sin   in the above question. It is a value between
x0  x
[ă 1, 1] but x  0, x approaches 0.
Hence limit becomes
=  0 ï (a number between [ă 1, 1]
= 0
Hence limit exists and is equal to 0.
(You can check by equating LHL & RHL)

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 39

Illustration 20
Evaluate the following limits :
1  sin x
x Lt
(a) Lt 1  x  tan 2 
(b) x  / 2   x  cot x

x 1
2 
Solution :
(a) These type of limits are solved by substituting the limit.
See now in the limit,

x x
Lt 1  x tan tan approaches  so somehow we need to remove this. If it can be
x1 2 , 2

x x
converted to cot , then the limit will be solved as cot will approach 0.
2 2

x    
And we know cot = tan   x  or tan 1  x 
2  2 2  2
now, do you see something
putting x as (1 ă x) solves the question
(1 ă x) becomes x & lim changes to

x x 2
lim x cot  lim 
x0 2 x 0 x  [as cos  = 1]
sin
2

1  sin x
Lt
(b) x   / 2    x  cot x
2 
 
Note : In these type of questions you will get the clue of what to substitute from the question
itself.


Like in this question we will substitute  x for x, hence limit becomes
2

 
1  sin   x 
lim 2   lim 1  cos x
 x0    x  0 x tan x
x cot   x 
2 

 1  cos x   x  1  1  cos x 1
= lim    = 1  as lim  
x0 x2   tan x  2  x  0 x 2 2

you can learn this

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 40 QUIZRR

So m e q u e s t io n s o n e x p a n s i o n s e r ie s
Generally expanding makes the question a bit easy. Lt us see how.

Illustration 21

x5
Evaluate Lt
x   ex

x x2 x3
Solution : e  1  x    ...
2! 3 !
putting this back in the limit

x5
Lt
x x2 x3 x4 x5
1 x     ...
2! 3! 4! 5!

dividing by x5

1
Lt
x 1 1 1 1 1 x
    1  ...
x5
x4
2! x3
3! x2 4! x 6!

we can see that denominator is approaching 

1
Hence the limit becomes Lt which is 0.
x 

Illustration 22

log 1  x 
Find Lt
x 0 3x  1
Solution :
Here we will apply expansion series of both log (1 + x) & ax which is

x2 x3 x4
log 1  x = x     ...
2 3 4

x2
& ax = 1  x  log a    log a 2  ...
2!
using these

x2 x3 x4
x  
Lt 2 3 4
x0 2
x
1  x log 3  (log 3)2 ...  1
2!

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

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 x x2 x3 
x 1    ... 
 2 3 4 
Lt  
= x0  x 
x log 3  1  log 3  ... 
 2 

Now we can put x = 0 in the limit also

1
Hence limit is log 3

L IM IT B Y L ’ ‘H OSPIT A L ’S RU L E

0 
LÊHospitalÊs rule is applicable only when the form is or .
0 
0 
In case of other indeterminate forms, first of all they should be changed to the form or and
0 
then L HospitalÊs rule should be applied.
ÂHospitalÊs rule : Let f (x) and g (x) be differentiable functions at x = a.
Let f´ (x), f´´(x), f´´´(x), ..., fn (x) denote the first, second, third, .... nth derivatives respectively of
f (x) and g´(x), g´´(x), g´´´(x), ..., gn(x) denote the first, second, third, ..., nth derivatives respectively of
g(x).
According to LÊHospitalÊs rule

f ( x)  0  f '( x)
1. Lt  form  = Lt
x  a g ( x)  0  x  a g '( x)

In general if f´(x), f´´(x), ..., fnă1(x)  0 and g´(x), g´´(x), ... gnă1(x)  0 as x  a and

Lt f n ( x) and Lt g n ( x) are simultaneously zero, then

xa xa

f ( x)  0  f n ( x)
Lt form Lt
x  a g( x)  0  =
 x  a g n ( x)

f ( x)    f '( x)
2. Lt   form  = Lt
x  a g( x)   x  a g '( x)

In general if f´(x), f´´(x), ..., fnă1(x)   and g´(x), g´´(x), ... gnă1(x)   as x  a and

Lt f n ( x) and Lt g n ( x) are simultaneously , then

xa xa

f ( x)    f n ( x)
Lt form Lt
x   g( x)    =
 x   g n ( x)

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

42 QUIZRR

0 
How to change the indeterminate forms to form or
0 
1. When the form is 0., bring the suitable factor in the denominator.
0 
The form will be now or .
0 
x
Example : Lt 1  x  tan
x 1 2 [0. form]

1x
Lt 0 
= x  1 cot x  form 
2  
0

0 
2. When the form is  ă  : Go on simplifying until it reduces to the form or .
0 
3. When the form is 1 , 0, 00 : Let the required limit be P, then take logarithm and proceed.

Illustration 23

x7  2x5  1
Find Lt
x  1 x3  3x2  2

Solution :

x7  2 x5  1 0 
Lt   0 form 
3 2  
x1 x  3x  2

7 x6  10 x4  0
= Lt [by L ÂHospitalÊs rule]
x 1 3 x2  6 x  0

7  10   3 
=  1
36   3

Illustration 24

x sin    sin x
Find Lt
x  x 
[Here x is the variable and a is a constant, therefore we will have to differentiate w.r.t. to x.]
x sin    sin x 0 
Solution : Lt  0 form 
x   x   

1.sin    cos x
 Lt  sin    cos 
x 10

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

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Illustration 25

tan x  sin x
Find Lt
x 0 x3

tan x  sin x 0 
Solution : Lt  0 form 
3
x0 x  

sec 2 x  cos x 0 
= Lt
2  0 form 
x0 3x  

2sec x sec x tan x  sin x 0 

= Lt  0 form 
x0 6x  

2sec 2 x.sec 2 x  2 tan x . 2sec x sec x tan x  cos x

= Lt
x0 6

201 1
= 
6 2

Illustration 26

a  h  sin  a  h   a 2 sin a
2
Find Lt
h 0 h

[Here h is the variable]

Solution :

 a  h 2 sin  a  h   a2 sin a 0 
Lt
h  0 form 
h0  

Lt
 a  h 2 cos  a  h  (0  1)  sin  a  h 2  a  h   0  1  0
=
h0 1

= a2cosa + 2asina [by LÊHospitalÊs rule]

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 44 QUIZRR

M is c e l la n e o u s Fo r m s :

(I) 00 form : When xlim f ( x)  1 but f(x) is positive in the neighbourhood of x = a.

a

g ( x)
In this case we write, ( f ( x) g ( x) = elog e f ( x)

lim g ( x) log e f ( x)
g ( x)
 lim  f ( x)   ex  a
xa

Illustration 27

Evaluate lim  sin x  x

x  0

Solution :

Let A = lim  sin x x

x  0

lim x log  sin x 

 log A = x  0

log  sin x 
log A = lim [By LÊ HospitalÊs rule]
x  0 1/ x

1
. cos x
lim sin x  lim x2 cot x
= x  0 1 =
 x  0
x2

x2
=  lim 0
x  0
tan x

 A=1 or lim  sin x x  1

x  0

Illustration 28
x
Evaluate xlim  cos ec x 
0

Solution :
x
Let A = xlim  cosec x (0 form)
0

log A = xlim x log  cosec x 

0

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 45

log  cos ec x 
lim  
= x0 1   form 
x  

1   cosec x cot x
lim .
= x  0 cosec x 
1 [By LÊHospitalÊs rule)
x2

x2
= lim 0
x  0 tan x

 log A = 0 or A=1

 lim  cos ec x x 1
x0

Illustration 29

1
x log x
Evaluate lim e
x 0

Solution :

1
Let A  lim e x log x
x0

1 1/ x  
. log e . log e
log A = lim x log x = lim log x   form  [By LÊ HospitalÊs rule]
x0 x0  

 1 / x2

= lim 1/ x 
x0

loge A = ă 
1

 A = eă or lim ex log x 0
x0

Illustration 30
sin x
Evaluate xlim x
0

Solution :
log e x
lim
sin x cosec x
lim x = lim sin x log e x  ex  0
x0 e
x0

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 46 QUIZRR

1/ x
lim
= x0  cos ec x cot x
e

2
 sin x   x 
2 lim    . 
sin x x  0  x   cos x 
= lim  e
x0 x cos x
e
= eă(1). (0) = e0 = 1

Illustration 31

lim log sin x sin 2 x

Solve x  0 

Solution :
lim log sin x sin 2 x
Here, x  0

log sin 2 x   
= lim  form 
x  0 log sin x   

1  2x 
lim . 2 cos 2 x   cos 2 x
x  0 sin 2 x
lim  sin  2 x 
= 1 =  x  [By LÊ HospitalÊs]
s]
.cos x x  0
sin x   cos x
 sin x 

cos 2 x
= lim 1
x  0 cos x

Illustration 32

Solve lim  sin x tan x

x  0
Solution :

Here lim sin xtan x (00 form)

x  0

let A = lim sin xtan x

x  0
Taking log on both sides, we get
lim tan x log  sin x
loge A = x  0

log  sin x   
= lim  form  [By LÊ HospitalÊs]
x  0 cot x    

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

 QUIZRR 47

1
lim .cos x  lim  sin x .cos x  0
 sin x x  0
Applying L-HospitalÊs rule = x  0
2
 cos ec x
 loge A = 0
 A = e0 = 1  A =1

Illustration 33

2
Evaluate lim  n  /n
n 
Solution :
2
Here; A = lim  n  /n
(0 form)
n

2 log  n   
log A = lim   form 
n n  

1
2. . 2
= lim n = lim n  0
n 1 n

loge A = 0 A = 1

Illustration 34

1
/n
 en 
Evaluate lim  
n     

Solution :
1/
n
 en 
Here, A = lim   (0 form)
n     


1  en 
 log A = lim log  
n  n   
 

n log e  log   
= lim n   form 
n  

log e  0
= lim
n  1

= log e
A = e

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 3

HYPERBOLA

D efin it io n
A Hyperbola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that the ratio of its distance from
a fixed point (called focus) and a fixed line (called directrix) is a constant which is greater than
one, this ratio is called eccentricity and is denoted by e. For hyperbola e > 1.
Let S be the focus, QN be the directrix and P be any point on the hyperbola. Then by definition

PS
or PS = e PN, e > 1
PN
where PN is the length of the perpendicular from P on the directrix QN. In other words a
hyperbola is the locus of a point which moves in such a way that the difference of its distance
from two fixed points (called foci) is constant.

Y
M´ P
M

X
S´ Z´ C Z S

PM and PM´ are perpendicular to the directrices MZ and M´Z´.

PS´ ă PS = e (PM´ ă PM)
eMM´ = e (2a/e) = 2a = constant.

St and ar d E q uat ions of H yp er b ola

Let S be the focus and ZM the directrix of a hyperbola. Since e > 1, we can divide SZ internally
and externally in the ratio e : 1, let the points of division be A and A´ as in the figure.
Let AA´ = 2a and is bisected at C.
Then, SA = e. AZ, SA´ = e.ZA´
 SA + SA´ = e (AZ + ZA´) = 2ae
i.e. 2SC = 2ae or SC = ae
similarly by subtraction,
SA´ ăSA = e (ZA´ ă ZA) = 2e.ZC
 2a = 2eZC  ZC = a/ e
Now, take C as the origin, CA as the x-axis, and the perpendicular line CY as the y-axis. Then,
S is the point (ae, 0) and ZM the line x = a/ e. Let P (x, y) be any point on the hyperbola.
Then the condition PS2 = e2. (distance of P from ZM)2 gives (x – ae)2 + y2 = e2 (x – a/ e)2

HYPERBOLA
 4 QUIZRR

x2 y2
or x2 (1 – e)2 + y2 = a2 (1 – e)2 i.e.,  1 ...(i)
a2 a2 (e2  1)

x2 y2
2
Since e > 1, e ă 1 is positive. Let a 2 2 2
(e ă 1) = b . Then the equation (i) becomes   1.
a2 b2

x2 y2  b2 
The eccentricity e of the hyperbola   1 is given by the relation e2 =  1  2  .
a2 b2  a 


Since the curve is symmetrical about the y-axis, it is clear that there exists another focus S´ at
(ă ae, 0) and a corresponding directrix Z´M´ with the equation x = – a/e, such that the same
hyperbola is described if a point moves so that its distance from S´ is e times its distance from
Z´M´.

T er ms R elat ed t o H yp er b ola
Symmetry : Since only even powers of x and y occur in the above equation, so the curve is
symmetrical about both the axes.
Foci : S and S´ are the two foci of the hyperbola and their coordinates are (ae, 0) and (ă ae, 0)
respectively, then distance between foci is given by SS´ = 2ae.

B P(x,y)
N M´ P(x,y)
M L
Ractum
Axis

Rectum
X´ Transverse axis
X
Z´ C´ Z
A´(0,ăa)

A(a,0)

S´ S(ae,0)
(ăae,0)
Conjugate

Latus

x=a/e
Directrix

Directrix

N´
L´

x=ăa/e B´
Y´
a
Directries : ZM and Z´M´ are the two directrices of the hyperbola and their equations are x 
e
a 2a
and x   respectively, then the distance between directries is given by ZZ´ =
e e
Axes : The lines AA´ and BB´ are caled the transverse axis and conjugate axis respectively of the
hyperbola. The length of transverse axis = AA´ = 2a. The length of conjugate axis = BB´ = 2b.
Centre : The point of intersection C of the axes of hyperbola is called the centre of the hyperbola.
All chords passing through C, are bisected at C.

HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 5

Vertices : The point A  (a, 0) and A´  (– a, 0) where the curve meets the line joining the foci
S and S´ are called the vertices of the hyperbola.
Focal chord : A chord of the hyperbola passing through its focus is called a focal chord.

x2 y2
Focal distance : The focal distance of any point (x, y) on the hyperbola   1 are
a2 b2
ex ă a and ex + a.
The difference of the focal distance of any point on the hyperbola is constant and equal to the
length ofo the transverse axis of the hyperbola. If P is any hyperbola, then
S´P ă SP = 2a = Transverse axis.
Latus Rectum : If LL´ and NN´ are the latus rectum of the hyperbola then these lines are
perpendicular to the transverse axis AA´, passing through the foci S and S´ respectively.

 b2   b2   b2    b2 
L   ae, , L´   ae,   , N    ae,  N´    ae, 
 a   a   a   a 
   

2b2
Length of latus rectum = LL´   NN´
a
Eccentricity of the Hyperola
We know that SP = ePM or SP2 = e2 PM2

2
2 x a
or 2
(x ă ae) + (y ă 0) = e 2   or (x ă ae)2 + y2 = (ex ă a)2
 e

or x2 + a2e2 ă 2aex + y2 = e2 x2 ă 2aex + a2 or x2 (e2 ă 1) ă y2 = a2 (e2 ă 1)

x2 y2
 1
a2 a2 (e2  1)

x2 y2 2
On comparing with   1, we get b2 = a2 (e2 ă 1) or e  1  b
a2 b2 a2

(conjugate axis)2
or e 1
(transverse axis)2

G ener al E q uat ion of H yp er b ola

The equation of hyperbola, whose focus is pont (h, k) directrix is lx + my + n = 0 & ecentricity

e 2 (lx  my  n )2
ÂeÊ is given by ( x  h )2  ( y  k )2 
(l 2  m 2 )

HYPERBOLA
 6 QUIZRR

Illustration 1
Find the equation of the hyperbola whose focus is (1, 2) directrix is the line x + y + 1 = 0
3
and eccentricity .
2
Solution :
Let S (1, 2) be the focus and let P (x, y) be a point on the hyperbola. Draw perpendicular PM
from P on the directrix x + y + 1 = 0. Then
SP = e PM

3  x  y  1
 
 ( x  1)2  ( y  2)2 = 2  12  12 
  Y
P(x,y)
S(1,2)
Focus
9  ( x  y  1)2 
 (x ă 1) + (y ă 2)2 = 4  2
 M
 
X´ O X
2 2 2
 8 [(x ă 1) + (y ă 2) ] = 9 [(x + y + 1) ]
Di
 8 x2 + 8 y2 ă 16x ă 32y + 40 re
ct
r
= 9x2 + 9y2 + 9 + 18xy + 18x + 18y Y´ ix
 x2 + y2 + 18xy + 34x + 50y ă 31 = 0
This is the equation of the required hyperbola.

Illustration 2
Find the eccentricity of the conic represented by x 2 ă y2 ă 4x + 4y + 16 = 0
Solution :
We have x2 ă y2 ă 4x + 4y + 16 = 0
 (x2 ă 4x) ă (y2 ă 4y) = ă 16  (x2 ă 4x + 4) ă (y2 ă 4y + 4) = ă 16

( x  2)2 ( y  2)2
 (x ă 2)2 ă (y ă 2)2 = ă 16    1
42 42

X2 Y2
Shifting the origin at (2, 2), we obtain    1, where x = X + 2, y = Y + 2
42 42

This is rectangular hyperbola, whose eccentricity is always 2

Illustration 3
Find the centre, eccentricity, foci, directrices and the lengths of the transverse and conjugate
axes of the hyperbola, whose equation is (x ă 1)2 ă 2 (y ă 2)2 + 6 = 0

HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 7

Solution :
The equation of the hyperbola can be written as (x ă 1)2 ă 2(y ă 2)2 + 6 = 0

( x  1) 2 ( y  2)2 Y2 X2
or ă   1 or  1
(6) 2 ( 3)2 ( 3)2 ( 6)2

Where Y = (y ă 2) and X = (x ă 1) ...(1)

 centre : X = 0, Y = 0 i.e., (x ă 1) = 0, x = 1 & (y ă 2) = 0, y = 2.

So, a  3 and b  6 so transverse axis = 2 3 , and conjugate axis = 2 6 .

Also b2 = a2 (e2 ă 1)  6 = 3 (e2 ă 1) i.e., e  3

In (X, Y) coordinates, foci are (0,  ae)

i.e., (0,  3)  foci are (1, 2  3) i.e., (1, 5) and (1, ă 1)
Equations of directrices, Y =  a/e

 directrices yă2=  3 / 3   1 or y = 3, y = 1.

Illustration 4

4
Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (8, 3) (0, 3) and eccentricity = .
3
Solution :
The centre of the hyperbola is the mid-point of the line joining the two foci. So the coordinates

8  0 3  3
of the centre are  ,
2 
i.e. (4, 3).
 2

Let 2a and 2b be the length of transverse and conjugate axes and let e be the eccentricity. Then

( x  4)2 ( y  3)2
the equation of the hyperbola is  1 ...(i)
a2 b2
Now, distance between the two foci = 2ae

 4
 (8  0)2  (3  3)2  2ae  ae = 4     a = 3  e  
 3

 16 
Now, b2 = a2 (e2 ă 1)  b2  9   1  7
 9 
Thus, the equation of the hyperbola is

( x  4)2 ( y  3)2
  1 [Putting the values of a and b in (i)]
9 7
 7x2 ă 9y2 ă 56x + 54y ă 32 = 0

HYPERBOLA
 8 QUIZRR
Par amet r ic E q uat ions of t he H yp er b ola

x2 y2
Since coordinate x = a sec and y = b tan satisfy the equation   1 for all real values
a2 b2

x2 y2
of  therfore, x = a sec, y = b tan are the parametric equations of the hyperbola   1,
a2 b2
where the parameter 0   < 2

x2 y2
Hence, the coordinates of any point on the hyperbola   1 may be taken as (a sec, b
a2 b2
tan). This point is also called the point . The angle is called the eccentric angle of the point
(a sec, b tan) on the hyperbola.

Auxiliar y C ir cle
A circle drawn with the centre C and T.A. as a diameter is called the Auxiliary Circle of the
hyperbola. Equation of the auxiliary circle is x2 + y2 = a2.
Note from the figure that P and Q are called the “Corresponding Points” on the hyperbola and
the auxiliary circle. ‘’ is called the eccentric angle of the point ÂPÊ on the hyperbola (0   < 2).

Y
Q P(asec, btan)

(ăa,0) (0,0)  A
X
A´ C (a,0) N

C onj ugat e H yp er b ola

The hyperbola whose transverse and conjugate axes Y
are respectively the conjugate and transverse axes of S´(0,be)
a given hyperbola is called the conjugate hyperbola of
the given hyperbola.
The conjugate hyperbola of the hyperbola B(0,b) Y=b/e
Z
X´ X
x2 y2 x2 y2 C
  1 is    1.
a2 b2 a2 b2 B(0,ăb) Y=b/e
S´(0,ăbe)

Y´

HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 9

Pr op er t ies of H yp er b ola and it s C onj ugat e

Hyperbola Conjugate Hyperbola

x2 y2  x2 y2 x2 y2
Standard equation  1   1 or   1
a2 b2 a2 b2 a2 b2
Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)
Eq. of transverse axis y= 0 x= 0
Eq. of conjugate axis x= 0 y= 0
Length of transverse axis 2a 2b
Lentgh of conjugate axis 2b 2a
Foci ( ae, 0) (0,  be)
Equation of directrices x =  a/e y =  b/e
Vertices ( a, 0) (0,  b)

a 2  b2 a 2  b2
Eccentricity e e
a2 b2

Length of latus rectum 2b2/a 2a 2/b

Parameter Coordinates (a sec, b tan) (b sec, a tan)
Focal radii SP=ex1ăa and S´P=ex1 + a SP = ey1 ă b and S´P = ey1 + b
Difference of focal 2a 2b
radii (S´P ă SP)
Tangent of the vertices x=  a y=  b

Y
Posit ion of A Point P w.r .t . H yp er b ola :
Let S = 0 be the hyperbola and P (x1, y1)
be the point and S1  S(x1, y1). Interior Exterior Interior
region region region
Then X
O
S1 < 0  P is in the exterior region
S1 > 0  P is in the interior region
S1 = 0  P lies on the hyperbola

Important :

x2 y2
Note that most of the results proved for hyperbola   1 can be obtained from the same
a2 b2

2 2
formula for ellipse x  y  1 , by replacing b2 by ă b2 in conditions for ellipse.
a2 b2

HYPERBOLA
10 QUIZRR

Illustration 5
Show that the equation x 2 ă 2y2 ă 2x + 8y ă 1 = 0 represents a hyperbola. Find the coordinates
of the centre, lengths of the axes, eccentricity, latus rectum, coordinates of the foci and
vertices and equations of directrices of the hyperbola.
Solution :
x2 ă 2y2 ă 2x + 8y ă 1 = 0
 (x2 ă 2x) ă 2 (y2 ă 4y) = 1
 (x2 ă 2x + 1) ă 2 (y2 ă 4y + 4) = ă 6
 (x ă 1)2 ă 2 (y ă 2)2 = ă 6

( x  1) 2 ( y  2)2
   1 ...(i)
( 6)2 ( 3)

Shifting the origin at (1, 2) without rotating the coordinates axes and denoting the new coordinates
with respect to these axes by X and Y, we have
x = X + 1 and y = Y + 2 ...(ii)
Using these relations, equation (i) reduces to

X2 Y2
  1 ...(iii)
( 6)2 ( 3) 2

X2 Y2
This equation is of the form    1, where a2 = ( 6)2 and b2 = ( 3)2 . So, we have :
a2 b2
Centre The coordinates of the centre with respect to the new axes are (X = 0, Y = 0).
So, the coordinates of the centre with respect to the old axes are (1, 2) [Putting X = 0, Y = 0 in
(ii)]
Lengths of the Axes : Since the transverse axis of the hyperbola is along new Y-axis.
 Transverse axis = 2b = 2 3 , Conjugate axis = 2a = 2 6 .

a2 6
Eccentricity : The eccentricity e is given by e  1  2
 1  3
b 3

2 a2 12
Latus rectum : Length of the latus rectum =  4 3.
b 3

Foci : The coordinates of foci with respect to the new axes are
(X = 0, Y =  be) i.e. (X = 0, Y =  3).
So, the coordinates of the vertices with respect to the old axes are (1, 2  3) i.e. (1, 5) and
(1, ă 1) [Putting X = 0, Y =  3 in (ii)]

HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 11

Vertices : The coordinates of the vertices with respect to the new axes are X = 0, Y =  b i.e.
(X = 0, Y =  3 )
So the coordinates of the vertices w.r.t. to the old axes are

(1, 2  3 ) i.e. (1, 2 + 3 ) and (1, 2 ă 3 ) [Putting X = 0, Y = + 3 in (ii)]

Directrices : The equations of the directrices with respect to the new axes are Y =  b/e i.e.
Y =  1
So the equations of the directrices with respect to the old axes are
y = 2  1 i.e. y = 1 and y = 3 [Putting Y =  2 in (ii)]

Illustration 6

1 1
If e and e´ be the eccentricities of a hyperbola and its conjugate, prove that 2
 1.
e e2
Solution :

x2 y2
Let the equation of the hyperbola be  1 ...(i)
a2 b2

x2 y2
Then the equation of the hyperbola conjugate to (i) is   1 ...(ii)
a2 b2

2
 conjugate axis 
e = Eccentricity of (i) = 1 
 Transverse axis 

2
 2b  b2 a2  b2
 e 1   e2  1   e2  ...(iii)
 2a  a2 a2

2
 conjugate axis 
And, e´ = Eccentricity of (ii) = 1 
 Transverse axis 

2
 2a  a2 a2  b2
 e´  1     e´2  1   e´2  ...(iv)
 2b  b2 b2

From (iii) and (iv), we have

1 1 a2 b2 a 2  b2 1 1
      1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
e e´ a b a b a b e e´2

HYPERBOLA
 12 QUIZRR
T a n gen t t o t h e H yp er b ola :
1. Condition for tangency and points of contact : The condition for the line y = mx + c to be

x2 y2
a tangent to the hyperbola   1 is that c 2 = a 2m 2 ă b 2 and the coordinates of the points
a2 b2

 a2 m b2 
 ,  
of contact are  
 a 2 m2  b2 a 2 m2  b2 

2. Equation of tangent

x2 y2
(a) Point form : The equation of the tangent to the hyperbola   1 at the point
a2 b2

xx1 yy1
(x1, y1) is  1
a2 b2
The equation of tangent at (x1, y1) can also be obtained by replacing x2 by xx1, y2 yy1, x by
x  x1 y  y1 xy1  x1 y
y by and xy by . This method is used only when the equation of
2 2 2
hyperbola is a polynomial of second degree in x and y.

x2 y2
(b) Parametric Form : The eqn. of the tangent to the hyperbola   1 at the point
a2 b2

x y
(a sec b, tan) is sec   tan   1
a b

x2 y2
(c) Slope Form : The equation of tangent to the hyperbola    1 in terms of slope ÂmÊ
a2 b2

is y  mx  a 2 m 2  b2 The coordinates of the points of contact are

 a2 m b2 
 , 
 a 2 m2  b2 a 2 m2  b2 
 

3. Number of Tangents From a Point : Two tangents can be drawn from a point to a hyperbola.
The two tangents are real and distinct or coincident of imaginary according as the given point lies
outside, on or inside the hyperbola.
4. Director Circle : It is the locus of point from which  tangents are drawn to the hyperbola. The

x2 y2
equation of director circle of the hyperbola   1 is x 2 + y2 = a 2 ă b 2
a2 b2

HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 13

5. Equation of the pair of tangents : The equation of the pair of tangents drawn from a point

x2 y2
P (x1, y1) to the hyperbola   1 is SS = T2
a2 b2 1

x2 y2 x12 y12 xx1 yy1

where S    1, S    1 and T  2
 1
a2 b2 a2 b2 a b2

Illustration 7
Find the condition for the line x cos  + y sin  = p to be a tangent to the hyperobla

x2 y2
  1.
a2 b2

Solution :
We have,
x cos  + y sin  = p  y = ă x cot  ă p cosec 
 y = (ă cot ) x + (ă p cosec ) ...(i)

x2 y2
This will touch   1, if
a2 b2

(ă p cosec )2 = a2 (ă cot )2 ă b2 [Using c2 = a2m2 ă b2]

 p2 cosec2  = a2 cot2  ă b2  p2 = a2 cos2  ă b2 sin2 

Illustration 8
Prove that the product of the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from foci on any tangent

x2 y2
to the hyperbola   1 is b 2.
a2 b2
Solution :

x2 y2
The equation of any tangent to the hyperbola   1 is y  mx  a 2 m 2  b2 ...(i)
a2 b2
Let S (ae, 0) and S´ (ă ae, 0) be two foci of the hyperbola.
Let p and and p´ be the lengths of perpendicular from S (ae, 0) and S´ (ă ae, 0) on (i). Then,
p = Length of the  from S(ae, 0) on (i)

mae  0  a 2 m2  b2 mae  a 2 m2  b2
=
m2  1 1  m2

HYPERBOLA
14 QUIZRR
p´ = Length of the  from S´(– ae, 0) on (i)

 mae  a 2 m2  b2  mae  a2 m2  b2
= 
m2  1 1  m2

Now,

mae  a 2 m2  b2  mae  a2 m2  b2
p.p´ = .
1  m2 1  m2

 m2 a 2 e2  a 2 m2  b2  m2 a 2 (e2  1)  b2
= 
1  m2 m2  1

m2 b  b2 (m2  1)b2
= 2
 2
 b2
m 1 (m  1)

Illustration 9

x2 y2
If the tangent at the point (p, q) on the hyperbola  1 cuts the auxiliary circle in
a 2 b2
points whose ordinates are y1 and y2 then q is Harmonic mean of y1 and y2.
Solution : Here we choose the tangent as

xp yq p2 q2
  1 where  1 ...(1)
a2 b2 a2 b2
Its intersection with x2 + y2 = a2 is given by eliminating x as we are concerned with ordinates

2
 yq  a 4
 1  2 
. 2  y2  a 2
 b  p

or (b2 + yq)2 a4 + b4y2p2 = a2p2b4

or y2 (a4q2 + b4p2) + 2yqb2a4 + a4b4 ă a2p2b4 = 0 ...(2)
Above is a quadratic in y. We have to prove that q is H.M. ÂHÊ of y1 and y2

2y1 y2 ( a4 b4  a2 p2b4 )
Now H = by (2)
y1  y2  2 qb2 a 4

a4 b4 (1  p2 / a 2 ) b2  q2 
=     q, by (1).
 2 qb2 . a4  q  b2 

 q is H.M. of y1 and y2.

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Illustration 1 0

x2 y2 y2 x2
Determine the equations of common tangents to the hyperbolas   1 and   1.
a2 b2 a2 b2
Solution :

x2 y2
Tangent to   1 is
a2 b2

y  m1 x  ( a2 m12  b2 ) ...(1)

x2 y2
The other hyperbola is  1
( b2 ) ( a 2 )

Any tangent to it is y  m2 x  ( b2 )m22  (a 2 ) ...(2)

If (1) and (2) are same, then

m1 = m2 and a 2 m12  b2   b2 m22  a 2

or a 2 m12  b2  a2  b2 m12

or (a2 + b2) m12  a 2  b2

 m12  1  m1 =  1

Hence the common tangents are

y x a 2  b2

E q uat ion of Nor mal I n Differ ent For ms :

 a2 m mb2 
 , 
1. (i) The coordinate of the point of contact are  2 2 
 a 2  b2 m2 2
a b m 

2. Equation of normals :

x2 y2
(a) Point Form : The equation of the normal to the hyperbola   1 at the point
a2 b2

x2 y2 a 2 x b2 y
(x1, y1) is   1 is   a 2  b2
a2 b2 x1 y1

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x2 y2
(b) Parametric Form : The equation of the normal to the hyperbola   1 at the point
a2 b2

ax by
(a sec, b tan) is   a 2  b2
sec  tan 

x2 y2
(c) Slope Form : The equation of normal to the hyperbola   1 in terms of slope ÂmÊ
a2 b2

m(a 2  b2 )
is y  mx 
a 2  b2 m2

3. Number of Normals : In general, four normals can be drawn to a hyperbola from a point in
its plane i.e. there are four points on the hyperbola, the normals at which will pass through a
given point. These four points are called the co-norma l points.
4. Tangent drawn at any point bisects the angle between the lines joining the point to the foci,
where as normal bisects the supplementary angle between the lines.

Illustration 1 1

x2 y2
Prove that the line lx + my + n = 0 will be a normal to the hyperbola   1 if
a2 b2

a2 b2 (a 2  b 2 )2
 
l2 m2 n2
Solution :
The equation of the normal at (a sec , b tan) to the hyperbola
a x sin  + b y = (a2 + b2) tan ...(i)
and the equation of the line is
lx + my + n = 0 ...(ii)
Equations (i) and (ii) will represent the same line. If

a sin  b ( a2  b2 ) tan 
 
l m n

am (a 2  b2 )m
 cosec  and cot   
bl b2

a2 m2 (a 2  b2 ) m2
 2
cosec  ă cot  = 1 2
  1
b2 l2 b2 n2

a2 (a2  b2 )2 b2 a2 b2 (a2  b2 )2
     
l2 n2 m2 l2 m2 n2

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Illustration 1 2

x2 y2
Ê on the hyperbola
If the normal at Â   1 meets the transverse axis at G, prove that
a2 b2
AG.A´G = a 2 (e4 sec2 ă 1)
where A and A´ are the vertices of the hyperbola.
Solution :
The equation of the normal at (a sec, b tan) to the given hyperbola is
ax cos + by cot = (a2 + b2)

 a 2  b2 

This meets the transverse axis i.e. x-axis at G. So, the coordinates of G are  sec , 0 
 a 

The coordinates of the vertices A and A´ are A (a, 0) and A´ (ă a, 0) respectively

 a2  b2   a 2  b2 
 AG.A´G 
=   a  sec    a  sec  
a   a 
   

= (ă a + a e2 sec) (a + e2 sec)
= a2 (e4 sec2 ă 1)

Illustration 1 3
Show that the locus of the middle points of the normal chords of the rectangular hyperbola
x 2 ă y2 = a 2 is (y2 ă x 2)3 = 4a 2x 2y2.
Solution :
If (h, k) be the mid-point of the chord of the hyperbola x2 ă y2 = a2 then its equation by T = S1 is
hx ă ky = h2 ă k2 ...(1)
But since (1) is normal to the hyperbola its equation is
x cos + y cot = 2a ...(2)
Putting b = a
Comparing (1) and (2), we get

h k h2  k2
 
cos  cot  2a

h2  k2 h2  k2
 sec = and tan  
2 ah  2 ak
Put in sec2 ă tan2 = 1

( h2  k2 )2  1 1 
 2  2  2 1
4a h k 

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Hence the locus of the mid-point (h, k) is
(x2 ă y2)2 (y2 ă x2) = 4a2 x2y2
or (y2 ă x2)3 = 4a2x2y2

Illustration 1 4

x2 y2
A normal to the hyperbola   1 meets the axes in Q and R, and lines QL and RL are
a2 b2
drawn at right angles to the axes and meet at L. [In other words the rectangle QORL is
completed].
Prove that locus of the point L is the hyperbola
a 2x 2 ă b 2y2 = (a 2 + b 2 )2
Prove that further that the locus of the middle point of QR is 4 (a 2x 2 ă b 2y2 ) = (a 2 + b 2 )2
Solution :
Any normal to the hyperbola is
ax cos + by cot = a2 + b2 ...(1)
Putting y = 0 and then x = 0, we get the points Q and R where it meets the axes as

 a2  b2   a 2  b2 
Q sec , 0  and R  0, tan  
 a   b 
   

a2  b2
Line through Q perpondicular to x-axis is x  sec 
a

a 2  b2
Line through R perpondicular to y-axis is y  tan 
b
Both these lines meet at the point L and in order to find its locus, we have to eliminate  between
their equations by the help of relation sec2 ă tan2 = 1.

a 2 x2 b2 y2
or  1
( a 2  b2 ) (a2  b2 )2

or a2x2 ă b2y2 = (a2 + b2)2

2nd part : if (h, k) be the mid-point of QR, then

a 2  b2 a2  b2
2h  sec , 2 k  tan 
a b
4(a2h2 ă b2k2) = (a2 + b2 )2 (sec2 ă tan2)
or (a2x2 ă b2y2) = (a2 + b2)2
is the required locus.

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C hor d wit h A G iven M id -Point

x2 y2
The equation of chord of the hyperbola   1 with P (x , y ) as its middle point is given
a2 b2 1 1

xx1 yy1 x12 y12

by T = S1 where T    1 and S1   1
a2 b2 a2 b2

C hor d of C ont act

The equation of chord of contact of tangent drawn from a point P (x1, y1) to the hyperbola

x2 y2 xx1 yy1
  1 is T = 0 where T  2
 1
a2 b2 a b2
The equation of the chord joining the points P  (a sec1, b tan1) and Q  (a sec2, b tan2) is

x y 1
x  1  2  y  1  2   1  2  a sec 1 b tan 1 1  0
cos   sin    cos 
a  2  b  2   2  or
 a sec 2 b tan 2 1

Equation of A Diameter of A Hyperbola

x2 y2 2
The equation of the diameter bisecting chords of slope of the hyperbola 2
 2
 1 is y  b
a b a 2m

C onj ugat e Diamet er s

Two diameters of a hyperbola are said to be conjugate diameters if each bisects the chord parallel

x2 y2
to the other. If m1 and m2 be the slopes of the conjugate diameters of a hyperbola  1,
a2 b2

b2
then m 1m 2 =
a2

Illustration 1 5
Chords of the circle x 2 + y2 = a 2 touch the hyperbola x 2/a 2 ă y2/b 2 = 1. Prove that locus of their
middle point is the curve (x 2 + y2) = a 2x 2 ă b 2y2.
Solution :
Let (h, k) be the mid-point of the chord of the circle x2 + y2 = a2, so that its equation by T = S1
is
hx + ky = h2 + k2

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20 QUIZRR

h h2  k2
or y x i.e. of the form
k k
y = mx + c
It will touch the hyperbola if c2 = a2m2 ă b2

 h2  k2  2 h
2
2
    a     b
 k   k

or (h2 + k2)2 = a2h2 ă b2k2

Generalising, the locus of mid-point (h, k) is
(x2 + y2)2 = a2x2 ă b2y2

Illustration 1 6

x2 y2
Prove that the locus of the middle points of the chords of the hyperbola   1 which
a2 b2
pass through a fixed point (, ) is a hyperbola whose centre is (/2, /2).
Solution :
Equation of the chord of the hyperbola whose mid-point is (h, k) by T = S1 is

hx ky h2 k2
  
a2 b2 a2 b2

It passes through the point (, )

h k h2 k2
   
a2 b2 a2 b2

x2  x y2   y
 Locus of (h, k) is  0
a2 b2

( x   / 2)2 ( y   / 2) 2 1   2 2  2
or     k ,
a2 b2 4  a 2 b2 

Above equation represents a hyperbola whose centre is (/2, /2).

Illustration 1 7
From points on circle x 2 + y2 = a 2 tangents are drawn to the hyperbola x 2 ă y2 = a 2. Prove that
the locus of the middle points of the chords of contact is the curve (x 2 ă y2) = a 2 (x 2 + y2).

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Solution :
Any point on the curve x2 + y2 = a2 is (acos, a sin). Chord of contact of this point w.r.t. the
hyperbola x2 ă y2 = a2 is
x (a cos) ă y (a sin) = a2
or x cos ă y sin = a ...(1)
If its mid-point be (h, k), then it is same as T = S1.
or hx ă ky = h2 ă k2 ...(2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get

cos  sin  a
  2
h k h  k2

But cos2 + sin2 = 1

2 2
 ah   ak 
  2    1
 h  k2   h2  k2 

Hence the locus of the mid points (h, k) is

a2(x2 + y2) = (x2 ă y2)2

Illustration 1 8

et  et et  e  t
For any real t x  ,y  is a point on the hyperbola x 2 ă y2 = 1. Show that the
2 2
area bounded by the hyperbola and the lines joining its centre to the points corresponding
to t1 and ă t1 is t1.
Solution :
Substituting the point in the equation of hyperbola, we get

1 t 1
[(e  et ) 2  (et  e t )2 ]  4 et e t  1
4 4
Above is true for all values of t. Hence the point lies on the hyperbola x2 ă y2 = 1.
Let P (x1, y1) be the point corresponding to t1 then

1 1
x1  ( et  e t ), y1  ( et  et )
2 2
If Q (x2, y2) be the point corresponding to ă t1 then

1 t
x2  (e  et )  x1 ,
2

1 t
y2  ( e  et )  y1
2

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22 QUIZRR
 The point Q is (x1, y1). Hence PQ is a double ordinate.
The vertex A (1, 0) corresponds to t = 0

1 1
   CPQ = ( x1 y2  x2 y1 )  ( x1 y1  x1 y1 )
2 2

= |ă x1y1| = x1y1

t1 dx
Area of APMQA = 2 area APMA = 2 0 y dt
dt

t1 1 t 1
= 2 0 (e  e t ). (et  e t ) dt
2 2

1 t1 2t
(e  e2t  2) dt
2 0
=

t
1  e2t e2t 1
= 2 2   2t 
 2  0

1  e2t1  e2t1 
= 2  2t1 
 2 

1 t1 1
= ( e  et1 ). ( et2  et1 )  t1
2 2
= x1y1 ă t1
Hence the required shaded area is
(x1y1) ă (x1y1 ă t1) = t1

 x1
ydx
Alternative : Required area = 2  
 1 
...(1)

1 x1 x1

2
x1 y1 and 1 y dx  1 ( x2  1) dx

   
x
x 2 1 1 x 1
=  x  1  log x  x2  1  = 1 x12  1  log x1  x12  1  0
2 2 1 2 2

1 1 1 1
= x1 y1  log ( x1  y1 )    log et1 =   t1
2 2 2 2
Putting in (1), we get

1
Area = 2D ă 2 + 2. t1  t1
2
HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 23

Pole And Polar

x2 y2 xx1 yy1
The polar of a point P (x1, y1) w.r.t. the hyperbola   1 is T = 0, where T  2
 1
a 2 2
b a b2

x2 y2   a 2 l  b2 m 
(i) Pole of a given line lx + my + n = 0 w.r.t. the hyperbola   1 is  n , n 
a2 b2  

(ii) Polar of the focus is the directrix.

(iii) Any tangent is the polar of its point of contact.
(iv) If the polar of P (x1, y1) passes through Q (x2, y2) then the polar of Q will pass through P
and such points are said to the conjugate points.
(v) If the pole of a line lx + my + n = 0 lies on the another line l´x + m´y + n´ = 0, then the
pole of the second line will lie on the first and such lines are said to be conjugate lines.

As ym p t ot es
If the length of perpendicular drawn from a point on the hyperbola to a straight line tends to zero
as the point on moves to infinity. The straight line is called asymptotes.

x2 y2
Let y = mx + c is the asymptote of the hyperbola  .
a2 b2
Solving these two we get the quadratic as (b2 ă a2m2)x2 ă 2a2mcx ă a2 (b2 + c2) = 0
In order that y = mx + c be an asymptote, both roots of equation (1) must approach infinity.
Which are coefficient of x2 = 0 & coefficient of x = 0 Y
b Q BP
or m & a2mc = 0  = 0 ...(1)
a
A´ A
X
x y x y C
 equation of asymptote are  0 &  0
a b a b R B´S

Obviously angle between the asymptotes is 2 tană1(b/a).

If we draw lines through B, B´ parallel to the transverse axis and through A, A´ parallel to the
conjugate axis, then P (a, b), Q (a, b), R (– a, – b) and S (a, – b) all lie on the asymptotes

x2 y2
  0 so asymptotes are diagonals of the rectangle PQRS. This rectangle is called associated
a2 b2
rrectangle.

 x2 y2   x2 y2   x2 y2 
H  2  2  1, C 2  2   1 & A  2  2   0 .
a b  a b  a b 
    

Clearly  C + H = 2A {H = hyperbola, C = Conjugate hyperbola, A = Asymptotes}

HYPERBOLA
 24 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 9
Find the equation of the asymptotes of the hyperbola 2x 2 ă 5xy ă 3y2 ă 5x ă 3y ă 21 = 0.
Solution
Since the equation of the pair of asymptotes of the hyperbola differ by the hyperbola by a
constant only. So, let the equation of the pair of asymptotes be
2x2 ă 5xy ă 3y2 ă 5x ă 3y +  = 0 ...(i)
This equation represents a pair of straight lines
abc + 2fgh ă af2 ă bg2 ă ch2 = 0
Here : a = 2, b = ă 3, h = ă 5/2, g = ă 5/2f = ă 3/2 and c = 

75 9 75 25
  6       0  ă 49  ă 75 ă 18 + 75 = 0
4 2 4 4
  = ă 18/49.
Putting the value of  in (i), we get the required equation

18
2 x2  5 xy  3 y2  5 x  3 y  0
49

Illustration 20

x2 y2
A series of chords of the hyperbola   1 touch the circle on the line joining the foci
a2 b2
as diameter. Show that the locus of the poles of these chords with respect to the hyperbola

x2 y2 1
is 4
 4
 2 .
a b a  b2

Solution :
The foci of the hyperbola are the points S (ae, 0) and S´ (ă ae, 0). Circle on SS´ as diameter is
(x ă ae) (x + ae) + y2 = 0
or x2 + y2 = a2e2 ...(1)
If (h, k) be the pole of the chord which touches (1), then its equation is the polar of (h, k) w.r.t.
hyperbola
hx ky
i.e. 2
 1 ...(2)
a b2
Since the line (2) touches the circle (1) therefore perpendicular from centre (0, 0) should be equal
to radius ae.

1
 ae
 h2 k2 
  4  4 
a b 

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 QUIZRR 25

h2 k2 1 1
or 4
 4
 2 2
  b2 = a2 (e2 ă 1)
a b a e a  b2
2

x2 y2 1
Generalising, the locus of the pole (h, k) is the ellipse 4
 4

a b a  b2
2

Illustration 21
Show that the locus of poles with respect to the parabola y2 = 4a x of tangents to the
hyperbola x 2 ă y2 = a 2 is the ellipse 4x 2 + y2 = 4a 2.
Solution :
Any tangent to the hyperbola x2 ă y2 = a2 is
x secq ă y tan = a
x ă y sin = a cos ...(1)
2
If its pole w.r.t. parabola y = 4ax be (h, k) then it is same as ky = 2a (x + h)
or 2ax ă ky = ă 2ah ...(2)

1 sin  cos 
Compare (1) and (2),  
2a k  2h

Elimination  by cos + sin2 = 1

k2 + 4h2 = 4a2  Locus is 4x2 + y2 = 4a2.

Illustration 22
A series of hyperbolas are such that the length of their transverse axis is 2a . Show that the
locus of a point P on each such that its distance from the transverse axis is equal to its
distance from an asymptote is the curve (x 2 ă y2)2 = 4x 2 (x 2 ă a 2).
Solution :

x2 y2 x y
Let the hyperbola be  =1 and one of its asymptotes is  0
a 2
b 2 a b

Here a is given but b is not known. Choose any point (h, k) on the hyperbola.

h2 k2
  1 ...(1)
a2 b2

h k

By given condition k  a b
 1 1 
 2  2
a b 

HYPERBOLA
26 QUIZRR

2
 1 1   h k
or k2  2  2      ...(2)
a b   a b

In order to find the locus of (h, k) we have to eliminate unknown b2. Now form (2)

k2 h2 2hk
 
a 2
a 2 ab

4a2 h2 k2
(k2 ă h2)2 =
b2

 h2 
or (k2 ă h2) = 4a2h2  2  1  , by (1)
a 

or (x2 ă y2) = 4x2 (x2 ă a2)

is the required locus.

Illustration 23

x2 y2
Prove that the product of the perpendiculars from any point on the hyperbola  1
a2 b2

a 2 b2
to its asymptotes is equal to .
a 2  b2
Solution :

x2 y2
Let (a sec, b tan) be any point on the hyperbola  = 1
a2 b2

x y x y
The equations of the asymptotes of the given hyperbola are   0 and  0
a b a b

x y
Now, p1 = length of the perpendicular from (a sec, b tan) on   0 = sec   tan 
a b 1 1
2
 2
a b

x y
and, p2 = length of the perpendicular from on (a sec, b tan) on   0 = sec   tan 
a b 1 1
2
 2
a b

sec 2   tan 2  a2 b2
 p1p2 =  2
1 1 a  b2

a2 b2
HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 27

R ect angular or E q uilat er al H yp er b ola

A hyperbola is called rectangular if its a symptotes a re a t right a ngles. The asymptotes of

x2 y2
2
 2
 1 are y =  (b/a)x so they are perpendicular if ă b2/a2 = ă 1 i.e., b2 = a2, i.e., a = b.
a b
Hence equation of a rectangular hyperbola can be written as x2 ă y2 = a 2

(i) a2 = a2 (e2 ă 1) gives e2 = 2 i.e. e  2.

(ii) Asymptotes are y =  x
(iii) Rotating the axes by an angle ă /4 about the same origin, equation of the rectangular
hyperbola x2 ă y2 = a2 is reduced to xy = a2/2 or xy = c2, (c2 = a2/2). In xy = c2, asymptotes
are coordinate axes.
(iv) Rectangular hyperbola is also called equilateral hyperbola.

Rectangular Hyperbola referred to its asymptotes as axis of coordinates :

c
(i) Equation is xy = c2 with parametric representation x = ct, y  , t  R ~ (0) .
t
(ii) Equation of chord joining the points P (t1) & (Q (t2), x + t1t2y = c (t1t2)
x y x
(iii) Equation of the tangent at P (x1, y1) is x  y  2 and at P(t) is  ty  2c .
1 1 t
(iv) Chord with a given middle point as (h, k) is kx + hy = 2hk.
(v) Equation of the normal at P(t) is x t3 ă yt = c (t4 ă 1)
(vi) Vertex of this hyperbola is (c, c) and (ă c, ă c); focus is ( 2 c, 2 c) and ( 2 c,  2 c) , the

derectrices are x  y   2 c and l (L.R.) = 2 2 c = T.A. = C.A.

Illustration 24
If the normal at the point Ât1Ê to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c 2 meets it again at the point
Ât2Ê, prove that t2 = ă 1/t13.
Solution :
The equation of the normal at (ct1, c/t1) to the hyperbola xy = c2 is xt13  yt1  ct14  c  0

 c
If this passes through  c t2 ,  , then
 t2

c
ct2 t13  t1  ct14  c  0  t22 t13  t1  t14 t2  t2  0
t2

 t13 t2 (t2  t1 )  (t2  t1 )  0  (t13 t2  1) (t2  t1 )  0

 t13 t2  1  0 [ t2  t1]

 t2   1 / t13

HYPERBOLA
28 QUIZRR

Illustration 25
If a circle cuts the rectangular hyperbola xy = 1 in the points (x r , yr ); r = 1, 2, 3, 4. Prove
that x 1x 2x 3x 4 = y1y2y3y4 = 1
Solution :
Let the equation of the circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + k = 0
The equation of the hyperbola is xy = c2
Eliminating y from these two equations, we get

1 1
x2   2 gx  2 f  k0 x4 + 2gx3 + kx2 + 2fx + 1 = 0
2
x x
This is a fourth degree equation in x giving four values of x, say x1, x2, x3 and x4.
 x1x2x3x4 = 1
Corresponding to every value of x, there is a value of y given by xy = 1.

1
 y1 y2 y3 y4  1
x1 x2 x3 x4

Illustration 26
A rectangular hyperbola whosoe centre is C is cut by any circle of radius r in four points
P, Q, R and S. Prove that CP2 + CQ2 + CR2 + CS2 = 4r 2.
Solution :
Taking the rectangular asymptotes as the axes of reference the equation of the hyperbola and the
circle are
xy = k2 ...(1)
2 2
and x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(2)
where g2 + f2 ă c = r2 (given) ...(3)
Eliminating v between (1) and (2), we get a biquadratic in x giving us the abscissas of the four
points of intersection as
x4 + 2gx3 + cx2 + 2f k2 x + k4 = 0
Its roots are x1, x2, x3 and x4 then
x1 = ă 2g, x1x2 = c

x12  x22  x32  x42    x1   2 x1 x2  4 g2  2 c

2


Similarly y12  y22  y33  y42  4 f 2  2 c

 CP2 + CQ2 + CR2 + CS2
2
 2

2 2 3 2 2 2
= x1  y1  ( x2  y2 )  ( x3  y3 )  ( x4  y4 )

=  x12   y12  4 g2  2c  4 f 2  2 c
= 4 (g2 + f2 ă c) = 4r2

HYPERBOLA
 QUIZRR 29

Illustration 27
If a circle cuts a rectangular hyperbola xy = c 2 in A, B, C and D and the parameters of these
four points be t1, t2, t3 and t4 respectively, prove the following :

1
(a) t1 t2 t3 t4 = 1, find the value of t
1

(b) If H be the orthocentre of the triangle ABC, then H and D are extremities of a diameter
of the rectangular hyperbola.
(c) The centre of mean position of the four points bisects the distance between the centres
of the two curves.
(d) The centre of the circle through A, B and C is

c  1  c 1 1 1 
  t1  t2  t3  ,     t1t2 t3  
 2  t1t2 t3  2  t1 t2 t3  

Solution :
(a) Let the equation of the rectangular hyperbola referred to rectangular asymptotes as axes be
c
xy = c2 or its parametric equations be x = ct and y  ...(1)
t
and that of the circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + k = 0 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get

c2 c
c2t2   2 gct  2 f .  k  0
t2 t

or c2 t4  2 gct3  kt2  2 fct  c2  0 ...(3)

Above equation being of fourth degree in t gives us the four parameters t1, t2, t3 and t4 of
the points of intersection.

2 gc 2g
 t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 =  ...(4)
c 2 c

2 fc 2f
t1t2t3 + t1t2t4 + t3t4t1 + t3t4t2 =   ...(5)
c 2 c

c2
t1t2 t3 t4   1, which proves (a). ...(6)
c2
Dividing (5) by (6), we get

1 1 1 1 2f
   
t4 t3 t2 t1 c

HYPERBOLA
30 QUIZRR
(b) Orthocentre of the triangle ABC is

 c 
 , ct1t2 t3 
 t1t2 t3 

  c
or H is the point   ct4 , ,
 t4 

 t1t2t3t4 = 1, by (6)

 c
and D is the point  ct4 ,  and clearly H and D are extremities of a diameter.
 t4 

(c) The centre of mean position of the four points is

c c 1 1 1 1 
 (t1  t2  t3  t4 ),     
 4 4  t1 t2 t3 t4  

 c   2 g  c   2 f 
=   ,   , from (4) and (7)
 4  c  4  c 

 g  f 
or  2 , 2  which is clearly the mid-point of (0, 0) and (ă g, ă f) i.e., of the join of the
 
centres of the two curves.
(d) Let the circle through ABC meet the hyperbola in fourth point D; then from (4) and (7), the
centre (ă g, ă f) is

c c1 1 1 1 
 (t1  t2  t3  t4 ),      ...(8)
 2 2  t1 t2 t3 t4 

Also t1t2t3t4 = 1 from (6)

1
 t4  ...(9)
t1 t2 t3

Putting the value of t4 in (8), we get the required centre in terms of the parameters of the
given points A, B, C in the form as given.

HYPERBOLA
E LLIPSE
 QUIZRR 3

ELLIPSE
The ellipse is a locus of a point which moves such that ratio of its distances from a fixed point
(called focus) and from a fixed line (called directrix) is always constant. This constant (denoted
by e) is called eccentricity of the ellipse which must be less than 1. Alternatively the locus of a
point which moves such that sum of its dista nces from two fixed points is always constant
is called ellipse. We shall later see that the fixed points are two foci of the ellipse and the constant
is equal to length of the major axis of the ellipse.
For every ellipse there is a point called centre of the ellipse through which every chord of the
ellipse is bisected. The line joining centre and focus of the ellipse is called major axis of the ellipse.
A line perpendicular to the major axis and passing through the centre of the ellipse is called minor
axis of the ellipse. The distance between the points on the ellipse which lie on major axis is called
length of the major axis. The length of the minor axis of an ellipse is distance between two points
on its which lie on minor axis. If the major and minor axis are along x and y-axis respectively
with lengths 2a and 2b and centre of the ellipse be origin the equation of the ellipse can be proved
to be

x 2 y2
+ =1
a 2 b2
Deriving the equation of the ellipse in the standard form :
Let us choose a vertical line V´V as directrix and S as focus. Draw SZ V´V. Let e < 1 eccentricity
of the ellipse. There must be a point A on SZ such that
SA = e AZ ...(i)

There must be another point A´ (since e < 1)

On AS produced such that SA´ = e A´Z ...(ii)
Let A´A = 2a and let O be the mid point of A´A. On adding (i) and (ii) we get
SA + SA´ = e (AZ + A´Z)  2a = e(OZ a + a + OZ)

a
 2a = 2eOZ  OZ = . ...(iii)
e
Again, subtracting (i) from (ii)
SA´ SA = e (A´Z AZ)  (SO + a) (a SO) = e(A´A)

ELLI PSE
 4 QUIZRR
 2SO = e(2a)  OS = ae ...(iv)
Let us take O as origin, A´A as x-axis and a line to A´A and passing through O as y axis then

FG a , 0IJ . If P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse then PS = e PM where

point (ae, 0) and Z is the point He K
PM is the perpendicular from P on directrix V´V.

FG x a IJ 2
 PS2 = e2 PM2  (x ae)2 + y2 = e2
H eK
.
...(v)

x2 y2
 x2 (1 e2) + y2 = a2 (1 e2)  + = 1. ...(vi)
a 2 a 2 (1  e2 )

x2 y2
On putting b2 = a2 (1 e2) we get the required standard equation + = 1 which is an ellipse
a2 b2
(a) Centre is origin
(b) Focus is at (ae, 0)

a
(c) Directrix is the line x = .
e

The equation to the ellipse, whose focus and directrix are any given point and line, and whose
eccentricity is known, is easily written down.
For example, if the focus be the point ( 2, 3), the directrix be the line 2x + 3y + 4 = 0, and the
4
eccentricity be , the required equation is
5

2 2 F 4I
= G J
2
(2 x+ 3 y+ 4)2
(x + 2) + (y 3)
H 5K 22 + 32

i.e., 261x2 + 181y2 192xy + 1044x 2334y + 3969 = 0

Generally, the equation to the ellipse, whose focus is the point (f, g), whose directrix is Ax + By
+ C = 0, and whose eccentricity is c, is

2 2 2 ( Ax+ By+ C) 2
(x f) + (y g) = e
A 2 + B2

1. SECOND FOCUS AND SECOND DIRECTRIX OF THE ELLIPSE

On the negative side of origin take a point S´ which is such that
CS = CS´ = ae
and another point Z´ then

a
CZ = CZ´ =
e

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 5

 Co-ordinate of S´ are ( ae, 0) and equation of second directrix (i.e., Z´ M´) is

a
x=
e
Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse then
S´P = ePM´
or (S´ P)2 = e2 (PM´)2

FG x+ a IJ 2
or (x + ae)2 + (y 0)2 = e2
H eK
or (x + ae)2 + y2 = (ex + a)2
or x2 (1 e2) + y2 = a2 (1 e2)

x2 y2
or + = 1
a2 a2 (1  e2 )

x2 y2
or + = 1, where b2 = a2 (1 e)
a2 b2
The equation being the same as that of the ellipse when S(ae, 0) is focus and MZ i.e.,
x = a/e is directrix.
Hence co-ordinates of foci are (μ ae, 0) and equations of directrices are x = μ a/e.
Note : 1. Distance between foci SS´ = 2ae and distance between directrices ZZ´ = 2a/ e
2. If e = 0
then b2 = a2 (1 0)
2 2
 b = a

x2 y2
then equation of ellipse + = 1 changes in circle
a2 b2
i.e., x2 + y2 = a2

1.1 Geometrical Construction of an ellipse

As the definition of ellipse says that it is a locus of a point which moves such that the sum of its
distance from 2 fixed points (ae, 0) & ( ae, 0) i.e., focus is always constant and equal to 2a.
To draw an ellipse, fix two point S and S´ and attach
an inextensible thread to these point. Note if you draw
a curve, using a pencil, moving the thread around you
will an ellipse as the curve and hence the sum of focal
distance of any point on an ellipse is constant and
equal to the length of major axis of an ellipse.
´SP = a + ex UV These two are focal distance of a
S´P = a ex W point P relative to 2 focii S & S´
 SP + S´P = a + ex + a ex = 2a

ELLI PSE
 6 QUIZRR
1 .2 Tracing the curve

x2 y2
+ = 1 ...(1)
a2 b2
The equation may be written in either of the forms

x2
y = μ b 1 ...(2)
a2

y2
or x = μ a 1 ...(3)
b2
From equation (2), it follows that if x2 > a2, i.e., if x > a or < a, then y is impossible. There is
therefore, no part of the curve to the right of A´ or to the left of A.
From equation (3), it follows, similarly, that, if y > b or < b, x is impossible and hence that there
is no part of the curve above B or below B´.
If x lie between a and + a, the equation (2), gives two equal and opposite values for y, so that
the curve is symmetrical with respect to the axis of x.
If y lie between b and + b, the equation (3) gives two equal and opposite values for x, so that
the curve is symmetrical with respect to the axis of y.

2. SOME TERMS RELATED TO AN ELLIPSE

Let the equation of the ellipse

x2 y2
+ = 1, (a > b)
a2 b2
1. Centre : All chords passing through C are bisected at C
Here C  (0, 0)

2. Foci : S and S´ are two foci of the ellipse and their co-ordinates are (ae, 0) and ( ae, 0)
respectively.

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 7

a
3. Directrices : ZM and Z´ M´ are two directrices of the ellipse and their equation are x =
e

a
and x = respectively.
e
4. Axes : The lines AA´ and BB´ are called the major and minor axes of the ellipse
. 0< e< 1
or 0 < e2 < 1 ( 0 > e2 > 1)
2 2
or 0 < 1 e < 1 (or 1 > 1 e > 1 1)
2 2 2 2
or a (1 e) < a (or 0 < 1 e < 1)
2 2
or b < a
i.e., b <a
5. Double ordinates : If P be a point on the ellipse draw PN perpendicular to the axis of the
ellipse and produced to meet the curve again at P´. Then PP´ is called a double ordinate.
If abscissa of P is h then ordinate of P,

y2 h2
= 1
b2 a2

b
y= (a 2  h 2 ) (for first quadrant)
a

b
and ordinate of P´ is y= (a 2  h 2 ) (for fourth quadrant)
a

Hence, co-ordinates of P and P´ are FG h, b IJ FG h, b 2 IJ

H a
a 2  h2
K and
H 
a
a  h2
K respectively.

6. Lastus rectum : The double ordinates LL´ and L1L1´ are latus-rectums of the ellipse. These
line are perpendicular to major axis A´ A and through the foci S and S´ respectively.
Length of the latus rectum
Now let LL´ = 2k
then LS = L´ S = k
Co-ordinates of L and L´ are (ae, k) and (ae, – k) lies on the ellipse

x2 y2
+ = 1
a2 b2

a2 e2 k2
 + 2 = 1
a2 b
or k2 = b2 (1 e2)
Fb I
= b G J
2
2
[ . b2 = a2 (1 e2)]
Ha K 2

ELLI PSE
 8 QUIZRR

b2
 k = ( . k > 0)
a

2 b2
 2k = = LL´
a

2 b2
 Length of latus rectum LL´ = L1 L1´ = and end of points of latus-rectum are
a

F b I ; L   F ae,  b I
2 2
L  ae, GH a JK GH a JK

F b I; L   F  ae,  b I
 G  ae,
2 2
L1
H a JK GH
1
a JK

respectively.
7. Focal chord : A chord of the ellipse passing through its focus is called a focal chord.
8. Vertices : The vertices of the ellipse are the points where the ellipse meets its major axis.
Hence A and A´ are the vertices
 A  (a, 0) and A´  ( a, 0)

x 2 y2
Eccentricity of the Ellipse + = 1, a > b
a 2 b2

x2 y2
For the ellipse + = 1, we have
a2 b2

b2 4 b2 2b FG IJ 2
b2 = a2 (1 e2)  e2 = 1
a 2
= 1 
4 a 2
=1
2a H K
2
b = a (1 2 2
e )  e =
F Minor axisIJ
1 G
2

H Major axis K
This formula gives the eccentricity of the ellipse.

3. EQUATION OF ELLIPSE IN OTHER FORMS

x2 y2
In the equation of the ellipse 2
+ 2 = 1, if a > b or a2 > b2 (denominator of x2 is greater than
a b
that of y2), then the major and minor axes lie along x-axis and y-axis respectively But if a < b
or a2 < b2 (denominator of x2 is less than that of y2), then the major axis of the ellipse lies along
the y-axis and is of length 2b and the minor axis along the x-axis and is of length 2a.

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 9

The coordinates of foci S and S´ are (0, be) and (0, be) respectively. The equations of the
directrices ZK and Z´ K´ are y = μ b/ e and eccentricity e is given by the formula

a2
a2 = b2 (1 e2) or e = 1 
b2

4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOTH ELLIPSES

x 2 y2 x 2 y2
+ = 1, a > b + = 1, b > a
Basic fundamentals a 2 b2 a 2 b2

Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)

Vertices (μ a, 0) (0, μ b)
Length of Major axis 2a 2b
Length of Minor axis 2b 2a
Foci (μ ae, 0) (0, μ be)
Equation of directrices x = μ a/e y = μ b/e
Relation in a, b and e b2 = a2 (1 e2) a2 = b2 (1 e2)

2 b2 2 a2
Length of latus rectum
a b

F  ae, b2 I F a , 2
I
Ends of latus rectums GH 
a JK GH b JK
 be

ELLI PSE
 10 QUIZRR

Parametric co-ordinates (a cos , b sin ) (a cos , b sin )

(0   < 2)
Focal radii SP = a ex1 and SP = b ey1 and
S´ P = a + ex1 S´ P = b + ey1
Sum of focal radii SP + SP´ = 2a 2b
Distance between foci 2ae 2be
Distance between directrices 2a/ e 2b/ e

SPECIAL FORM : If the centre of the ellipse is at point (h, k) and the directions of the axes
are parallel to the coordinate axes, then its equation is

( x h) 2 ( y k) 2
+ = 1
a2 b2
If we shift the origin at (h, k) without rotating the coordinate axes, then
x = X + h and y = Y + k
So, the equation of the ellipse with respect to new origin, becomes

X2 Y2
+ 2 = 1
a2 b

Illustration 1
Find the equation of the ellipse whose focus is at (1, 1), directrix is the line x + y = 3 and
1
eccentricity is .
3

Solution :
If (x, y) is any point on the ellipse then will

FG
1 x+ y 3 IJ
( x 1) 2 + ( y+ 1) 2 =
3 H
2 K
Or 18[(x 1)2 + (y + 1)2] = (x + y 3)2
Or 17x2 + 17y2 2xy 30x + 42y + 27 = 0

Illustration 2
Find the equation of the ellipse whose two foci are (4, 0) and ( 4, 0) and whose eccentricity
1
is .
3

Solution :
Since the distance between foci = 8 we must have

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 11

Also b2 = a2 (1 e2) = 144 1 

FG 1IJ
H 9 K
= 128

Now since the midpoint of the line joining the foci is centre of the ellipse and the mid point of line
joining (4, 0) and ( 4, 0) is origin.
 Origin is centre of the ellipse and x-axis is the major axis.
We also conclude that y-axis is the minor axis. Thus the equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2 x2 y2
2
+ 2 =1  + =1
a b 144 128

Illustration 3
Find the eccentricity of the ellipse if its latus rectum be equal to half of the minor axis.
Solution :

b2 1
We must have 2 = b  a = 4b
a 2

As b2 = a2 (1 e2), we have b2 = 16b2 (1 e2)

15
 e =
4

Illustration 4

Find focal distance of the point (4 3 , 5) on the ellipse 25x 2 + 16y2 = 1600.

Solution :

x2 y2
The ellipse is + = 1  a2 = 64, b2 = 100
64 100

a2 = b2 (1 e2) (since a < b)

3
 64 = 100(1 e2)  e =
5

x2 y2
The focal distances of any point (x1, y1) on the ellipse + = 1 (a < b) must be b ey1, b +
a2 b2

3 3
ey1 which, in this question, are 10 5, 10 + 5 or 7 and 13.
5 5

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Illustration 5
Show that the locus of a point which moves such that the sum of its distances from two

x 2 y2
fixed points (a e, 0) and ( a e, 0) is always a constant equal to 2a is the ellipse + = 1.
a 2 b2

Solution :
Let P be (x, y) then from the condition given we have

 ( x ae) 2 + y2 + ( x+ ae) 2 + y2 = 2 a

 x2 + y2 + a2 e2  2 aex + x2 + y2 + a2 e2 + aex = 2 a

   2 aex +  + 2 aex = 2 a (where  = x2 + y2 + a2 e2)

On squaring the last relation we get

 2aex +  + 2aex +  2  4 a 2 e2 x2 = 4a2  2  2  4 a 2 e2 x2 = 4a2 2

On squaring again we get
2 4a2e2x2 = 4a4 + 2 4a2  4a2e2x2 = 4a4 2a2 (x2 + y2 + a2e2)

x2 y2
 x2 + y2 + a2e2 e2x2 = a2  + = 1
a 2 a 2 (1  e2 )

Thus locus of a point P the sum of whose distances from two fixed points S(ae, 0), S´( ae, 0) is
a constant (= 2a) is an ellipse. Note that this constant is equal to length of the major axis of the
ellipse.

Illustration 6
Reduce the equation of the ellipse 4x 2 + 3y2 + 8x + 12y = 1 to the standard form and hence
determine/locate centre, focus, directrix of the ellipse.
Solution :
Grouping terms we get
4x2 + 8x + 3y2 + 12y = 1
 4(x2 + 2x) + 3(y2 + 4y) = 1  4(x2 + 2x + 1) + 3(y2 + 4y + 4) = 1 + 4 + 12

( x+ 1) 2 ( y+ 2)2
 4(x + 1)2 + 3(y + 2)2 = 17  + = 1
17 / 4 17 / 3

X2 Y2
Put X = x + 1, Y = y + 2 we get + = 1
17 / 4 17 / 3

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17 17
 a2 = , b2 = since b > a the major axis of the ellipse must be along y-axis.
4 3

17 17 1
On which foci will lie. From a2 = b2 (1 e2) we get = (1 e2)  e =
4 3 2

1
Thus the eccentricity of the given ellipse is , the lengths of major and minor axes and 2b and
2

2a or 2 17 , 17 respectively.
3
Now observe the following table for various locations :

Location New axes Old axes

Centre (0, 0) (1, 2)

(On putting X = 0, Y = 0 in X = x + 1, Y = y + 1)

F0, 17 1 I F 1, 17 1 I
Foci GH .
3 2 JK GH . 1
3 2 JK
F0, 17 1 I F 1, 17 1 I
GH  .
3 2 JK GH  . 1
3 2 JK
17 / 3 17 / 3
Directrix X=μ x+ 1= ±
1/2 1/2

The student must note that the eccentricity, length of major, minor axes, length of
latus rectum are invariants. They remain same in all frame of reference. In addition
you must note that if the general equation of second degree represents an ellipse then

coeff. of y2
(1) eccentricity = 1  if coeff. of y2 < coeff. of x2.
coeff. of x2
Or

coeff. of y2
eccentricity = 1  2 2
2 if coeff. of y > coeff. of x .
coeff. of x
(2) If the general equation of second degree f(x, y) = 0 represents on ellipse and xy term is absent

f f
then centre of the ellipse is given by = 0, =0
x y

f
where denotes the derivative of f(x, y) with respect to x, keeping y constant.
x

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Illustration 7

Find the lengths and equations of the focal radii drawn from the point (4 3 , 5) on the
ellipse 25x 2 + 16y2 = 1600.
Solution :
The equation of the ellipse is
25x2 + 16y2 = 1600

x2 y2
or + = 1
64 100

Here b > a
a 2 = 64, b2 = 100
a 2 = b2 (1 e2)
 64 = 100(1 e2)
 e = 3/5

Let P(x1, y1)  (4 3 , 5)

be a point on the ellipse then SP and S´ P are the focal radii
 SP = b ey1 and S´ P = b + ey1

3 3
 SP = 10 5 and S´ P = 10 + 5
5 5

 SP = 7 and S´ P = 13

FG0, 10  3 IJ
i.e.,
H 5K
i.e., (0, 6)

and S´ is (0, be)

5. POSITION OF A POINT WITH RESPECT TO AN ELLIPSE

x2 y2 x12 y12
The point P(x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the ellipse + = 1 according as + 1 > 0,
a2 b2 a2 b2
= or < 0.

6. PARAMETRIC EQUATION OF ELLIPSE

If we draw a circle with major axis of any ellipse as diameter then this circle is known as
a uxilia ry circle for that ellipse. Now take any point P on the ellipse and draw a line through it
parallel to minor axis. The point where this line cuts the auxiliary circle such that P and Q lies on
the same side of the major axis, is known as corresponding point. If the line joining to the center
of the ellipse, makes an angle of with the major axis, is known as eccentric a ngle of point P.

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 15

x2 y2
If ellipse be + = 1 (a > b), then
a2 b2
a uxiliary circ le will be x2 + y2 = a 2 and point
Q will be (a cos , a sin ), hence point P will be
(a cos , b sin ).
Here x = a cos , y = b sin is called as

x2 y2
parametric equation of the ellipse + =1
a2 b2

Illustration 8

x 2 y2
Find the eccentric angles of the extremities of latus-recta of the ellipse + = 1.
a 2 b2

Solution :

F a b2 I
The coordinates of the end-points of latus recta of the given ellipse are GH e, 
a JK

x2 y2
Let  be the eccentric angle of an end of a latus-rectum of the ellipse + = 1. Then, its
a2 b2

x2 y2
coordinates are (a cos , b sin ) of the ellipse + = 1.
a2 b2

b2
 a cos  = a e and b sin  =
a

b sin  b2 b 1 FG b IJ
 = 2   tan  =
a cos  a e ae
  = tan
H aeK
1
Similarly,the eccentric angles of other ends of latusrecta are given by  = tan ( b/ae).

x2 y2
Hence, the eccentric angles of the extremities of the latus-recta of the ellipse + = 1 are given
a2 b2
1
by  = tan (μ b/ae).

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Illustration 9

x 2 y2
Show that the line lx + my + n = 0 will cut the ellipse + = 1 in points whose eccentric
a 2 b2
angles differ by /2, if a 2 l 2 + b 2 m 2 = 2n 2.
Solution :
Suppose the line lx + my + n = 0 cuts the ellipse at P (a cos , b sin ) and Q (a cos (/2 + ),
b sin (/2 + )). Then these two points lie on the line.
 la cos  + m b sin  + n = 0
and l a sin  + m b cos  + n = 0
 la cos  + mb sin  = n
and, la sin  + mb cos  = n
  (la cos  + mb sin )2 + ( la sin  + mb cos )2 = n2 + n2
 l2 a2 + m2 b2 = 2n2.

7. INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND AN ELLIPSE

x2 y2
The abscissae of points of the intersection of the line y = mx + c and the ellipse + = 1, are
a2 b2

x2 (mx+ c) 2
given by the quadratic equation + = 1 Or (a2m2 + b2) x2 + 2a2 mcx + a2(c2 b2) =
a2 b2
0 (*). If the roots be x1, x2 then

2 a2 mc a 2 (c 2  b 2 )
x1 + x2 = ; x x =
a2 m2 + b2 1 2 a 2 m 2 + b2

If ordinates of the points be y1 and y2 then

y1 = mx1 + c, y2 = mx2 + c  y1 + y2 = m(x1 x2)
Now the distance between these points is equal to length intercepted by the line y = mx + c on

x2 y2
the ellipse + = 1 which is equal to
a2 b2

( x1  x2 ) 2 + ( y1  y2 ) 2 = ( x1  x2 ) 2 + m 2 ( x1  x2 ) 2 =|x1  x2| 1 + m 2

= ( x1  x2 ) 2  4 x1 x2 1 + m2

2 ab a 2 m2 + b2  c 2
=
a 2 m2 + b2

(on putting the values of x1 + x2 and x1x2)

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 17

x2 y2
If the line happens to be tangent to the ellipse the length intercepted by it on the ellipse + =1
a2 b2
must be zero.

 a2m2 + b2 c2 = 0  c2 = a2m2 + b2  c = μ a 2 m 2 + b2

a2 mc a2m
In case c2 = a2m2 + b2 the equal root of the quadratic equation (*) is x = =
2 2
a m +b 2
c

(If the equation Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 has equal root then it is equal to B/2A)

F a2m I  a 2 m2 + c 2 b2
Also y = mx + c = m  GH c JK
+c=
c
=
c

Thus we have the following important result.

x2 y2
The line y = mx + c will be a tangent to the ellipse + = 1 if c 2 = a 2m 2 + b 2 and it will touch
a2 b2

F a 2m b2 I x2 y2
GH
the ellipse at 
c
,
c JK
. The line y = mx μ a 2 m 2 + b2 will be a tangent to the ellipse 2 + 2 =
a b

1 for all values of m.

NOTE : If m = 0 then equation (3) gives

b2x2 + c2a2 a2b2 = 0
or b2x2 + (a2m2 + b2) a2 b2 = 0

a2 m
 x=μ
b

which gives two values of x.

Illustration 1 0

x 2 y2
Show that the line x cos  + y sin  = p touches the ellipse 2
+ 2 = 1 if a 2 cos2  + b 2 sin2
a b

Fa 2
cos  b 2 sin  I
 = p 2 and that point of contact is GH p
,
p
. JK
Solution :
The given line is x cos  + y sin  = p

ELLI PSE
18 QUIZRR

y= x cot  + p cosec 
Comparing this line with y = mx + c
 m = cot  and c = p cosec 
Hence the given line touches the ellipse then
c2 = a2m2 + b2
 p2 cosec2  = a2 cot2  + b2
 p2 = a2 cos2  + b2 sin2 

F a m , b I
2 2
and point of contact is GH c c JK
F  a (cot ) ,
2
b2 I
i.e., GH p cosec  p cosec  JK
Fa 2
cos  b2 sin  I
i.e., GH p
,
p JK

8.1 EQUATION OF TANGENT IN DIFFERENT FORMS

1. Point Form

x2 y2
The equation of the tangent to the ellipse + (a > b) at a point (x1 y1) is
a2 b2

xx1 yy1
+ 2 =1
a2 b

TIP : Replace x2 by xx1

TIP : Replace y2 by yy1, in the equation of ellipse
NOTE : The equation of tangent at (x1, y1) can be obtained by replacing x2 by xx1,

x+ x1 y+ y1 xy1 + x1 y
y2 by yy1, x by , y by and xy by .
2 2 2

This is method is apply only when the equation of ellipse is a polynomial of second
degree in x and y.

2. Slope Form

(a) y = mx + c ...(1)

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 19

meets the ellipse in points whose abscissae are given by

x2 (b2 + a2m2) + 2mca2x + a2(c2 b2) = 0
the roots of this equation are coincident if

c = μ a 2 m 2 + b2
In this case the straight line (1) is a tangent, and it becomes

y = mx μ a 2 m 2 + b 2 ...(2)
This is the required equation.
Since, the radical sign on the right-hand of (2) may have either + or prefixed to it, we
see that there are two tangents to the ellipse having the same m, i.e., there are two tangents
parallel to any given direction.
It will be found that the point of contact is the point

F  a2 m b2 I
GH a2 m 2 + b2
,
a 2 m2 + b 2
JK
(b) By a proof similar tothat of the last article, it may be shewn that the straight line
x cos  + y sin  = p
touches the ellipse, if
p2 = a2 cos2  + b2 sin2 
(c) Similarly, it may be shewn that the straight line
lx + my = n
touches the ellipse, if a2l2 + b2m2 = n2.

3. Parametric Form

The coordinates of the point are (a cos , b sin ).

Substituting x´ = a cos  and y´ = b sin  in the equation, we have, as the required
equation,

x y
cos  + sin  = 1 ...(1)
a b

8.2 THE INTERSECTION OF THE TANGENTS AT THE POINTS  AND ´.

The intersection of the tangents at the points  and ´.
The equations to be the tangents are

x y
cos  + sin  1 = 0
a b

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20 QUIZRR

x y
and cos ´ + sin ´ 1 = 0
a b

The required point is found by solving these equations.

We obtain

x y
a b 1 1
= = =
sin   sin   cos   cos  sin   cos   cos   sin  sin (   )

i.e.,

x y 1
= =
 +      +          
2 a cos sin 2 b sin sin 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1
cos( +  ) sin ( + )
Hence, x = a 2 and y = b 2
1 1
cos (   ) cos (   )
2 2

R| (sum) (sum) U|
|STip to remember: x= a
cos
2 , y= b
sin
2 |V
|| (diff.) diff FG IJ |
T
cos
2
cos
2 H K |W
Illustration 1 1
Find the equations of the tangents to the ellipse 3x 2 + 4y2 = 12 which are perpendicular
tothe line y + 2x = 4.
Solution :
Let m be the slope of the tangent, since the tangent is perpendicular to the line y + 2x = 4.

1
 m ( 2) = 1  m =
2

Since 3x2 + 4y2 = 12

x2 y2
or + = 1
4 3

x2 y2
Comparing this with + = 1
a2 b2

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 QUIZRR 21

 a 2 = 4 and b2 = 3
So the equations of the tangents are

1 1
y= x μ 4  +3
2 4

1
 y= xμ2
2

or x 2y μ 4 = 0

Illustration 1 2

x 2 y2
Find the condition that the line lx + my = n may touch the ellipse + = 1. Also, find the
a 2 b2
point of contact.
Solution :
The equations of the line and the ellipse are
lx + my = n ...(i)

x2 y2
and + = 1 ...(ii)
a2 b2

respectively.
Let the line (i) touch the ellipse (ii) at (x1, y1). Then the equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) is

xx1 yy1
+ 2 = 1 ...(iii)
a2 b

Now, (i) and (ii) will represent the same line if

x1 / a 2 y1 / b2 1 a2 l b2 m
= =  x1 = , y1 =
l m n n n

Fa l,
2
b2 m I
Thus, (x1, y1) = GH n n JK is the point of contact.

Since (x1, y1) lies on (ii), therefore

x12 y12 a2 l 2 b2 m2
+ = 1  + = 1
a2 b2 n2 n2

 a2l2 + b2m2 = n2
This is the required condition of tangency.

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22 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 3
Find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from centre upon any tangent to the

x 2 y2
ellipse + = 1.
a 2 b2

Solution :

x2 y2
Any tangent of + = 1 is
a2 b2

y = mx + (a 2 m2 + b2 ) ...(1)

Equation of the line perpendicular to(1) and passing through (0, 0) is

1
y= x
m

x
or m = ...(2)
y
Substituting the value of m from (2) in (1) then

x2 Fa x2 I
y=
y
+ GH 2
y2
+ b2 JK
 (x2 + y2)2 = a2x2 + b2y2
or changing to polars by putting x = r cos , y = r sin  it becomes
r2 = a2 cos2  + b2 sin2 

Illustration 1 4
Prove that the tangents at the extremities of latus rectum of an ellipse intersect at the
corresponding directrix.
Solution :
x2 y2
The LSL´ be a latus rectum of the ellipse + = 1.
a2 b2

F bI 2
F b2 I
The co-ordinates of L and L´ are G ae, a J and G ae,  JK
H K H a respectively

F ae, b I
2

 Equation of tangent at L GH a JK is

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 QUIZRR 23

y
FG b IJ
2


x (ae)
+
H aK = 1
a2 b2

 xe + y = a ...(1)

F ae, b2 I
The equation of the tangent at L´ GH 
a JK is

FG
y 
b2 IJ
x (ae)
+
H a K = 1
a2 b2

 ex y=a ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2) we get

a
x= and y = 0
e

Thus the tangents at L and L´ intersect at (a/ e, 0) which is a point lying onthe corresponding
a
directrix i.e., x = .
e

Illustration 1 5
Prove that the product of the perpendiculars from the foci upon any tangent to the ellipse

x 2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1 is b 2.
a b

Solution :

x2 y2
The equation of any tangent to the ellipse + = 1 is y = mx + a 2 m 2 + b2
a2 b2

 mx y + a 2 m 2 + b2 = 0 ...(i)

The two foci of the given ellipse are S(ae, 0) and S´( ae, 0). Let p1 and p2 be the lengths
of perpendicular from S and S´ respectively on (i). Then,

mae 0 + a 2 m2 + b2
p1 = Length of  from S(ae, 0) on (i) =
m2 + (1) 2

ELLI PSE
24 QUIZRR

mae+ a2 m 2 + b2
=
m2 + 1

and p2 = Length of  from S´ ( ae, 0) on (i)

 mae 0 + a2 m2 + b2
=
m2 + (1)2

 mae+ a 2 m 2 + b2
=
m2 + 1

F mae+ a m + b I F  mae+ a m + b I
2 2 2 2 2 2
Now, p1p2 = GH m +1 2
JK GH m +1
JK 2

 m2 a 2 e2 + a2 m2 + b2
=
m2 + 1

a 2 m 2 (1  e) 2 + b2 m2 { a 2 (1  e2 )} + b2
= =
1 + m2 1 + m2

m2 b2 + b2
= [ . b2 = a2 (1 e2)]
1 + m2

b2 (m 2 + 1)
= = b2
(m2 + 1)

Illustration 1 6

x 2 y2
Show that the point of intersection of the tangents at two points on the ellipse + =
a 2 b2

x 2 y2
1, whose eccentric angles differ by a right angle lies on the ellipse + = 2.
a 2 b2

Solution :
Let P (a cos , b sin ) and Q (a cos , b sin ) be two points on the ellipse such that   = /2.
The equations of tangents at P and Q are

x y
cos  + sin  = 1 ...(i)
a b

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 25

x y
and, cos  + sin  = 1 ...(ii)
a b
respectively.
Since   = /2, so (i) can be written as
x y
sin  + cos  = 1 ...(iii)
a b

x2 y2
Squaring (ii) and (iii) and then adding, we get + = 2.
a2 b2

x2 y2
Hence, the points of intersection of tangents at P and Q lie on the ellipse + = 2.
a2 b2

Illustration 1 7

x 2 y2
Prove that the locus of the mid-points of the portion of the tangents to the ellipse + =
a 2 b2
1 intercepted between the axes is a 2y2 + b 2x 2 = 4x 2y2.
Solution :
Let (x1, y1) be any point on the ellipse

x2 y2
+ = 1 ...(i)
a2 b2

xx1 yy1
The equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) to (i) is + 2 = 1
a2 b

F a , 0I
2 F 0, b I .
2
This meets the coordinate axes at Q GH x JK
1
and R GH y JK
1

Let L(h, k) be the mid-point of QR. Then,

a2 b2 a2 b2
h = , k=  x1 = , y1 = ...(ii)
2 x1 2 y1 2h 2k

Since (x1, y1) lies on the ellipse (i),

x12 y12 a4 b4 a2 b2
 2
+ 2 =1  2 2
+ 2 2
=1  2
+ =1
a b 4h a 4k b 4h 4 k2

a2 b2
Hence, the locus of (h, k) is 2
+ = 1
4x 4 y2

 a2y2 + b2x2 = 4x2y2.

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26 QUIZRR
9.1 NUMBER OF TANGENTS DRAWN FROM A POINT TO AN ELLIPSE
Two tangents can be drawn from a point to an ellipse. The two tangents are real and distinct or
coincident or imaginary according as the given point lies outside, on or inside the ellipse.

x2 y2
Proof : Let the ellipse be + = 1, and let P (h, k) be a point. The equation of any tangent
a2 b2
to the given ellipse is

y = mx μ a 2 m 2 + b2
If it passes through (h, k), then

k = mh μ a 2 m 2 + b2  (k mh)2 = a2m2 + b2
 m2 (h2 a2) 2 mkh + (k2 b2) = 0
This equation, being quadratic in m, gives two values of m. Corresponding to each value of
m there is a tangent to the ellipse.
Thus, two tangents can be drawn from a point P(h, k) to an ellipse.
The tangents are real and distinct, coincident or imaginary according as the roots of quadratic
in m are real and distinct, equal or imaginary
i.e., 4k2h2 4 (h2 a2) (k2 b2) > or < 0
 a2k2 + h2b2 a2 b2 > or = or < 0

h2 k2
 + 1 > or = or < 0
a 2 b2

h2 k2
 (h, k) lies outside or on or inside the ellipse + = 1.
a 2 b2

9.2 DIRECTOR CIRCLE

The director circle is the locus of points from which perpendicular tangents are drawn to the
ellipse.

x2 y2
Equation of the Director Circle : Let the ellipse be + = 1. The equation of any tangent
a2 b2
to the ellipse is

y = mx μ a 2 m 2 + b2 ...(i)

Let (h, k) be a point on the director circle if (i) passes through (h, k), then

k = mh μ a 2 m 2 + b2  (k mh)2 = a2m2 + b2
 m2 (h2 a2) 2mhk + (k2 b2) = 0

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This gives two values of m, say, m1 and m2. Corresponding to each of these values there
is tangent passing through (h, k) to the ellipse.
If the two tangents are perpendicular. Then,

k2  b2
m1 m2 = 1  = 1  h2 + k2 = a2 + b2
h2  a 2

So, the locus of (h, k) i.e. the equation of the director circle is x 2 + y2 = a 2 + b 2.

Clearly, it is a circle whose centre coincides with the centre of the ellipse and radius equal to

a 2 + b2 .

10. EQUATION OF NORMAL IN DIFFERENT FORM

10.1. Point Form

The required normal is the straight line which passes through the point (x´, y´) and is perpendicular
to the tangent, i.e., to the straight line

b2 x b2
y= x+
a2 y y

Its equation is therefore, y y´ = m (x x´)

F b2 x I
where GH
m 
a2 y
JK = 1

a 2 y
i.e., m =
b2 x 

a 2 y
The equation to the normal is therefore, y y´ = (x x´)
b2 x 

x x y y
i.e., =
x y
a 2
b2
Or

a 2 x b2 y
 = a2 b2
x1 y1

10.2. Parametric Form

Equation to the normal at the point whose eccentric angle is . The coordinates of the point are
a cos  and b sin .
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28 QUIZRR
Hence, in the result of the last article putting
x´ = a cos  and y´ = b sin 

x a cos  y b sin 
it becomes =
cos  sin 
a b

ax by
i.e., – a2 = b2.
cos  sin 
The required normal is therefore
a x sec  by cosec  = a 2 b2

10.3. Slope Form

x2 y2
The equations of the normal of slope m to the ellipse + = 1 are given by
a2 b2

m(a2  b2 )
y = mx 
(a 2 + b2 m2 )

F a2 mb2 I.
at the points GH ( a2 + b2 m2 )
,  J
(a + b m ) K
2 2 2

Illustration 1 8

x 2 y2
Prove that the straight line lx + my + n = 0 is a normal to the ellipse + = 1 if
a 2 b2

a 2 b2 (a 2  b 2 )2
+ = .
l2 m2 n2

Solution :

x2 y2
The equation of any normal to + = 1 is
a2 b2

ax sec  by cosec  = a2 b2

x2 y2
The straight line lx + my + n = 0 will be a normal to the ellipse + = 1, if
a2 b2

ax sec  by cosec  = a2 b2
Since lx + my + n = 0 and (i) represent the same line.

ELLI PSE
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a sec  b cosec  a2  b2
 = =
1 m n

an bn
 cos  = and sin  =
l(a2  b2 ) m(a2  b2 )

a 2 n2 b2 n2
 cos2  +sin2  = +
l 2 (a 2  b2 ) 2 m( a 2  b2 ) 2

( a 2  b2 ) 2 a2 b2
 2
= 2 + 2
n l m

Illustration 1 9
If the normal at an end of a latusrectum of an ellipse passes through one extremity of the
minor axis, show that the eccentricity of the ellipse is given by e4 + e2 1 = 0.
Solution :

x2 y2
Let + = 1 be the ellipse. The coordinates of an end of the latusrectum are (a e, b2/a).
a2 b2

The equation of the normal at (ae, b2/a) is

a 2 x b2 y ax
 = a2 b2 or ay = a2 b2
ae b2 / a e

It passes through one extremity of the minor axis whose coordinates are (0, b).
 ab = a2 b2  a2b2 = (a2 b2)2
 a2 a2 (1 e2) = (a2 e2)2  1 e2 = e4  e4 + e2 1 = 0

Illustration 20

Any ordinate MP of an ellipse meets the auxiliary circle in Q. Prove that the locus of the
point of intersection of the normals at P and Q is the circle x 2 + y2 = (a + b)2.
Solution :

x2 y2
Let P (a cos , b sin ) be any point on the ellipse + = 1, and let Q (a cos , a sin ) be the
a2 b2
corresponding point on the auxiliary circle x2 + y2 = a2. The equation of the normal at P (a cos
, b sin ) to the ellipse is
ax sec  by cosec  = a2 b2 ...(i)
The equation of the normal at Q (a cos , a sin ) to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is y = x tan 

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Let (h, k) be the point of intersection of (i) and (ii). Then,
ah sec  by cosec  = a2 b2 ...(iii)
and, k = h tan  ...(iv)
Eliminating  from (iii) and (iv), we get

k2 h2
ah 1 +  bk 1 + = a2 b2
h2 k2

 (a b) h2 + k2 = a2 b2  h2 + k2 = (a + b)2
Hence, the locus of (h, k) is x2 + y2 = (a + b)2

11. NORMALS FROM A GIVEN POINT

x2 y2
Equation of normal at (a cos , b sin ) to the ellipse + = 1 is
a2 b2

ax sec  by cosec  = a2 b2

FG  IJ byFG1 + tan  IJ
H
ax 1 + tan2
K H 2K
2
2
 = a2 b2
FG1  tan  IJ 
H 2K
2
2 tan
2


 Let tan = t
2

 byt4 + 2(ax + a2 b2) t3 + 2(ax a2 + b2)t by = 0

If this normal passes through a given point (h, k), then
bkt4 + 2(ah + a2 b2)t3 + 2(ah a2 + b2)t bk = 0
This is a four degree equation in t which means maximum four normals can be drawn from a
given point to the ellipse.
Let t1, t2, t3 and t4 be the roots of this equation, so that,

ah+ a 2 e2
t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 = 2 ...(i)
bk

t1t2 = 0 ...(ii)

ah a 2 e2
t1t2t3 = 2 ...(iii)
bk

and t1 t2 t4 = 1 ...(iv)

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We know

FG  +  +  +  IJ s1  s3 s s
H2 2 2 2K = 1 3 =  {from trigo}
1 2 3 4
tan =
1  s2 + s4 0

1 +  2 +  3 +  4 
 = n+
2 2

and hence 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = (2n + 1)  = an odd multiple of two right angles.

12. CONORMAL POINTS LIE ON A FIXED CURVE

Let P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2), R(x3, y3) and S(x4, y4) be the conormal points. Let normals at P, Q,
R, S meet in T(h, k).
Then equation of normal at P(x1, y1) is

a2 x b2 y
 = a2 b2
x1 y1

The point T(h, k) lies on it

(a2 b2) x1y1 + b2kx1 a2hy1 = 0 ...(i)
Similarly, for points Q, R and S in equation (i), x1, y1 are just replaced by (x2, y2), (x3, y3),
(x4, y4) respectively.
 P, Q, R, S all lie on the curve
(a2 b2) xy + b2kx a2hy = 0, which is called Apollonius a rectangular hyperbola.

Illustration 21

If    are the eccentric angles of three points on the ellipse, the normals at which are
concurrent, then sin ( + ) + sin ( + ) + sin ( + ) = 0.
Solution : We know the equation by . t4 + 2t3 (ax + a2e2) + 2t (ax a2e2) by = 0
t1t2 = 0 ...(i)
and t1, t2 t3 t4 = 1 ...(ii)
Now, t1 t2 = 0
 t1 t2 + t2 t3 + t3 t1 = t4 (t1 + t2 + t3)

LM t t t t = 1OP
1 2 3 4


t +t +t
t1 t2 + t2 t3 + t3 t1 = 1 2 3 MM  t = t t1 t PP
t1 t2 t3 N 4
Q
1 2 3

1 1 1
 t1 t2 + t2 t3 + t3 t1 = + +
t2 t3 t1 t3 t1 t2

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     
 tan tan + tan tan + tan tan
2 2 2 2 2 2

     
= cot cot + cot cot + cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2

 FGH tan 2 tan 2  cot 2 cot 2 IJK = 0

   


F sin  / 2 sin  / 2  cos  / 2 cos  / 2 I

2 2 2 2
  GH sin  / 2 sin  / 2 cos  / 2 cos  / 2 JK = 0

FG cos  cos  + sin  sin  IJ FG cos  cos   sin  sin  IJ

  4
H 2 2 2 2K H 2 2 2 2 K = 0
sin  sin 

( + b) (  )

 4 cos 2
cos
2 =0
sin  sin 


 2 (cos  + cos ) = 0 
 2 sin  (cos  + cos ) = 0
sin  sin  sin  sin 

 sin  (cos  + cos ) + sin  (cos  + cos ) + sin  (cos  + cos ) = 0

 sin ( + ) + sin ( + ) + sin ( + ) = 0.
NOTE : You can remember this as a property.

13.1 Equation of the chord of the ellipse whose eccentric angles are  and  :

x2 y2
Let the ellipse be + =1 ...(1)
a2 b2
Let P(a cos , b sin ) and Q(a cos , b sin ) be two points on ellipse (1).
Equation of chord PQ is

b(sin   sin )
y b sin  = (x a cos )
a(cos   cos )

+ 
2 cos sin
b 2 2 (x
= a cos )
a 2 sin  +  sin   
2 2

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FG y b sin  IJ sin  +  FG x a cos  IJ cos  + 

or
H b K 2
=
H a K 2
y +  + x + + 
or sin  sin  sin =  cos + cos  cos
b 2 2 a 2 2

x +  y + +  FG IJ
or
a
cos
2
+ sin
b 2
= cos  
2 H K
x  + y + 
or cos + sin = cos
a 2 b 2 2

Note : When   , chord PQ becomes tangent at P

x y
  Equation of tangent at P(a cos , b sin ) is cos  + sin  = 1
a b

x 2 y2
13.2 Equation of the chord of the ellipse + = 1 whose middle point is ( x1, y1).
a 2 b2

x2 y2
Given ellipse is + =1 ...(1)
a2 b2
Let P(x1, y1) be the middle point of a chord
AB of the ellipse (1), then the required equation is

xx 1 yy1 x 2 y2
or 2
+ 2  1 = 12 + 12  1
a b a b

or T = S1
where T and S1 have usual meanings.

13.3 Equation of pair of tangents to an ellipse from an external point ( x1, y1).

x2 y2
Let the given ellipse be + = 1
a2 b2
Let P(x1, y1) be an external point.

Fx 2
y2 I Fx 2
y12 I FGxx1 yy1 IJ 2

GH a 2
+
b2
1JK GH a
1
2
+
b2
JK H
1 =
a2
+ 2 1
b K
This can be written as SS 1 = T 2

where S, S1 and T have usual meanings

ELLI PSE
34 QUIZRR
1 3.4 Equation to the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point ( x1, y1) is

xx1 yy1
+ 2 = 1
a2 b

Illustration 22

x 2 y2
Find the locus of the points of the intersection of tangents to ellipse + = 1 which make
a 2 b2
an angle .
Solution :
Given ellipse is

x2 y2
+ = 1 ...(1)
a2 b2

Equation of any tangent to ellipse (1) in terms of slope (m) is


y = mx + (a 2 m2 + b2 )

Since its passes through P ( ) then

 = m + (a 2 m2 + b2 )

 ( m) = (a2 m2 + b2 )

 ( m)2 = a2m2 + b2

 m2 (a2 2) + 2m + (b2 2) = 0 ...(2)
(2) being a quadratic equation in m.
Let roots of equation (2) be m1 and m2 then

2 b2   2
 m1 + m2 = , m m
1 2 =
(a2   2 ) a2   2

 (m1 m2) = (m1 + m2 ) 2  4 m1 m2

4 2  2 4(b2   2 )
= 
(a 2   2 ) 2 ( a2   2 )

422  4(b2   2 )(a2   2 )

=
( a2   2 ) 2

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4{ 22  a 2 b2 + b2  2 + a 2  2   22 }

=
(a 2   2 ) 2

2
= 2 (a 2  2 + b2  2  a 2 b2 )
|(a   2 )|

.  be the angle between these two tangents, then

m1  m2
tan  =
1 + m1 m2

2
( a2 2 + b2  2  a2 b2 )
(a   2 )
2
=
F b2   2 I
GH
1+ 2
a  2
JK

2 ( a2 2 + b2  2  a2 b2 )
tan  =
a 2 + b2   2  2

or (a2 + b2 2 2)2 tan2  = 4(a22 + b22 a2b2)

 (2 + 2 a2 b2)2 tan2  = 4(b2 2 + a22 a2b2)
 Locus of P( ) is
(x2 + y2 a2 b2)2 tan2  = 4(b2x2 + a2y2 a2b2)

Illustration 23

Prove that the chord of contact of tangents drawn from the point (h, k) to the ellipse

x 2 y2 h2 k2 1 1
+ = 1 will subtend a right angle at the centre, if 4
+ 4 = 2 + 2 . Also, find the locus
a 2
b 2
a b a b
of (h, k).
Solution :

x2 y2
The equation of chord of contact of tangents drawn from P(h, k) to the ellipse + = 1 is
a2 b2
hx ky
+ = 1 ...(1)
a 2 b2

ELLI PSE
36 QUIZRR

x2 y2
The equation of the straight lines CA and CB is obtained by making homogeneous ellipse + =
a2 b2
1 with the help of (1)

x2 y2 FG
hx ky IJ 2

a 2
b a H
+ 2 = 2+ 2
b K
Fk 2
1 I F k2 1 I 2 hk
 GH a
4

a
JK
2 GHb b
JK
x2 + 4  2 y2 + 2 2 xy = 0
a b
...(2)

But given ACB = 90

 co-efficient of x2 + co-efficient of y2 = 0

h2 1 k2 1
  +  = 0
a 4 a2 b4 b2

h2 k2 1 1
 + 4 = 2+ 2
a 4
b a b
Hence locus of (h, k) is

x2 y2 1 1
4
+ 4 = 2+ 2
a b a b

Illustration 24
Show that the locus of the middle points of chords of an ellipse, which pass through a fixed
point, is another ellipse.
Solution :

x2 y2
Let P(x1, y1) be the middle point of any chord AB of the ellipse + = 1 then equation of chord
a2 b2
AB is T = S1.

xx1 yy1 x12 y12

 + 2 1 = + 1
a2 b a2 b2

xx1 yy1 x2 y2
 2
+ 2 = 12 + 12 ...(i)
a b a b
But it passes through a fixed point Q(h, k), its coordinates must satisfy equation (i),

hx1 ky1 x12 y12

 + = +
a2 b2 a2 b2
this can be re-written as

ELLI PSE
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FG x  h IJ FG y  kIJ2 2

H 2 K + H 2K
1 1 F
1 h2 k2 I
a 2
b2
= GH +
4 a 2 b2 JK
Hence locus of P(x1, y1) is

FG x hIJ FG y kIJ 2 2

H 2K + H 2K I F
1 h2 k2
a b 2 JK 2
= GH +
4 a 2 b2

F h kI
which is obviously an ellipse with centre at G , J
H 2 2K and axes parallel to coordinate axes.

Illustration 25

If three of the sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in an ellipse are parallel respectively to

three given straight lines. Show that fourth side will also be parallel to a fixed straight line.
Solution :

x2 y2
Let PQRS be a quadrilateral inscribed in the ellipse + = 1.
a2 b2

Let PQ, QR and RS be the three sides parallel to the given lines.
Equation of PQ is

x FG + y IJ
+ FG IJ FG    IJ
a H
cos
2
+ sin
b 2K H K = cos
H 2 K
b FG
+ IJ
Its slope is
a
cot
2H K which is constant by hypothesis

  +  = constant = 21 (say)

Similarly  +  = constant = 22 (say)
and  +  = constant = 23 (say)

ELLI PSE
38 QUIZRR
Now the equation of SP is

x FG+ y + IJ FG IJ FG    IJ
a
cos
H 2
+ sin
b 2 K H K = cos
H 2 K
b + FG IJ
Its slope m =
a
cot
2 H K
But  +  = ( + ) ( + ) + ( + )
= 21 22 + 23 = constant
Hence, the slope of the fourth side PS is constant. Hence the fourth side is also parallel to a fixed
straight line.

Illustration 26

x 2 y2
Find the locus of the mid-point of normal chords of the ellipse + = 1.
a 2 b2

Solution :
Let (h, k) be the mid-point of a normal chord of the given ellipse. Then, its equation is

hx ky h2 k2
+ 1 = + 1 [Using T = S´]
a 2 b2 a 2 b2

hx ky h2 k2
or + = + ...(i)
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
If (i) is a normal chord, then it must be of the form
ax sec  by cosec  = a2 b2 ...(ii)

h2 k2
+
h k a 2 b2
 = =
a3 sec   b3 cosec  a2  b2

a3 h2 k2F  b3 I h2 k2 F I
 cos  = +
h(a 2  b2 ) a2 b2
GH
, sin  = JK +
k( a2  b2 ) a 2 b2
GH JK
Eliminating  from the above relations, we get

a6 F h2 k2 I 2
b6 h2 k2 F I
GH +
h2 ( a2  b2 ) a2 b2
JK + +
k2 (a 2  b2 ) 2 a2 b2
=1 GH JK
Fa 6
b6 IF h 2
k2 I 2

 GH h 2
+
k2
JK GH a
2
+
b2
JK = a2 b2

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 39

Hence, the locus of (h, k) is

Fa 6
b6 IF x 2
y2 I 2

GH x
2
+
y2
JK GH a 2
+
b2
JK = (a2 b2)2

13. DIAMETER
DEFINITION : The locus of the mid-point of a system of parallel chords of an ellipse is called
a diameter and the chords are called its double ordinates.
The point where the diameter intersects the ellipse is called the vertex of the diameter.

x2 y2 b2
The equation of the diameter bisecting the chords of slope m of the ellipse + = 1 is y = x
a2 b2 a 2m

CONJUGATE DIAMTERS : Two diameters of an ellipse are said to be conjugate diameters if

each bisects the chords parallel to the other.

x2 y2
Let y =m1 x and y = m2 x be conjugate diameters with respect tothe ellipse + = 1. Then, y
a2 b2
= m2 x bisects the system of chords parallel to y = m1x. So, its equation is

b2
y= x ...(i)
a 2 m1

Clearly, (i) and y = m2 x represent the same time.

 b2  b2
  m1
m2
=
a2 m1 a2

x2 y2
Thus, two straight lines y = m1 x and y = m2 x are conjugate diameters of the ellipse + =
a2 b2

 b2
1, if m1 m2 =
a2

REMARK : In an ellipse, the major axis bisects all chords parallel to the minor axis and
vice-versa, therefore major and minor axes of an ellipse are conjugate diameters of the
ellipse but they do not satisfy the condition m1 m2 = b2/a 2 are the only perpendicular
conjugate diameters.

13.1. Properties of Conjugate Diameters

PROPERTY 1. The eccentric angles of the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse
differ by a right angle.

ELLI PSE
40 QUIZRR

x2 y2
PROOF : Let PC P´ and D CD´ be a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse + = 1, and
a2 b2
let the eccentric angles of the extremities P and D be and respectively. Then the coordinates
of P and D are (a cos , b sin ) and (a cos , b sin ) respectively.

b
Now, m1 = Slope of CP = tan 
a

b
and, m2 = Slope of CD = tan 
a

Since the diameters PC P´ and DCD´ are conjugate diameters.

 m1m2 = b2/a2

b b  b2
 tan  tan  = 2
a a a

 tan  tan  = 1  tan  = cot 

 tan  = tan
FG  + IJ   =

+     =

H2 K 2 2

PROPERTY II : The sum of the squares of any two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse is contant
and equal to the sum of the squares of the semi-axes of the ellipse i.e. CP2 + CD2 = a2 + b2.

x2 y2
PROOF : Let CP and CD be two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse + = 1, and let the
a2 b2
eccentric angle of P be . The eccentric angle of D is /2 + . So, the coordinates of P and D are
(a cos , b sin ) and (a cos (/2 + ), b sin (/2 + )) i.e., ( a sin , b cos ) respectively.

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 41

 CP2 + CD2 = (a2 cos2  + b2 sin2 ) + (a2 sin2  + b2 cos2 )

= a2 + b2
PROPERTY III : The product of the focal distances of a point on an ellipse is equal to the square
of the semi-diameter which is conjugate to the diameter through the point.
POOF : Let PCP´ and DCD´ be the conjugate diameters of an ellipse and the given point be P
whose eccentric angle is . Then the coordinates of P and D are (a cos , b sin ) and ( a sin
, b cos ) respectively. Let S and S´ be two foci of the ellipse. Then,
SP . S´ P = (a ae cos ) (a + ae cos ) = a2 a2 e2 cos2 
= a2 (a2 b2) cos2  [ . b2 = a2 (1 e2)]
= a2 sin2  + b2 cos2  = CD2
PROPERTY IV : The tangents at the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse from
a parallelogram.

x2 y2
PROOF : Let PCP´ and DCD´ be a pair of conjugate diameters of the ellipse + = 1. Let the
a2 b2


eccentric angle of P be . Then the eccentric angle of D is + . So the coordinates of P and D
2
are (a cos , b sin ) and (a cos (/2 + ), b sin (/2 + )) = ( a sin , b cos ) respectively. The
coordinates of P´ and D´ are ( a cos , b sin ) and (a sin , b cos ) respectively.
Equation of tangents at P, D, P´ and D´ are respectively.
x y x y
cos  + sin  = 1, sin  cos  = 1
a b a b
x y x y
cos  + sin  = 1 and sin  cos  = 1
a b a b
Clearly, the tangents at P are P´ are parallel. Also, the tangents at D and D´ are parallel. Hence,
the tangents at P, D, P´, D´ form a parallelogram.
PROPERTY V : The area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at the ends of conjugate
diameters of an ellipse is constant and is equal to the product of the axes.
PROOF : Area of parallelogram T1 T2 T3 T4
= 4 (Area of parallelogram CPT2D)
= 4 (2 Area of  CDP)
= 8 (Area of CPD)

0 0 1
1
= 8 a cos  b sin  1 = 4 (ab cos2  + ab sin2 )
2
 a sin  b cos  1

= 4 ab = 2a 2b = Product of the axes of the ellipse.

ELLI PSE
42 QUIZRR
1 3.2. The length of the subtangent and subnormal
Let the tangent and normal at P, the point (x´, y´),
meet the axis in T and G respectively, and let PN
be the ordinate of P.
P
The equation to the tangent at P is

xx  yy
+ 2 = 1 ...(1)
a2 b
To find where the straight line meets the axis, we
put y = 0 and have

a2 a2
x= , i.e., CT =
x CN

i.e., CT . CN = a2 = CA2 ...(2)

a2 a 2  x 2
Hence, the subtangent NT = CT – CN =  x =
x x

The equation to the normal is

x x y y
=
x y
2
a b2

To find where it meets the axis, we put y = 0, and have

x x  y
= = b2
x y
a2 b2

b2 a2  b2
i.e., CG = x = x´ x´ = x´ = e2 . x´ = e2 . CN ...(3)
a2 a2

Hence,the subnormal NG = CN CG = (1 e2) CN

i.e., NG : NC :: 1 e2 : 1
:: b2 : a2
Some properties of Ellipse
1. SG = e.SP, and the tangent and normal at P bisect the external and internal angles between
the focal distances of P.
2. If SY and S´Y´ be the perpendiculars from the foci upon the tangent at any point P of the
ellipse, then Y and Y´ lie on the auxiliary circle, and SY . S´Y´ = b2. Also CY and S´P are
parallel.
ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 43

3. If the normal at any point P meet the major and minor axes in G and g, and if CF be the
perpendicular upon this normal, then PF . PG = b2 and PF . Pg = a2.
4. The locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent to an ellipse is the
auxiliary circle.

14. REFLECTION PROPERTY OF AN ELLIPSE

If an incoming light ray passes through one focus (S) strike the concave side of the ellipse then
it will get reflected towards other focus (S´).
and SPS´ = SQS´

Illustration 27
A ray emanating from the point ( 3, 0) is incident on the ellipse 16x 2 + 25y2 = 400 at the point
P with ordinate 4. Find the equation of the reflected ray after first reflection.

Solution :
For point P, y-co-ordinate = 4
. given ellipse is
16x2 + 25y2 = 400
16x2 + 25(4)2 = 400
co-ordinate of P is (0, 4)

16 9
e2 = 1 =
25 25

3
e=
5

foci (μ ae, 0) i.e., (μ 3, 0)

Equation of reflected ray (i.e., PS) is

x y
+ = 1 or 4x + 3y = 12.
3 4

ELLI PSE
44 QUIZRR
15. CONCYCLIC POINTS
Any circle intersects an ellipse in two or four real points.
They are called concyclic points and the sum of their eccentric
angles is an even multiple of .
If     be the eccentric angles of the four concyclic
points on an ellipse, then + + + = 2nwhere n is any
integer.

Illustration 28
Let P be a point on the ellipse whose foci are S´ and S. If normal at P meets the axes at G
and G´ then
ii(i) S´G = e S´P
i(ii) S´G : SG = S´P : SP
(iii) PG bisects the angle S´PS
Solution :
If P be (x´, y´) then equation of PGG´ is ax sec  by cosec  = a2 b2

a 2  b2 a2  b2
On putting y = 0 we get OG = = a cos  =  e2 x1
a sec  a2

Now S´G = S´O + OG = ae + e2x´ = e(a + ex´) = e(S´P)

Also SG = OS OG = ae e2x´ = e(a ex´) = e . SP

Hence S´G : SG = S´P : SP (*)
The last relation clearly implies S´PG = GPS.
Thus normal at any point P bisects the angle between S´P and SP where S´ and S are two foci.

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 45

Illustration 29
If the normal at any point P meets the major and minor axes in G and G´ and if OF be the
perpendicular upon this normal then prove that
(i) PF . PG = b 2 (ii) PF . PG´ = a 2

Solution :

x y
Let P be (a cos , b sin ) then equation of tangent at P is cos  + sin  = 1.
a b
Now PF = OL = distance of origin from the tangent

1 ab
= =
cos  sin 
2 2
a sin  + b2 cos 2
2 2
+
a2 b2

1
2 = e 1
tan
FG IJ 2
a2  b2
Also the normal at P is ax sec
tan
2 e+ 1 H K by cosec  = a2 b2  OG =
a
cos 
2

Fa b
2 2
I
 G is GH a cos , 0 JK

 PG 2
F
= G a cos  
a b
2 2 I
cos J
2

+ b2 sin2  =
b2
(a2 sin2  + b2 cos2 )
H a K a2

a 2
 PG = b cos 2  + a 2 sin 2 . Whence it follows that PF . PG = b2
b

F0, a  b
2 2
I
Again on putting x = 0 in the equation of the normal we get G´ as GH a sin  JK
ELLI PSE
46 QUIZRR

2
 PG´ = a cos2 2 F
 + G b sin  +
2
a b 2
I
sin J
2
a2 2
db cos 2 + a 2 sin2  i
H a K =
b2

a 2
 PG´ = b cos 2  + a2 sin2  whence it follows that PF . PG´ = a2.
b

Illustration 30

If SY and S´ Y´ be the perpendicular from the foci S and S´ upon the tangent at any point
P of the ellipse then show that
(a ) Y and Y´ lie on auxiliary circle
(b) SY . S´ Y´ = b 2
(c ) OY and S´P are parallel.
Solution :
Let P be (a cos , b sin )

x y
then equation of tangent at P is cos  + sin  = 1 ...(i)
a b

cos 
Slope of tangent = a (x ae)
sin 
b

sin 
Equation of SY must be y 0 = b (x ae) ...(ii)
cos 
a

Rewriting equation (i) and (ii) as

bx cos  + ay sin  ab = 0 and ax sin  by cos  a2e sin  = 0

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 47

On solving for x and y we get the co-ordinates of Y as

a(a2 e sin2 + b2 cos ) a2 b sin  + (1  e cos )

x= , y =
a2 sin2 + b2 cos 2 a 2 sin2 + b2 cos 2

The x-coordinate can be simplified to

F b2 I
GH
a3 e sin2  +
a2
cos  JK
x=
F b2 I
GH
a 2 sin 2 +
a2
cos J
K
2

d i
a e e cos 2  + (1  e2 )cos  F b2 I
=
a d1  cos  + cos   e cos  i
2 2 2 2 2
GH a2
= 1  e2 JK

a(1  e cos )( e+ cos ) a( e+ cos )

= = (*)
(1  e2 cos 2 ) 1 + e cos 

They y-coordinate can be simplified to

a2 b sin  (1  e cos ) b sin 

y=
F
a G sin  +
2 b 2
2
I
cos J
2
=
1  e cos 
(**)

H a 2
K
Note carefully that co-ordinates of Y´ will be obtained by simply replacing e by e.i.e. Y´ must

FG a( e+ cos ) , b sin  IJ

be
H 1  e cos  1  e cos  K
To prove that Y and Y´ lie on auxiliary circle it is sufficient to show that their co-ordinates satisfy
x2 + y2 = a2. Indeed (for Y)

a2 (e+ cos )2 + b2 sin2

x2 + y2 =
(1 + e cos ) 2

a2 e2 + a 2 cos 2 + 2 a2 e cos  + a 2 (1  e2 )sin2 

=
(1 + e cos )2

a2 [ e2 cos 2  + 1 + 2 e cos  ]
= = a2
(1 + e cos )2

ELLI PSE
48 QUIZRR
As similar proof can be given on show that Y´ also satisfies x2 + y2 = a2.

e cos   1
(b) Now SY =  distance of S from tangent =
cos 2 sin2 
+
a2 b2

 e cos   1
S´Y´ = (replacing e by e)
cos 2 sin2 
+
a2 b2

1  e2 cos2 a2b2 (1  e2 cos2)

 SY S´Y´ = =
cos2 sin2 b2 cos2 + a2 sin2
+ 2
a2 b

F b2 I
=
b2 (1  e2 cos 2 )
b2
= b2 GH a 2
= 1  e2 JK
cos 2  + sin2
a2

b sin 
(c) We have slope OY =
a(e+ cos )

b sin   0 b sin 
Slope S´P = =
a cos  + ae a( e+ cos )

= slope OY  OY  S´P.

Illustration 31
Prove that the sum of squares of the perpendicular on any tangent from two points on the
2
minor axis each distant a 2  b 2 from centre is 2a .
Solution :

x2 y2 x y
Any tangent the ellipse + 2 = 1 is cos  + sin  = 1
a 2
b a b

If p1, p2 be the lengths of perpendiculars from FH0, a2  b2 IK and FH0,  a2  b2 IK then

a 2  b2 a 2  b2
sin   1   sin   1
p1 = b , p2 = b
cos 2  sin2  cos 2  sin2 
+ + 2
a2 b2 a2 b

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 49

F a  b sin  + 1I
2 2

GH b
2 2 JK 2

 p12 + p22 =
F cos  + sin  I
2 2

GH a b JK 2 2

Fa 2
I 2 a F sin  + cos  I
2 2
2 GH b
2
sin2   sin2  + cos 2  + sin2  JK GH b a JK
2
2 2
2
= = = 2a
cos2  sin2  cos2  sin2 
+ 2 + 2
a2 b a2 b

Illustration 32
If PSQ and PS´R are two focal chords of an ellipse and the eccentric angles of the points

1
2 = e1
tan
FG IJ 2
Q an d R ar e 1 and 2. Show that for all such P

tan 2 e+1 H K .

Solution :
Let P be (a cos , b sin ). Then the equation of PQ is

x  + 1 y  + 1   2
cos + sin = cos 1
a 2 b 2 2

 + 1   2
Since this passes through S (ae, 0), we have e cos = cos 1
2 2

FG     IJ = cos  cos  + sin  sin 


H
e cos cos 1  sin sin 1
K
1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

F   I
eG 1  tan tan J = FG 1 + tan tan IJ
 

H K
1
H 2K
1
2 2 2

  e 1
 tan tan 1 = (*)
2 2 e+ 1
On replacing e by e and 1 by 2 we get

   e 1
tan tan 2 = (**)
2 2  e+ 1

1
tan
2 = e 1 FG IJ 2
On dividing (*) by (**) we get
tan
2 e+ 1 H K
2

ELLI PSE
50 QUIZRR

Illustration 33
Ê show
If PSQ and PHR be two focal chords of the ellipse whose two foci are S and H. If P is Â

x y 1+ e 2
that equation of chord QR is cos  + . sin  + 1 = 0
a b 1  e2

Solution :
Let Q be (a cos , b sin ) and R be (a cos , b sin ) then the equation of the chord QR must
x + y  + 
be cos + sin = cos
a 2 b 2 2

 
Expanding and dividing by cos cos we get
2 2

x FG   y  IJ FG
 IJ = FG1 + tan  tan  IJ
a H
1  tan tan +
2 2 b
tan + tan
2 K H
2 K H 2 2K

  e 1
Now from previous example, tan tan =
2 2 e+ 1

  e+ 1
tan tan =
2 2 e 1

 FG e 1 IJ 1 , tan  = FG e+ 1 IJ 1
 tan
2
=
H e+ 1 K tan  2 H e 1 K tan 
2 2

 
On substituting tan , tan in the equation of the chord QR we get
2 2

F I F I F I
GG1  1 JJ x + y GG e 1 + e+ 1 JJ G
= G1 +
1 J
GH tan 2 JK a b GH (e+ 1) tan 2 (e 1) tan 2 JK
2
GH tan 2 JJK
2

FG tan  IJ 
H 1
K F I
2
x y 2(e2 + 1)
tan2 +1
2
or
tan2

. +
a b tan  e2  1 GH JK = 2
tan2

2 2 2

On dividing by the expression on RHS and multiplying by 1 we get the equation of the chord

x y 1 + e2F I
QR as
a
cos  +
b 1  e2GH JK sin  + 1 = 0

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 51

Illustration 34
PSQ and PHR be two focal chods of an ellipse whose two foci are S and H. Show that the
tangents at Q and R and normal at P are concurrent.
Solution :
Following the last two solved examples and its result

 e 1  e+ 1
tan = , tan =
2  2 ( e 1)tan 
( e+ 1)tan
2 2

F a cos  +  + I
G
Tangents at Q and R will intersect at T G 2 ,
b sin
2 JJ
GH cos 2
 
cos
 
2
JK
It is sufficient to show that T lies on the normal at P i.e. T satisfies the equation
ax sec  by cosec  = a2 b2
Now for the coordinates of T,

F a cos  +  I +
G
L.H.S. = a sec  G 2 J  b cosec 
b sin
  J
2
GH cos 2 JK cos

2

 
expanding and dividing by cos cos
2 2

F 1  tan  tan  I F tan  + tan  I

G
sec  G 2J b G 2 2 J
J
cosec  G
GH 1 + tan 2 tan 2 JJK
2 2
= a2
GH 1 + tan 2 tan 2 JK
 

 
putting values of tan and tan as calculated in previous illustration
2 2

1 1 FG e 1 + e+ 1 IJ
 H e+ 1 e 1 K
1

tan2 tan
2
= a sec  . 2  b2 (cosec  2
1 1
1+ 1+
 
tan2 tan2
2 2

ELLI PSE
52 QUIZRR

F   I
GG sin  = 1  tan
JJ
2
2 2 tan
2 2 e +1 2 , cos  = 2
= a b
e2  1 GH 2
1 + tan

2
1 + tan 2 
2
JK
a 2  b2
2
+1
= a2 b2 . 2a 2
a b
1
a2

2 a 2  b2
= a2 b2 .
= a2 + (2a2 b2) = a2 b2 = R.H.S.
 b2
Thus the tangents at Q and R and normal at P must be concurrent.

Illustration 35
Show that the area of a triangle inscribed in a ellipse bears a constant ratio to the area
of triangle formed by joining points on the auxiliary circle corresponding to the vertices
of the first triangle.
Solution :
Let P(a cos 1, b sin 1), Q(a cos 2, b sin 2) and R(a cos 3, b sin 3) be the vertices of the triangle

x2 y2
inscribed in the ellipse + = 1. The points on the auxiliary circle corresponding to these points
a2 b2
are P´(a cos 1, a sin 1) Q´(a cos 2, a sin 2) and R´(a cos 3, a sin 3).

a cos  1 b sin 1 1
1
 1 = Area PQR = a cos  2 b sin  2 1
2
a cos  3 b sin  3 1

cos 1 sin 1 1
1
= ab cos  2 sin  2 1
2
cos  3 sin  3 1

a cos  1 a sin  1 1
1
and, 2 = Area of P´Q´R´ = a cos  2 a sin  2 1
2
a cos  3 a sin  3 1

cos 1 sin 1 1
1
= a2 cos 2 sin 2 1
2
cos 3 sin 3 1

1 b
Clearly, = = constant.
2 a

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 53

Illustration 36

If the chord joining two points whose eccentric angles are  and , cut the major axis of
an ellipse at a distance c from the centre, show that

  ca
tan tan =
2 2 c +a

Solution :
The equation of the chord joining points whose eccentric angle are  and  on the ellipse

x2 y2
+ = 1, is
a2 b2

x FG
+ y IJ
+ FG IJ FG    IJ
a
cos
2H + sin
 K2 H K = cos
H 2 K
This will cut the major axis at the point (c, 0), if

FG  +  IJ
c +FG IJ FG    IJ cos
H 2 K=a
a
cos
2 H K = cos
H 2 K 
cos G
F    IJ c
H 2 K
FG  +  IJ + cos FG    IJ

cos
H 2 K H 2 K a+ c
cos G
F  +  IJ  cos FG    IJ =
a c
(by componendo & dividendo)
H 2 K H 2 K
2 cos  / 2 cos  / 2 a+ c   c a
 =  tan tan =
2 sin  / 2 sin  / 2 a c 2 2 c+ a

ELLI PSE
54 QUIZRR

SOME MORE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Illustration 1

As ellipse whose semi-axes are a and b touches the axis of x at the origin prove that locus
of its centre is x2y2 + (y2 ă a 2) (y2 ă b 2) = 0.
Solution :
Let C() be centre of the ellipse whose semi-axis are a
and b which touches x-axis at origin. Then y-axis will be
normal at O. Suppose this normal is met by major and
minor axes at G and G´ respectively. Draw CF normal.
Let the equation of the major and minor axes of the
ellipse be
y  = m (x ) ...(i)

1
y  = (x ) ...(ii)
m
where m is a parameter, then


OG =  m, OG´ =  +
m
We know OG . OF = b 2, OG´ . OF = a 2

 m) = b2,
FG +  IJ  = a 2
(
H mK
On eliminating m we get 2 2 + (2 a2) (2 b2) = 0
 locus of centre C is x2 y2 + (y2 a2) (y2 b2) = 0.

Illustration 2

x 2 y2
Let d be the perpendicular distance from the centre of the ellipse + = 1 to the tangent
a 2 b2
drawn at a point P on the ellipse. If F1 and F2 are two foci on the ellipse then show that

F1  b I
2
(PF1 ă PF2)2 = 4a 2 GH d JK
2
[IIT 1995]

Solution :

xx1 yy1
If P be (x1, y1) then equation of tangent at P must be + 2 = 1
a2 b

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 55

|1| 1 x12 y12

 d =  = + (*)
x12 y12 d 2 a 4 b4
+
a 4 b4

x12 y12
Also + = 1 (**)
a2 b2
On eliminating y12 between (*) and (**), we get

1 x12 1 x12 F I x12 1 FG 1 1 IJ

= +
d 2 a 4 b2
1 
a2
GH JK = 4
a a 2 H
 2 + 2
b b K
F
b2 x12 b2 I b2 x12 b2 F
e2 x12 I
 = GH
d 2 a2 a2
 1 + 1JK
 1 
d2
=
a2
1 
d2
=
a2
GH JK (***)

F b2 I
Now (PF1 PF2)2 = ((a + ex1) (a ex1)) = 4e2 x12 = 4a2 1  GH d2
JK from (***)

Illustration 3

x 2 y2 x 2 y2
A tangent to the ellipse + = 1 meets the ellipse + = a + b in the points P and Q.
a 2 b2 a b
Prove that the tangents at P and Q are at right angles.
Solution :

x2 y2
The second ellipse is + =1 (*)
a2 b2
where a´2= a(a + b) and b´2 = b(a + b)

To prove the assertion it is sufficient to show that point of intersection of tangents at P and Q
(say (h, k)) of the first ellipse lies on director circle of (*) i.e., we must show that
h2 + k2 = a´2 + b´2= (a + b)2 (**)

ELLI PSE
56 QUIZRR
Now PQ is a chord of contact which has arisen when tangents are drawn from (h, k) to the ellipse

x2 y2
+ =1
a  2 b 2

xh yk b2 h b 2
 Equation of PQ is + = 1 or y = +
a  2 b 2 a 2 k k

x2 y2
But the last line is a tangent to the ellipse + = 1
a2 b2
Therefore c2 = a2m2 + b2 (with usual meanings)

b 4 2 b h
4 2
b2 (a+ b) 2 b2 ( a+ b) 2 h2
 = a . + b2
 = a2 . 2 2 2
+ b2
k 2 4
a k2
k2 a ( a+ b) k

 h2 + k2 = a2 + b2 which proves (**).

Illustration 4
Consider the family of circles x 2 + y2 = r 2 (2 < r < 5). If in the first quadrant the common
tangent to a circle of this family and the ellipse 4x 2 + 25y2 = 100 meets the co-ordinate axes
at A and B then find the locus of the mid-point of AB. [IIT 1999]
Solution :

x2 y2
The elipse is + =1
25 4

Any tangent to this ellipse may be taken as y = mx μ 25 m 2 + 4 (*)

In order that (*) lies in the first quadrant we must take m < 0 and + sign in the radical must
be chosen. Since (*) is a tangent to x2 + y2 = r2 also, we must have c2 = r2 (1 + m2)

r2  4
 25m2 + 4 = r2 (1 + m2)  m2 =
25  r 2
The given data is possible only whe m2 > 0 i.e., 4 < r2 < 25 which is infact given to us. Now, let

FG   , 0IJ
(*) meet x-axis at A and y-axis at B then A and B are H m K and (0, ) where = 25 m 2 + 4 .

  k
Thus if (h, k) be the mid point of AB then h = , k= on dividing we get m =
2m 2 h

25 k2
Now 4k2 = 25m2 + 4 = + 4. Locus of (h, k) must be 4x2y2 4x2 = 25y2.
h2

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 57

Illustration 5

x 2 y2
If a circle cuts an ellipse + = 1 in four points whose eccentric angles are 1, 2, 3, 4,
a 2 b2
then prove that
i(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 2n

Fa b
2 2
I
(ii) centre of the circle is GG 4 a (cos  1 + cos  2 + cos( 1 +  2 +  3 )), JJ
GG b2  a 2
+  ))J
J
H 4b
(sin  1 + sin  2 + sin  3  sin( 1 +  2 3
K
Solution :

x2 y2
(i) Let the circle be x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. If it cuts at + = 1 at (a cos , b sin ) then
a2 b2
for intersection points
a2 cos2  + b2 sin2  + 2ag cos  + 2bf sin  + c = 0 (*)

 
2 tan 1  tan2
2 2 
On putting sin  = and cos  = , t = tan
2  2  2
1 + tan 1 + tan
2 2

The equation (*) becomes

F1  t I
a G
2 2
FG 2 t IJ 2
1  t2 2t
H 1 + t JK H1+ t K
2
2
+ b2 2
+ 2 ag 2
+ 2 fb +c=0
1+ t 1 + t2

Which on, simplification, becomes

(a2 2ag + c)t4 + 4bft3 + (4b2 2a2 + 2c)t2 + 4fbt + a2 + 2ag + c = 0 (**)

1   
The equation (ii) must have four roots tan , tan 2 , tan 3 , tan 4 whose symmetric functions
2 2 2 2
(in usual notations) are given by

4 bf 4 b2  2 a 2 + 2 c 4 bf a 2 + 2 ag+ 2 c
S1 = , S 2 = , S 3 =  , S 4 =
a2  2 ag+ c a 2  2 ag+ c a 2  2 ag+ c a 2  2 ag+ c

FG  +  +  +  IJ = S  S
H 2 2 2 2 K 1S +S
1 2 3 4 1 3
Now tan =0
2 4

(. 1 S2 + S4  0 and S1 = S3)  1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 2n

ELLI PSE
 58 QUIZRR
(ii) Let us now convert the equation (*) in a fourth degree equation in sin  or cos . Indeed the
equation (*) is
(a2 b2) cos2  + 2ag cos  + c + b2 = bf sin 
If this equation is squared the
coeff of cos4  = (a2 b2)2 and the coeff of cos3 = 4ag (a2 b2)

4 ag ( a2  b2 ) 4 ag
 cos 1 + cos 2 + cos 3 + cos 4 = = 2 2
(a  b )
2 2 2
a b
But from part (i) 4 = 2n (1 + 2 + 3)

4 ag
cos 1 + cos 2 + cos 3 + cos(1 + 2 + 3) =
a 2  b2
 x co-ordinate of the centre
a2  b2
g = [cos 1 + cos 2 + cos 3 + cos(1 + 2 + 3)]
4a
We can similarly show that

b2  a2
f = [sin 1 + sin 2 + sin 3 sin(1 + 2 + 3)]
4b

Illustration 6
An equilateral triangle is described about an ellipse. Prove that if (x, y) are the co-ordinates
of one vertex of the triangle referred to the principal diameters as axes of co-ordinates, the

1 x 2 + y2  a 2  b 2
opposite side makes an angle  with the major axis, given by = 2
2 cos 2 x  y 2  a 2 + b 2

Solution :

x2 y2
Let the sides AB, BC, AC of the equilateral triangle ABC circumscribing the ellipse + =1
a2 b2
meet at ÂÊ, ÂÊ and ÂÊ respectively.
x y
Equation of BC is cos  + sin  = 1
a b
cos 

 Slope = a =  b cot 
sin  a
b
If BC makes angle  with x-axis (major axis)
b2
1 cot 2 
b a 2
tan  = cot   cos 2 = ...(i)
a b2
1 + 2 cot 2 
a

ELLI PSE
 QUIZRR 59

+ +b
a cos a sin
Now, x= 2 , y= 2
   
cos sin
2 2

 b a x   2 ay
From these we easily get tan .tan = , tan + tan = ...(ii)
2 2 a+ x 2 2 b(a+ x)

   
2 tan 2 tan 4 tan tan
  2 2 2 2
Now, tan
2
tan = .
2 1  tan2  1  tan2 
=
   FG  IJ
2 2
1  tan2 + tan2
2 2 2 H
+ tan2 + tan2
2 K
b2 (a2  x2 )
= ...(iii)
a 2 (b2  y2 )

b b
cot  + cot  
a a
Now if  be  or  than tan 60 =
b2
1 + 2 cot  cot 
a

On squaring and arranging, we form a quadratic in cot  to get

3 a 2  b2 cot 2  a2
cot  cot  = . ...(iv)
3 b2 cot 2   a 2 b2

a 2 (b2  y2 ) 3 a 2  b2 cot 2  a2
From (iii) and (iv) = .
b2 ( a2  x2 ) 3 b2 cot 2   a 2 b2

a2 (3 a 2 + b2  3 x2  y2 )
We easily get cot2  =
b2 (3 b2  3 y2 + a 2  x2 )

1 x2 + y2  a2  b2
On putting cot2 in (i), we easily get = 2 2 2 2
2 cos 2 x  y  a + b

Illustration 7

x 2 y2
If the normals at two points on the ellipse + = 1 meet on the curve, prove that the
a 2 b2

Fx 2
y2 I 2
(a 2  b 2 )2 RS y2 x2 UV
tangents at these points meet on GH a 2
+
b2
JK = 4 4
a b
(a 2  x 2 )2 2 + (b 2  y 2 ) 2 2
T b a W
ELLI PSE
60 QUIZRR
Solution :

x2 y2
Let the normals at ÂÊ and ÂÊ of the curve + = 1 meet at ÂÊ on the curve, then
a2 b2

(a+ )
cos
a2  b2 2
a cos  = cos  cos  (*)
a (  )
cos
2

( + )
sin
a 2  b2 2
b sin  =  sin  sin 
a (  )
sin
2
If (h, k) be the point of intersection of tangents at ( ), then
( + ) ( + )
a cos b sin
h = 2 , k= 2 (**)
(  ) (  )
cos cos
2 2
If we eliminate    from (*) and (**), we get the required locus.
On squaring and adding the relation in (**), we get
 1
cos2 = 2
2 h k2
+ 2
a 2
b

1 + cos (  ) 1 h2 k2
 = where  = +
2  a 2 b2

2   1 + cos(  ) 1
 cos ( ) =  cos = =
 2 2 

+ h   h 1 h
Also cos = cos = . =
2 a 2 a  a 

+ 2 h2
and cos ( + ) = 2 cos2 1 = 2 1
2 a 

Now at (*), we get

( + )
cos
a2  b2 2
a cos  = [cos ( + ) + cos( )]
2a (  )
cos
2

=
LM
a2  b2 2 h2
1+
2
.
hOP
2a N
a 
2
 a Q
ELLI PSE
PARABOLA
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PARABOLA

1. INTRODUCTION TO CONICS

1.1 Definition
Conic Section :· The locus of a point which moves such that its distance from a fixed point
called focus bears a constant ratio (called eccentricity denoted by the letter e) to its distance
from a fixed straight line called directrix is called a conic section.
The above conic section is a hyperbola or ellipse according as the constant ratio e is greater or
less than unity.
In case the ratio e is equal to unity, then the locus of the moving point is called parabola. Hence
we can define a parabola as follows :·
„A parabola is the locus of a point such that its distance from a fixed point called
focus is equal to its distance from a fixed straight line called directrix.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE NAME CONIC SECTION :

Parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are sections of a right circular cone by a plane and so they are
called conic section. Circle and pair of straight lines are also section of a right circular cone by
a plane and they are also called conic sections.

1.3 Section of a right circular cone by different planes :

A right circular cone is as shown in the figure.

1. Section of a right circular cone by a plane passing through its vertex is a pair
1. of straight lines passing through the vertex as shown in the figure.

2. Section of a right circular cone by a plane parallel to its base is a circle as

2. shown in the figure.

PARABOLA
 4 QUIZRR
3. Section of a right circular cone by a plane parallel to a generator of the cone
3. is a parabola as shown in the figure.

4. Section of a right circular cone by a plane not parallel to any generator of

4. the cone and not perpendicular or parallel to the axis of the cone is an ellipse
4. as shown in the figure.

5. Section of a right circular cone by a plane parallel to the axis of the cone is
5. a hyperbola as shown in the figure.

1 .4 Equation of Conic from Focus-Directrix Property :

Let S( ) be the focus and QN the directrix whose equation is
A x + By + C = 0 ...(1)
Let P (x, y) be any point on the conic section.
From P draw PN  QN.
If e be the eccentricity of the conic, then by definition

PS
=e ...(2)
PN
From (2), PS2 = e2PN2 ...(3)

But 2
PS = (x 2 2
) + (y  ) and PN 2
L A x+ B y+ C OP
=M
2

MN A + B PQ
2 2

F A x+ B y+ C I
.G
2

H A + B JK
2 2 2
 From (3), (x ) + (y ) = e
2 2

which, on simplification takes the form

ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(4)
where a, b, c, f, g and h are constants.(4) being the locus of P, is the equation of the
conic.

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 5

Thus we see that the equation of a conic is an equation of second degree in x and y.
Note : 1. Let the focus S lie on the directrix QN and S be taken
as the origin and QN be taken as the y axis. Let P(x, y) be any point
on the conic, then

PS x2 + y2
= e; or =e
PN |x|

or (e2 1)x2 = y2 which is a pair of straight lines through the origin (focus).

1.5 RECOGNISATION OF CONICS

The equation of conics represented by the general equation of second degree
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
can be recognised easily by the condition given in the tabular form. For this, first we have
to find discriminant of the equation.
We know that the discriminant of above equation is represented by  where
 = abc + 2fgh af2 bg2 ch2
Case I : When  = 0
In this case equation (1) represents the Degenerate conic whose nature is given in the
following table :

Condition Nature of Conic

 = 0 and ab h2 = 0 A pair of coincident lines
2
 = 0 and ab h  0 A pair of intersecting straight lines.
2
 = 0 and ab h < 0 Real or imaginary pair of straight lines.
2
 = 0 and ab h > 0 Point.

Case II : When   0
In this case equation (1) represents the Non-degenerate conic whose nature is given in
the following table :

Condition Nature of Conic

  0, h = 0, a = b a circle
2
  0, ab h = 0 a parabola
2
  0, ab h > 0 an Ellipse or empty set
  0, ab h2 < 0 a Hyperbola
2
  0, ab h < 0 and a + b = 0 a Rectangular hyperbola

PARABOLA
 6 QUIZRR

Illustration 1
If the equation x 2 ă y2 ă 2x + 2y +   = 0 represents a degenerate conic then find the value
of .
Solution :
For degenerate conic  = 0
Comparing the given equation of conic with
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
a = 1, b = 1, h = 0, g = 1, f = 1, c = 
2
 = abc + 2fgh af bg2 ch2 = 0
or (1) ( 1) () + 0 1 (1)2 + 1 ( 1)2 (0)2 = 0
or  1 + 1 = 0   = 0

Illustration 2
If the equation x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 2y + c = 0 represents an empty set then find the value of c .
Solution :
For empty set   0 and ab h2 > 0
Now comparing the given equation of conic with
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c´ = 0
then a = 1, h = 0, b = 1, g = 1, f = 1, c´ = c
. ab h2 > 0
 (1) (1) 0> 0
1> 0 which is true
and  = abc´ + 2fgh af2 bg2 c´h2  0
or (1) (1) (c) + 0 1 ( 1)2 1 ( 1)2 0  0
or c 2  0
 c  2
Hence c  R ~ (2)

2.1 A geometric construction of the parabola

If several lines are drawn, all parallel to the directrix and on the same side of it as the focus,
such that the distance from the directrix to each line is not less than a units, it is possible to
construct many points of a parabola. In Fig., for example, the several points on the curve are
located inthe followng manner: With |A1D| as a radius and F as a center, swing ares intersecting
the perpendicular through A1 at the points P1 and P1´, respectively. Perform similar operations
with |A2D|, |A3D|, etc., as radii and F as a center; and obtain successively the points P2 and
P2, P3 and P3´, etc..

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 7

Let S be the fixed point and ZM the directrix. We require therefore, the locus of a point P
which moves so that its distance from S is always equal to PM, its perpendicular distance from
ZM.

Draw SZ perpendicular to the directrix and bisect SZ in the point A; produce ZA to X.

The point A is clearly a point on the curve and is called the Vertex of the Parabola.
Take A as origin, AX as the axis of x, and AY, perpendicular to it, as the axis of y.
Let the distance ZA, or AS, be called a, and let P be any point on the curve whose coordinates
are x and y.
Join SP, and draw PN and PM perpendicular respectively to the axis and directrix.
We have the, SP2 = PM2,
i.e., (x a)2 + y2 = ZN2 = (a + x)2,
 y2 = 4a x ...(1)
This is also standard form of parabola.

PARABOLA
 8 QUIZRR
Note :
The parabola is symmetric with respect to the line through the
focus perpendicular to the directrix, since the image Q of every
point P in the parabola with respect to this line is also a point on
the parabola.

2 .2 Some terms related to parabola :

(a) Axis : The axis of a parabola is the straight line through the focus and perpendicular to
the directrix. In the parabola y2 = 4ax, x-axis is the axis.
If the point (x, y) lies on the parabola y2 = 4ax, the point (x, y) also lies on it. Hence the
parabola is symmetrical about its axis.
(b) Vertex : The point of intersection of the parabola and its axis is called its vertex.
In the parabola y2 = 4ax, O(0, 0) i.e., the origin is the vertex.

(c) Double ordinate : If PN be drawn perpendicular tothe axis and produced to meet the
curve again at P´, then PP´ is called a double ordinate.
(d) Latus Rectum : The double ordinate LSL´ which passes through the focus is called the
latus rectum of the parabola.
The equation of the latus rectum of parabola y2 = 4ax, is x = a.
Solving x = a and y2 = 4ax, we find the co-ordinates of the extremities of the latus rectum
which are L(a, 2a) and L´(a, 2a).
Since LS = L´S = 2a, therefore length of the latus rectum LL´ = 4a.
(e) Chord : A cord of a parabola is the line segment joining any two points on the parabola.
(f) Focal chord : a chord of a parabola passing through the focus is called a focal chord. In
the given figure QQ´ and LL´ are focal chords.
(g) Focal distance : The focal distance of any point Q(x, y) on the parabola is its distance from
the focus i.e., QS.
Also QS = QM = distance of Q from the directrix. {as e = 1}
For the parabola y2 = 4a x, a > 0.
(i) focus is (a, 0) (ii) Vertex is (0, 0) (iii) directrix is x = a (iv) axis is x-axis i.e., y = 0
(v) length of latus rectum = 4a (vi) equation of latus rectum is x = a (vii) extremities of latus
rectum are (a, 2a) and (a, – 2a) (viii) focal distance of Q(x, y) is (x + a).

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 9

There are other three forms also. All the four forms are listed as follows :

Equation y2 = 4a x y2 = ă 4a x x 2 = 4a y x 2 = ă 4a y

Graph

Vertex (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0)

Focus (a, 0) ( a, 0) (0, a) (0, a)
Equation of
directrix x= a x= a y= a y= a
Equation of
the axis y= 0 y= 0 x= 0 x= 0
Equation of
tangent at x= 0 x= 0 y= 0 y= 0
the vertes
Parametric
equations (at2, 2at) ( at2, 2at) (2at, at2) (2at, at2)

If the vertex is not the origin and the axis and directrix are parallel to the coordinate axes, then
the equation of parabola with vertex at (h, k) can be obtained by using translation of axes as
follows :

Form Vertex Focus Equation of Equation of Tangent at

directrix axis the vertex
(y k)2 = 4a (x h) (h, k) (h + a, k) x= h a y= k x= h
2
(y k) = 4a (x h) (h, k) (h a, k) x= h + a y= k x= h
(x – h)2 = 4a(y – k) (h, k) (h, k + a) y= k a x= h y= k
(x h)2 = 4a(y k) (h, k) (h, k a) y= k+ a x= h y= k
Note : in all the above cases a > 0.

Illustration 3
Find the equation of a parabola whose focus is (ă 2, 3) and whose directrix is x + y + 5 = 0.
Solution :
Let P(h, k) be any point on the parabola then by definition the distance of P from ( 2, 3) must
be equal to perpendicular distance of (h, k) from the line x + y + 5 = 0

h+ k+ 5
 (h+ 2) 2 + (k 3) 2 =
2
PARABOLA
10 QUIZRR
2
 2[(h + 2) + (k 3)2] = (h + k + 5)2
On simplifying and replacing h, k by x, y we get the required equation of the parabola as
x2 + y2 2xy 2x 22y + 1 = 0

Illustration 4
Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is (ă1, 2) and focus is (3, 4).
Solution :
Since the vertex V( 1, 2) lies on the parabola it must be equidistant from focus F(3, 4) and from
directrix. If the line joining F and V (which is the axis of the parabola) meets the directrix at
M(h, k) then V must be midpoint of FM.

h+ 3 k+ 4
 1 = , 2 =  M is ( 5, 0)
2 2

4 2 1
Since directrix is perpendicular to the axis FM whose slope is =
3+1 2
 Equation of directrix is y 0 = 2 (x + 5) Or 2x + y + 10 = 0
Since focus and directrix are known the equation of the parabola (as in the last example), is

( x 3) + ( y 4)
2 2 F 2 x+ y+ 10) IJ
=G
2

H 5 K
which simplifies to x2 + 4y2 4xy 70x 60y + 25 = 0

Note :
We must note that in the equation of a parabola the second degree terms form a perfect square
(i.e., h2 = ab in usual notations).

2.3 Reduction of equation of a parabola into standard form

The equation (y )2 = 4a(x ) can be reduced to the standard form by the transformations
x  = X, y  = Y.
The equation becomes Y2 = 4aX, which is the standard form in X, Y coordinates.
(y )2 = 4a(x ) is the form of equation of a parabola whose axis of symmetry is parallel
to the x-axis.
The equation (ax + by + c)2 = bx ay + c´ can be reduced to the standard form by the
transoformations

ax+ by+ c bx ay+ c

= Y, =X
2 2
a +b b2 + a 2
[Note : The lines ax + by + c = 0 and bx – ay + c´ = 0 are perpendicular to each other.]

1
The equation becomes Y2 = X which is the standard form in X, Y coordinates.
a + b2
2

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 11

Illustration 5
Reduce the parabola 2y2 + y + 5x + 1 = 0 to the standard form and hence determine its axis,
vertex, focus and equation of its directrix.
Solution :
We have 2y2 + y = 5x 1
On dividing by 2 we get

1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1
y2 + y= x  y2 + y+ =  x +
2 2 2 2 16 2 2 16

FG
 y+
1 IJ 2
5 7 FG y+ 1 IJ 2
5FG 7 IJ
H 4 K = x
2 16

H 4K =
2 H
x+
40 K
7 1
On putting X = x + , Y = y+ (*)
40 4

5
We get Y2 = X (**)
2

5 5 5
 4a = , a =  Length of latus rectum is .
2 8 8
Now vertex of the parabola (**) is (0, 0).
 Vertex of the original parabola is given by

7 1 FG  7 , 1 IJ
0= x+
40
, 0= y+
4 H 40 4 K
i.e., the vertex is

Again focus of the parabola (**) is (a, 0) i.e. FG  , 0IJ .

5
H 8 K
5 7 1
 Focus of original parabola is given by = x+ , 0 = y+
8 40 4

FG  4 , 1 IJ
 Focus is H 5 4K
The axis and directrix of the original parabola are clearly given by Y = 0, X + a = 0
1 7 5
or in old system y + = 0, x +  = 0 which reduce to, 4y + 1 = 0 and 20x 9 = 0.
4 40 8
Trick : This can be easily noticed that the latus rectum of the parabola Ay2 + By + Cx + D = 0
C
Trick :is .
A

PARABOLA
12 QUIZRR

Illustration 6
Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is at (2, 1) and the directrix is x = y ă 1.
Solution :
The axis of the parabola is a line to the directrix and passing through the vertex. The equation
of a line  to x y + 1 = 0 is
x+ y+  = 0
This will pass through (2, 1) if
2 + 1 +  = 0   = 3.
So the equation of the axis is
x+ y 3 = 0 ...(i)
The equation of the directrix is
x y+ 1 = 0 ...(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii),we get
x = 1, y = 2.
So, the coordinates of K are(1, 2).
Let (x1, y1) be the coordinates of the focus S. Then A is the mid-point of KS
x1 + 2 y +2
 = 2 and 1 = 1
2 2
 x1 = 3 and y1 = 0
So, the coordinates of the focus S are (3, 0).
Let P(x, y) be a point on the parabola. Then
PS = PM
 PS2 = PM2

F x y+ 1 I 2

 (x 3)2 + (y 0)2 =G JK
H 12 + (1) 2

 2(x2 + y2 6x + 9) = x2 + y2
= + 1 2xy + 2x 2y
2 2
 x + y 14x + 2y + 2xy + 17 = 0

Illustration 7
Find the equation of the parabola whose latusrectum is 4
units, axis is the line 3x + 4y ă 4 = 0 and the tangent at the
vertex is the line 4x ă 3y + 7 = 0.
Solution :
Let P (x, y) be any point on the parabola and let PM and PN
be perpendiculars from P on the axis and tangent at the
vertex respectively. Then
PM2 = (Latusrectum) (PN)

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 13

F 3 x+ 4 y 4 I 2
F 4 x 3 y+ 7 I
 GH 3 + 4 JK
2 2 =4 GH 4 + (3) JK
2 2

 (3x + 4y 4)2 = 20 (4x 3y 7).

This is the equation of the required parabola.

Illustration 8
A double ordinate of the parabola y2 = 4a x is of length 8a . Prove that the lines from the
vertex to its ends are at right angles.
Solution :
Let PQ be the double ordinate of length 8a of the parabola y2 = 4ax. Then PR = QR = 4a.
Let AR = x1. Then the coordinates of P and Q are (x1, 4a) and (x1, 4a) respectively.
Since P lies on y2 = 4ax.
 (4a)2 = 4ax1  x1 = 4a.
So, coordinates of P and Q are (4a, 4a) and (4a, 4a) respectively.
Also, the coordinates of the vertex A are (0, 0).

4 a 0
 m1 = slope of AP = = 1,
4 a 1

4 a  0
and, m2 = slope of AQ = = 1
4 a 0
Clearly, m1m2 = 1. Hence, AP  AQ.

Illustration 9
Prove that the equation to the parabola whose vertex and focus are on the x-axis at a
distance a and a ´ from the origin respectively is y2 = 4(a ´ ă a ) (x ă a ).
Solution :
Let O, A and S be the origin, vertex and focus of the parabola respectively. Then, OA = a,
OS = a´. Therefore, the coordinates of S are (a´, 0). Let KK´ be the directrix of the required
parabola.
Suppose SA produced meets the directrix at Z. Let the coordinates of Z be (x1, y1). Then.

x1 + a  y1 + 0
= a and = 0 [ . A is the mid-point of SZ]
2 2
 x1 = 2a a´ and y1 = 09
So, the equation of the directrix KK´ is x = x1 i.e., x = 2a a´.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola. Then
SP = PM

x 2 a+ a 
 ( x a ) 2 + ( y 0)2 =
1+0

PARABOLA
14 QUIZRR
2 2 2
 (x a´) + y = (x 2a + a´)
 (x a´)2 + y2 = [(x a´) 2(a a´)]2
 (x – a´)2 + y2 = (x a´)2 + 4(a a´)2 4(x a´) (a a´)
 y2 = 4(a a´) {(a a´) (x a´)}  y2 = 4(a´ – a) (x a).

Illustration 1 0
Find the locus of the middle points of all chords of the parabola y2 = 4a x which are drawn
through the vertex.
Solution :
Let OA be a chord, drawn through the vertex and P(h, k) be its mid-point. Let the coordinates
of A be (x1, y1). Then,

x1 + 0 y +0
= h, 1 = k.
2 2
 x1 = 2h and y1 = 2k
So, the coordinates of A are (2h, 2k).
Since A lies on y2 = 4ax.
 (2k)2 = 4a (2h)  k2 = 2ah
Hence, the locus of (h, k) is y2 = 2ax.

Illustration 1 1
An equilateral triangle is inscribed in the parabola y2 = 4a x whose vertex is at the vertex
of the parabola. Find the length of its side.
Solution :

l 3 l
Let AB = l. Then, AM = l cos 30 = and BM = l sin 30 =
2 2

Fl 3, lI
So, the coordinates of B are GH 2 2JK
Since, B lies on y2 = 4ax.

l2 F l 3I

4
= 4a GH 2 JK  l = 8a 3

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 15

Illustration 1 2
If y1, y2, y3 be the ordinates of a vertices of the triangle inscribed in a parabola y2 = 4a x, then
1
show that the area of the triangle is |(y1 ă y2) (y2 ă y3) (y3 ă y1)|.
8a
Solution :
Let A (x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) be the vertices of ABC. Since (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3)
lie on the parabola, therefore
y12 = 4ax1, y22 = 4ax2 and y32 = 4ax3

y12 y2 y2
 x1 = , x2 = 2 and x3 = 3
4a 4a 4a
Now,

1
Area of ABC = [x (y y3) + x2 (y3 y1) + x3 (y1 y2)]
2 1 2

=
LM
1 y12 y2 y2
( y2  y3 ) + 2 ( y3  y1 ) + 3 ( y1  y2 )
OP
N
2 4a 4a 4a Q
1
= [y2 (y y3) + (y22y3 y2y32) y1 (y22 y32)]
8a 1 2

1
= [y2 (y y3) + y2y3 (y2 y3) y1 (y22 y32)]
8a 1 2

1
= (y y3) [y12 + y2y3 y1 (y2 + y3)]
8a 2

1
= (y y3) [(y12 y1y2) + (y2y3 y1y3)]
8a 2

1
= (y y3) [y1 (y1 y2) y3 (y1 y2)]
8a 2

1
= (y y3) (y1 y2) (y1 y3)
8a 2

1
= (y y2) (y2 y3) (y3 y1)
8a 1
Hence,

1
Area of ABC = |(y1 y2) (y2 y3) (y3 y1)|
8a

PARABOLA
16 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 3
QQ´ is a double ordinate of a parabola y2 = 4a x. Find the locus of its point of trisection.
Solution :
Let the double ordinate QQ´ meet the axis of the parabola.
y2 = 4ax ...(1)
in N.
Let co-ordinate of Q be (x1, y1) then co-ordinate of Q´ be (x1, y1) since Q and Q´ lies on
(1) then
y12 = 4ax1 ...(2)
Let R and T be the points of trisection of QQ´. Then the co-ordinates of R and T are

FG 1. x + 2. x , 1.( y ) + 2. y IJ FG x , y IJ
H 3K
1

H 1+2 K
1 1 1 1
or 1
1+2

FG 2. x + 1. x , 2.( y1 ) + 1. y1 IJ FG x , 
y1 IJ
H 2+1 K H K
1 1
and or 1
2+1 3

respectively.
Since R divide QQ´ in 1 : 2 (internally)
and Since T divide QQ´ in 2 : 1 (internally)
For locus, Let R (h, k) then

y1
x1 = h and = k or y1 = 3k
3

Substituting the values of x1 and y1 in (2), then

(3k)2 = 4a (h)
or 9k2 = 4ah
 The required locus is 9y2 = 4ax similarly, let T(h´, k´).

y1
then x1 = h´ and = k´ or y1 = 3k´
3

Substituting the values of x1 and y1 in (2) then

( 3k´)2 = 4a(h´)
or 9k´ 2 = 4ah´
 The required locus is 9y2 = 4ax
Hence the locus of point of trisection is
9y2 = 4ax.

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 17

Alternative Method : Let R and T be the points of trisection of double ordinates QQ´. Let
(h, k) be the co-ordinates of R.
then AL = h and RL = k
RT = RL + LT = k + k = 2k.
Since RQ = TR = Q´T = 2k
 LQ = LR + RQ = k + 2k = 3k
thus the co-ordinates of Q are (h, 3k)
Since (h, 3k) lies on y2 = 4ax
 9k2 = 2ah
Hence the locus of (h, k) is 9y2 = 4ax

2 .4 The position of a point with respect to a parabola :

Let P (x1, y1) be a point in the plane if y12 4ax1 < 0 then the point P lies inside the parabola
y2 = 4ax. If y12 4ax1 > 0 then the point P lies outside the parabola.

The assertion can be easily proved. If P(x1, y1) be any point withinthe parabola then produce the
ordinate of P to a point Q(x1, y´1) on the upper branch of the parabola. We must have
y´1 > |y1|  y´12 > y12
Now, as (x1, y´1) lies on the parabola y2 = 4ax we have y´12 = 4ax1
Thus 4ax1 > y12  y12 4ax1 < 0
If P(x1, y1) lies in the left half plane then x1 < 0 and y12 4ax1 > 0 is obvious. If P lies in the
right half plane but does not lie within the parabola then |y´1| < |y1|.
which will reduce to y12 4ax1 > 0.
Note :
1. The point (x1, y1) lies inside, on or outside y2 = 4ax according as
y12 + 4ax1 <, = or > 0
2. The point (x1, y1) lies inside, on or outside x2 = 4ay according as
x12 4ay1 <, =, or > 0
3. The point (x1, y1) lies inside, on or outside x2 = 4ay according as
x12 + 4ay1 <, = or > 0

PARABOLA
18 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 4
Show that the point (2, 3) lies outside the parabola y2 = 3x.
Solution :
Let the point (h, k) = (2, 3)
We have k2 3h = 32 3.2
= 9 6= 3> 0
2
 k 3h > 0
This shows that (2, 3) lies outside the parabola y2 = 3x.

Illustration 1 5
Find the position of the point (ă2, 3) with respect to the parabola y2 ă 4y + 9x + 13 = 0.
Solution :
Let the point (h, k) = ( 2, 2)
We have k2 4k + 9h + 13 = (2)2 4 (2) + 9 ( 2) + 13 = 4 8 18 + 13
= 9< 0
Hence k2 4k + 9h + 13 < 0
Therefore the point ( 2, 2) lies inside the parabola
y2 4y + 9x + 13 = 0

3.1 PARAMETRIC EQUATION

The parametric form of the parabola y2 = 4ax is (at2, 2at). i.e. x = a t2, y = 2a t.
You can see this by just putting the values in the equation.

3.2 EQUATION OF THE CHORD JOINING ANY TWO POINTS ON THE PARABOLA
Let P(at12, 2at1), Q(at22, 2at2) be any two points on the parabola y2 = 4ax. Then, the equation of
the chord joining these points is
2 at2  2 at1
y 2at1 = ( x at12 )
at22  at12

2
or y 2at1 = ( x at12 )
t1 + t2
or y(t1 + t2) = 2x + 2a t1 t2

3.3 CONDITION FOR THE CHORD JOINING POINTS HAVING PARAMETERS t 1 AND t2 TO
3.3 BE A FOCAL CHORD
If the chord joining points (at12, 2at1) and (at22, 2at2) on the parabola passes through its
focus, then (a, 0) satisfies the equation
y (t1 + t2) = 2x + 2at1t2
 0 = 2a + 2at1t2
 t1 t2 = ă 1

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 19

3 .4 LENGTH OF THE FOCAL CHORD

Let P (at12, 2at1) and Q (at22, 2at2) be the end point of a focal chord. Then, t1 t2 = 1.

Now PQ = (at22  at12 ) 2 + (2 at2  2 at1 ) 2

= a (t2 t1) (t2 + t1 ) 2 + 4

= a (t2 t1) (t2 + t1 ) 2  4 t1 t2 [ . t1 t2 = 1]

= a (t2 t1) (t2  t1 ) 2

= a (t2 t1)2
Thus, the length of a focal chord having parameters t1 and t2 for its end points is
a(t2 t1)2.

Illustration 1 6
Show that the focal chord of parabola y2 = 4a x makes an angle with the x-axis is of length
4a cosec2 .
Solution :
Let P (at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) be the end points of a focal chord PQ which makes an
angle  with the axis of the parabola. Then,
2
PQ = a (t2 t1)2 and tan  = slope of PQ =
t1 + t2
Now, PQ = a (t2 t1)2
 PQ = a [(t2 + t1)2 4 t1 t2]
2
= a [4 cot  + 4] [ . t2 + t1 = 2 cot  and t1 t2 = 1]
2
= 4a cosec 

Illustration 1 7
Show that the semi-latusrectum of the parabola y2 = 4a x is the harmonic mean between the
segments of any focal chord of the parabola.
Solution :
Let PQ be a focal chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax having focus at S (a, 0). Let the coordinates of
P and Q be (at12, 2at1) and (at22, 2at2). Then, t1t2 = 1.
Now, SP = Focal distance of P
= a + at12 = a(1 + t12)
Similarly, SQ = a (t22 + 1)

F 1 + 1I = a (1 + t )
2
= a GH t JK
2
1
2
t
1
1
[ . t1 t2 = 1]

PARABOLA
20 QUIZRR


FG 1 + 1 IJ = 1 + t = 1 1
2

SP+ SQ 1
H SP SQ K a(t + 1) a(t + 1) a
2
1
2
1 SP. SQ
=
a

SP.SQ 2 SP.SQ
 =a  = 2a
SP+ SQ SP+ SQ

 Harmonic mean of SP and SQ is the semi-latusrectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax.

Trick : It follows from this example, that if l 1 and l 2 are the length segments of a focal
4l1l2
Trick : chord of a parabola, then its latus rectum is
l1 + l2

4.1 INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND PARABOLA

For a parabola y2 = 4ax and a line y = mx + c. there are 3 cases possible :
1. The line and the parabola do not intersect.
2. The line and the parabola intersect at one point only. This is the case of touching the
parabola i.e. tangent to parabola.
3. The line and parabola intersect at 2 points i.e., the line has a line segment which acts as
chord to parabola.
The above 3 conditions are alzebraically equivalent to saying that the quadratic equation formed
by the intersection of two curves will either have :
1. No roots.
2. Only one real root.
3. 2 distinct real roots.
So putting value of y, i.e. y = mx + c in y2 = 4ax
(mx + c)2 = 4ax
 m2x2 + c2 + 2mcx = 4ax
 m2x2 + (2mc 4a) x + c2 = 0 ...(i)
Discriminant of this equation
D2 = (2mc 4a)2 4m2c2
= 4 {(mc 2a)2 m2c2}
= 16 (a2 amc)
Now for our 3 cases
1. No real roots, D < 0  a < mc i.e. no intersection.
2. Only one real root, D = 0  a = mc i.e., tangent.
3. 2 real distinct roots D > 0  a > mc i.e., chord to parabola.
Let us discuss the case 3 first and find out the length of chord formed.
Case 3 : Let the line meet parabola in 2 distinct points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). Then the length of
chord will be :

( x2  x1 ) 2 + ( y2  y1 ) 2 = ( x2  x1 ) 2 + ( mx2 + c  mx1  c) 2

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 21

= ( x2  x1 ) 2 + m2 ( x2  x1 ) 2

= 1 + m2 ( x2  x1 ) 2

= 1+ m2 ( x1 + x2 ) 2  4 x1 x2

4(mc  2 a) 2 4 c 2
= 1 + m2  2
m4 m

2 (mc 2 a)
because from (i) x1 + x2 =
m2

c2
x1x2 =
m2

2
= 1 + m2 (mc 2 a) 2  c2 m2
m2

2
= 1 + m2 4 a 2  4 amc
m2

4
= 2
1 + m2 a2  amc
m

4
= 1 + m2 a(a  mc)
m2

4
So the length of chord cut by the line = 1+ m 2 a (a  mc )
m2
Now let us discuss the case 2.
Case 2 : Condition for tangency :

a
as done earlier, for this D = 0 then the condition is Âc Ê =
m
So putting this value of c in line to get the tangent equation

a
y = mx +
m
Point of contact :

a
Putting c = in quadratic equation for finding the points on parabola.
m

FG FG a IJ  4 aIJ x+ a
2

H H mK K m
m2 x2 + 2 m 2
= 0

PARABOLA
22 QUIZRR

a2
m2x2 2ax + = 0
m2

FG mx a IJ 2

H mK = 0

a
 x=
m2
Putting this equation of line to get value of y

a a FG IJ
a 2a
y = mx +
m
=m 2 + =
m m mH K
FG a 2a IJ
Point of contact becomes :
Hm 2
,
m K
Illustration 1 8

3
Prove that for any non-zero real m, the line y = mx + is a real chord to the parabola y2
m
= 16x. Find the value of m if length of the chord is 3.
Solution :

3
In the given question a = 4, c = , here a > mc for any m, so line is a real chord.
m

4 4
Now length of the chord is 1 + m 2 a( a mc) = 2 1 + m2 4(4  3)
m 2
m

8
= 1 + m2 = 3 (given)
m 2

 64(1 + m2) = 9m4

 9m4 64m2 64 = 0

 m2 = 8  m = μ 2 2 .

Illustration 1 9
For what value of k does the line x + y = 1 touches the parabola y2 = kx ?
Solution :
We have y = – x + 1
If this line touches the parabola y2 = kx, then
k/ 4
1 = [Using c = a/ m]
1
 k = 4.

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 23

Illustration 20
Prove that the line lx + my + n = 0 will touch the parabola y2 = 4a x if ln = a m 2.
Solution :

We hae lx + my + n = 0  y = 
FG 1 IJ x+ FG  n IJ
H mK H mK
This will touch y2 = 4ax, if

m a
= [Using c = a/m]
n ( l / m)

 nl = am2

Illustration 21
Find the condition that the line x cos  + y sin  = p touches the parabola y2 = 4a x.
Solution :
We have x cos  + y sin  = p
 y sin  = x cos  + p  y = x ( cot ) + p cosec .
This will touch the parabola y2 = 4ax, if

a
p cosec  = [Using c = a/ m]
cot 
 p cos  = a sin2   p cos  + a sin2  = 0.

Illustration 22

a
Show that y = mx + c touches the parabola y2 = 4a (x + a ), if c = a m + .
m
Solution :
We have : y2 = 4a (x + a) and y = mx + c. Shifting the origin at ( a, 0), we have :
x = X + ( a) and y = Y + 0.
Substituting the values of x and y in the equations of the parabola and the line, we get
Y2 = 4a X and y = mX + c am
The line will touch the parabola, if

a
c am = [Using c = am]
m

a
 c = am +
m

PARABOLA
24 QUIZRR
5.1 EQUATION OF TANGENT IN VARIOUS FORMS
Type 1 : POINT FORM :
The equation of tangent to parabola at point (x1 y1) is given by yy1 = 2a (x + x 1)
Logic : for parabola y2 = 4ax
Slope at point (x1 y1) is given by

FG dyIJ = 4a 
dy 4 a 2 a
2y
H dx K =
dx 2 y
=
y

dy O 2a
dx PQ
and =
x1 y1
y1

2a
 Slope of tangent at (x1 y1) =
y1
 equation tangent becomes
2a
y y1 = (x x1)
y1
Solving this we get the required equation.
x+ x1 y+ y1
TRICK : This form can also be obtained by replacing x2 y xx1, y2 by yy1, x by , y by and
2 2
xy1 + x1 y
xy by in general equation of parabola.
2
Type 2 : PARAMETRIC FORM :
The equation of tangent in parametric form given the parametric point (at2, 2at) on parabola
y2 = 4ax is

ty = x + a t2
just replace x by at2 and y 2at in point form to get the answer

Type 3 : SLOPE FORM :

This one we have already when we discuss the condition for tangency i.e.
a
y = mx +
m

Illustration 23
Find m for which the line 3y + x ă m = 0 is a tangent to the parabola y2 = ă 7x.
Solution :
1 m
Putting the line in the form y = mx + c we get y = x+
3 3
1 m
 m and c are and respectively.
3 3

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 25

7
Also, 4a = 7  a =
4

a m 7 / 4 63
Applying c = we get = m=
m 3 1 / 3 4

Illustration 24
Find k for which the line x + 2y + k = 0 touches the parabola y2 + 4y + 4x = 0.
Solution :
First Method :
The parabola can be written as y2 + 4y = 4x
 (y + 2)2 = 4 (x 1)
Put X = x 1, y + 2 = Y we get
Y2 = 4X  a = 1
Also line, in new coordinate system, is

1 3k
X + 1 + 2(Y 2) + k = 0  Y = X+
2 3

9 3k 1
For tangency c =  =  k = 1
m 2 1 / 2
Second Method :
Eliminating x between the two equations we get
y2 + 4y + 4( 2y k) = 0
2
 y 4y 4k = 0
For tangency this equation must have equal roots
 16 + 16k = 0  k = 1
NOTE :
The second method is always applicable. It is even applicable in the case when the equation of
the parabola contains xy term.

Illustration 25
Find the common tangents to the circle x 2 + y2 = 2 and the parabola y2 = 8x.
Solution :
Any tangent to the parabola y2 = 8x may be taken as

a 2
y = mx + OR y = mx +
m m
 m2x my + 2 = 0 (*)
If this a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = 2, the perpendicular length from centre (0, 0) of the circle
on the line (*) must be equal to radius 2 of the circle.

PARABOLA
26 QUIZRR

2
 = 2  m4 + m2 2 = 0
m + m2
4

 (m2 + 2) (m2 1) = 0  m = μ 1 (m2 + 2 = 0 is not possible)

 Common tangents to the circle and the parabola are y = x + 2 and y = x 2

5.2 POINT OF INTERSECTION OF TANGENTS

Point of intersection of tangents at the points Ât1Ê and Ât2Ê is (a t1t2, a (t1 + t2)).
NOTE :
1. The Geometric mean of the x co-ordinates of P and

Q (i.e., at12  at22 = at1t2) is the x co-ordinate of

the point of intersection of tangents at P and Q on
the parabola.
2. The Arithmetic mean of the y-co-ordinates of P

FG i.e., 2 at + 2 at IJ
and Q
H = a(t1 + t2 )
K is the y-co-
1 2
2
ordinate of the point of intersection of tangents at
P and Q on the parabola.

Illustration 26
Show that the tangents at the extremities of any focal chord of a parabola intersect at right
angles at the directrix.
Solution :
The equations of tangents at two points P(at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) are
t1y = x + at12 ...(i)
and, t2y = x + at22 ...(ii)
The coordinates of the point of intersection of (i) and (ii) are
(at1 t2, a (t1 + t2))
Since PQ is a focal chord. Therefoere, t1 t2 = 1.

1 1 1 1
Now, slope of (i) slope of (ii) =  = = = 1
t1 t2 t1 t2 1

Hence, tangents at P and Q are at right angle.

The coordinates of the point of intersection are ( a, a (t1 + t2). Clearly, this point lies on
the directrix.

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 27

Illustration 27
Show that the locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to the parabola
is its directrix.
Solution :
Let P(h, k) be the point of intersection of tangents at points Q(at12, 2at1) and R (at22, 2at2) on the
parabola y2 = 4ax.
Then, h = at1t2 and k = a (t1 + t2).
The equations of tangents at Q and R are
t1y = x + at12 and t2y = x + at22 respectively.
These two will be perpendicular, if

1 1
 = 1  t1 t2 = 1
t1 t2

Putting t1 t2 = 1 in h = at1 t2, we get h = a.

So, the locus of (h, k) is x = a, which is the directrix of the parabola.

Illustration 28
Prove that the area of the triangle formed by three points on a parabola is twice the area
of the triangle formed by the tangents at these points. [I.I.T. 1996]
Solution :
Let A (at12, 2at1), B(at22, 2at2) and C(at32, 2at3) be three points on the parabola y2 = 4ax. Then,
 1 = Area of ABC

at12 2 at1 1
1
= at22 2 at2 1
2
at32 2 at3 1

t12 t1 1
1 2 2
= (2 a ) t2 t2 1
2
t32 t3 1

= a 2
t22 
t12
t12
t1
t2  t1 0
1
LMApplying R  R  R OP
2 2 1

t32  t12 t3  t1 0
N and R  R  R Q
3 3 1

t12 t1 1
2
= a (t2 t1 (t3 t1) t2 + t1 1 0
t3 + t1 1 0

PARABOLA
28 QUIZRR

t2 + t1 1
= a2 (t2 t1) (t3 t1)
t3 + t1 1

= a2 (t2 t1) (t3 t1) (t2 t3)

= a2 (t1 t2) (t2 t3) (t3 t1)
= a2 (t1 t2) (t2 t3) (t3 t1) in magnitude.
Suppose the tangents at A, B, C taken in pairs intersect at P, Q and R. Then, coordinates
of P, Q and R are (at1t2, a(t1 + t2)), (at2t3, a(t2 + t3)) and (at3t1, a(t3 + t1)) respectively.
 2 = Area of PQR

at1 t2 a(t1 + t2 ) 1
1
= at2 t3 a(t2 + t3 ) 1
2
at3 t1 a(t3 + t1 ) 1

t1 t2 t1 + t2 1
1
= a2 t2 t3 t2 + t3 1
2
t3 t1 t3 + t1 1

t1 t2 t1 + t2
1
= a2 t2 (t3  t1 ) t3  t1
1
0
LMApplying R  R  R OP
2 2 1

2
t1 (t3  t2 ) t3  t2 0 N and R  R  R Q
3 3 1

t1 t2 t1 + t2 1
1
= a2 (t3  t1 ) (t3  t2 ) t2 1 0
2
t3 1 0

1 2 1 2
= a (t3 t1) (t3 t2) (t2 t1) = a (t1 t2) (t2 t3) (t3 t1)
2 2

Clearly, 1 = 22.

Illustration 29
If the tangents at the points P and Q on a parabola meet in T, prove that ST2 = SP . SQ i.e.
ST is the geometric mean of the focal distances of P and Q.
Solution :
Let P (at12, 2at1) and Q (at22, 2at2) be two points on the parabola y2 = 4ax. The tangents at P and
Q intersect at T(at1 t2, a (t1 + t2)).
 ST2 = (a t1t2 a)2 + {a(t1 + t2) 0)}2
= a2 [(t1t2 1)2 + (t1 + t2)2] = a2 [t12 + t22 + t12 t22 + 1]
= a2 (t12 + 1) (t22 + 1) = a(t12 + 1) . a (t22 + 1)

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 29

= (at12 + a) (at22 + 1)

LM  SP = x+ a = at + a OP
2
1
= SP . SQ
MNand, SQ = x+ a = at + aPQ
2
2

Illustration 30

Show that the area of the triangle formed by three points on a parabola is twice the area
of the triangle formed by the tangents at these points.
Solution :
Let the three points on the parabola be (at12, 2at1), (at22, 2at2) and (at32, 2at3).
The area of the triangle formed by these points

at12 2 at1 1
1
= at22 2 at2 1 = a2 (t2 t3) (t3 t1) (t1 t2)
2
at32 2 at3 1

The intersections of the tangents at these points are the points

{at2t3, a(t2 + t3)}, {at3t1, a(t3 + t1)}, and {at1t2, a(t1 + t2)}

at2 t3 a(t2 + t3 ) 1
1
The area of the triangle formed by these three points = at3 t1 a(t3 + t1 ) 1
2
at1 t2 a(t1 + t2 ) 1

1
= {at2t3(at3 at2) + at3t1 (at1 at3) + at1t2 (at2 at1)}
2

1 2
= a (t2 t3) (t3 t1) (t1 t2)
2

Since the absolute value of the first expression is double the second expression. The result
follows.

5.3 NUMBER OF TANGENTS DRAWN FROM A POINT TO A PARABOLA

THEOREM : Two tangents can be drawn from a point to a parabola. The two tangents are real
and distinct or coincident or imaginary according as the given point lies outside, on
or inside the parabola.
PROOF : Let the parabola be y2 = 4ax and P(h, k) be a point.

PARABOLA
30 QUIZRR

The equation of any tangent to the given parabola is

a
y = mx +
m

If it passes through (h, k) then

a
k = mh +
m

 m2h mk + a = 0
This equation, being a quadratic in m, gives two values of m. Corresponding to each of these
values of m there is a tangent to the parabola.
Thus, two tangents can be drawn from a point to a parabola.
The tangents are real and distinct, coincident or imaginary according as the roots of quadratic
in m are real and distinct, equal or imaginary i.e. according as
k2 4ah > or = or < 0
i.e. (h, k) lies outside or on or side the parabola y2 = 4ax.

Illustration 31
Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of tangents to the parabola y2 = 4a x which
meet at an angle  is (x + a )2 tan2  = y2 ă 4a x.
Solution :
Let P (h, k) be the point of intersection of tangents to the parabola y2 = 4ax.
The equation of any tangent to y2 = 4ax is

a
y = mh +
m
If it passes through (h, k), then

a
k = mh +  m2h mk + a = 0
m

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 31

Let m1, m2 be the roots of this equation. Then,

k a
m1 + m2 = and m1 m2 =
h h
Clearly, m1, m2 are the slopes of the tangents drawn from P.

m1  m2 (m1 + m2 ) 2  4 m1 m2
 tan  =  tan  =
1 + m1 m2 1 + m1 m2

k2  4 ah
 tan  =  k2 4ah = (a + h)2 tan2 
a+ h

Hence, the locus of (h, k) is y2 4ax = (a + x)2 tan2

Illustration 32
Find the locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to the parabola y2 =
4a x.
Solution :
Forming the equation as formed in the previous illustration i.e., m2h mk + a = 0

a
 m1 m2 =
h

If the tangents are perpendicular, then

a
m1 m2 = 1  = 1  h = a
h

Hence, the locus of (h, k) is x = a, which is the directrix of the parabola.

Illustration 33
Find the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents to the parabola y2 = 4a x such that
they include at angle of 45Ĉ.
Solution :
From illustration 32, we have
y2 4ax = (a + x)2 tan2 
Putting  = 45 , we get
y2 4ax = (a + x)2
Hence, the required locus is y2 4ax = (a + x)2

PARABOLA
32 QUIZRR
5.4 DIRECTOR CIRCLE :
The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to a conic is known as its director circle.
The director circle of a parabola is its directrix.

5.5 EQUATION OF THE PAIR OF TANGENTS FROM A POINT TO A PARABOLA

The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from a point to a parabola is SS´ = T2.
PROOF : Let PQ and PR be the tangents drawn from the point P(x1, y1) to the parabola y2 =
4ax. Let A (h, k) be any point on either tangent through P. Then, equation of PA is

k y1
y y1 = (x x1)
h x1

y=
FG k y IJ x+ FG hy  kx IJ
1 1 1
or,
H h  x K H h x K
1 1
...(i)

This equation should be of the form

a
y = mx + ...(ii)
m
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get
k y1 a hy1  kx1
m= and =
h x1 m h x1
Eliminating m from these two, we obtain
k y1 hy1  kx1
a =   a (h x1)2 = (k y1) (hy1 kx1)
h x1 h x1
Hence, the locus of the (h, k) i.e. equation of the pair of tangents, is
a(x x1)2 = (y y1) (xy1 yx1)
2
or, (y 4ax) (y12 4ax) = (yy1 2a (x + x1)}2
or, SS´ = T2,
where S = y2 4ax, S´ = y12 4ax1 and T = yy1 2a (x + x1).
REMARK : S = 0 is the equation of the curve, S´ is obtained from S by replacing x by x1 and
y by y1 and T = 0 is the equation of the tangent.

Illustration 34
Find the angle between the tangents of the parabola y2 = 8x, which are drawn from the
point (2, 5).
Solution :

2
Let y = mx + be a tangent of parabola y2 = 8x, if it passes through (2, 5),
m

2
then 5 = 2m + or 2m2 5m + 2 = 0
m

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 33

roots of this quadratic equation in m will give slope of tangents of the parabola y2 = 8x, which
are passing through point (2, 5).
Angle between these tangents is given by

F I F 25 I
F m  m I = tan GG (m1 + m2 )  4 m1 m2
2
JJ = tan GG 4JJ FG IJ
3
tan 1 GH 1 + m m JK
1 2 1

H 1 + m1 m2 K
1

GG
4
1+1
= tan 1
JJ H K
4
.

H K
1 2

Illustration 35
Prove that the tangents at the extremities of any focal chord intersect at right angles on
the directrix.
Solution :
Let the parabola be y2 = 4ax ...(i)
Let A(at12, 2at1) and B(at22, 2at2) be the extremities of a focal chord.
Equation of chord AB is y(t1 + t2) = 2(x + at1t2) ...(ii)
Since line (ii) passes through the focus (a, 0)
 2a(1 + t1t2) = 0 or t1t2 = 1 ...(iii)
The equation of the tangents at A and B are respectively
t1y = x + at12 ...(iv)
and t2y = x + at22 ...(v)
1 1
Slope of line (iv) is and slope of line (v) is .
t1 t2
Product of the slopes
1 1 1 1
= . = = = 1 [from (iii)]
t1 t2 t1 t2 1
Hence the tangents intersect at right angles.
Also on solving (iv) and (v) we get x = at1t2
 x = a which is independent of choice of t1 and t2, hence tangents will meet always on
directrix, x = a.

Illustration 36
Find the equation of the common tangents to the parabola y2 = 4a x and x 2 = 4by.
Solution :
The equation of any tangent in terms of slope (m) to the parabola y2 = 4ax is

a
y = mx + ...(1)
m
If this line is also tangent to the parabola x2 = 4ay, then (1) meets x2 = 4by in two coincident
points.

PARABOLA
34 QUIZRR

FG a IJ
Substituting the value of y from (1) in x2 = 4by we get x2 = 4b mx+
H m K
4 ab
x2 4bmx = 0
m
The roots of this quadratic are equal provided „B2 = 4AC‰

FG 4 abIJ
i.e., ( 4bm)2 = 4.1
H m K
 16b2m3 + 16ab = 0, m  0
or m3 = a/ b
 m = a1/3/b1/3
Substituting the value of m in (1) the required equation is

a1/3 ab1/3
y= x 
b1/3 a1/3

a1/3
 y= x a2/3b1/3
b1/3
 a1/3x + b1/3 y + a2/3b2/3 = 0

Illustration 37
The tangents to the parabola y2 = 4a x make angle 1 and 2 with x-axis. Find the locus of
their point of intersection if cot 1 + cot 2 = c .
Solution :
Let the equation of any tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax is
y = mx + (a/m) ...(1)
2
Let (x1, y1) be the point of intersection of the tangents to y = 4ax then (1) passes through
(x1, y1)
 y1 = mx1 + (a/ m)
2
or m x1 my1 + a = 0
Let m1 and m2 be the roots of this quadratic equation then
m1 + m2 = y1 / x1 and m1m2 = a / x1
or tan 1 + tan 2 = y1 / x1
and tan 1 tan 2 = a / x1 ...(2)
Now cot 1 + cot 2 = c (given)
1 1
 + =c
tan 1 tan 2

tan 1 + tan 2
 =c [From (2)]
tan 1 tan 2

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 35

y1 / x1
 =c
a / x1

 y1 = ac
The required locus is y = ac (which is a line parallel to x-axis)

6.1 EQUATION OF NORMAL IN DIFFERENT FORMS

Type 1 : POINT FORM
The equation of normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at a point (x1 y1) is

y1
y ă y1 = (x ă x 1)
2a
logic : we need to find the slope of normal to find the equation. We earlier calculated the slope
of tangent

dy 2a
i.e. =
dx x1 y1 y1

1  y1
 Slope normal = =
Slope tangent 2a

as m1m2 = 1 for two perpendicular lines.

Hence the equation of normal becomes

y1
y y1 = (x x1)
2a
which is the required equation.
Type 2 : PARAMETRIC FORM
The equation of normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at parametric point (at2, 2at) is

y + tx = 2a t + a t3
for proof just replace x1 by at2 and y by 2at in point form equation.
Type 3 : SLOPE FORM
The equation of normal of slope m to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point (am2, 2am) (note that
point is also in slope form) is
y = mx ă 2a m ă a m 3
from point form we know eqn of normal is

 y1
y y1 = (x x1) ...(i)
2a

 y1
 m =  y1 = 2am (which is the ordinate of point taken)
2a
for abcissa we know point lies on parabola
PARABOLA
36 QUIZRR

y12 4 a2 m2
hence x1 = = = am2
4a 4a
hence here (x1 y1) = (am2, 2am)
put these values of x1y1 in (i) to get the required equation
y + 2am = m (x am2)
 y = mx 2am am3

6.2 CONDITION FOR A LINE TO BE A NORMAL

The condition required for a line y = mx + c to be a normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax is

c = ă 2a m ă a m 3
Logic : Nothing just compare the equation of normal derived just above in slope form with
y = mx + c to arrive at the result.
Point of intersection of the normals to the parabola y2 = 4a x at (a t 12, 2a t 1) and
(a t22, 2a t2) :
Equation of normals at A(at12, 2at1) and B(at22, at2) are
y + t1x = 2at1 + at13 ...(1)
y + t2x = 2at2 + at23 ...(2)
(1) (2)  (t1 t2)x = 2a (t1 t2) + a(t13 t23)
 x = 2a + a(t12 + t22 + t1 t2)
t2 . (1) t1(2)  (t2 t1) y = at1t2(t12 t22)
 y= at1t2 (t1 + t2)
Thus point of intersection of lines (1) and (2) is

(2a + a (t12 + t22 + t1t2), ă a t1t2(t1 + t2))

6.3 RELATION BETWEEN ‘t1’ AND ‘t2’ IF NORMAL AT ‘t1’ MEETS THE PARABOLA
AGAIN AT ‘t2’
Let the parabola be y2 = 4ax, equation of normal at P(at12, 2at1) is
y= t1x + 2at1 + at13 ...(1)
Since it meet the parabola again at Q(at22, 2at2) then equation
(1) passes through Q(at22, 2at2)
 2at2 = at1t22 + 2at1 + at13
 2a(t2 t1) + at1(t22 t12) = 0
 a(t2 t1) [2 + t1(t2 + t1)] = 0
. a(t2 t1)  0 ( . t1 and t2 are different)
 2 + t1 (t2 + t1) = 0

2
 t 2 = ă t1 ă
t1

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 37

Result 2 : If normals at Ât1Ê and Ât2Ê meets the parabola y2 = 4ax at same point then
t1t2 = 2
Proof : Suppose normals meet at ÂTÊ then

2 2
T = t1 = t2
t1 t2

t2) = 2
FG 1  1 IJ
(t1
Ht t K
2 1

t 1t 2 = 2 ( . t1  t2)

Illustration 38
Find the equations of the normals at the ends of the latus-rectumof the parabola y2 = 4a x.
Also prove that they are at right angles on the axis of the parabola.
Solution :
The coordinates of the ends of the latusrectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax are (a, 2a) and (a, –2a)
is

2a
y 2a = (x a) or x + y 3a = 0 ...(i)
2a

FG 2 a IJ (x
y + 2a =
H 2a K a) or x y 3a = 0 ...(ii)

Clearly, (i) and (ii) are perpendicular as the product of their slopes is 1. The point of
intersection of (i) and (ii) is (3a, 0), which lies onthe axis of the parabola.

Illustration 39

Prove that the chord y ă x 2 + 4a 2 = 0 is a normal chord of the parabola y2 = 4a x. Also,

find the point on the parabola where the given chord is normal to the parabola.
Solution :

We have : y x 2 + 4a 2 = 0

or y = 2x 4a 2 ...(i)
The equation of any normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax is
y = mx 2am am3 ...(ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get

m = 2 and 2am am3 = 4a 2

Clearly, m = 2 satisfies 2am am3 = 4a 2 .

2
Hence, the given chord is normal to the parabola y = 4ax.

The coordinates of the point are (am2, 2am) i.e. (2a, 2 2 a).

PARABOLA
38 QUIZRR

Illustration 40

Prove that the tangent at one extremity of the focal chord of a parabola is parallel to the
normal at the other extremity.
Solution :
The PQ be a focal chord of the parabola, and let the coordinates of P and Q be (at12, 2at1) and
(at22, 2at2) respectively. Then,
t1 t2 = 1 ...(i)

The equation of tangent at P (at12, 2at1) to y2 = 4ax is

t1 y = x + at12 ...(ii)

The equation of the normal at Q(at22, 2at2) to y2 = 4ax is

y + t2x = 2at2 + at23 ...(iii)

1
The slope the tangent at P = is m1 =
t1

The slope of the normal at Q is,

1
m2 = t2 = [ . t1 t2 = 1  t2 = 1/t1]
t1

Clearly, m1 = m2. Hence, (i) and (ii) are parallel.

Illustration 41

If the normal at a point P(a t2, 2a t) to the parabola y2 = 4a x subtends a right angle at the
vertex of the parabola. Then prove that t2 = 2.
Solution :
The equation of the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at P is y + tx = 2at + at3. Suppose it meets
the parabola at Q. If O is the vertex of the parabola, then the combined equation of OPand OQ
is a homogeneous equation of second degree, given by

y2 = 4ax FG y+ tx IJ
H 2 at+ at K
3

 y2 (2at + at3) = 4ax (y + tx)

 4at x2 + 4axy (2at + at3) y2 = 0
If OP and OQ are at right angle, then
Coeff. of x2 + Coeff. of y2 = 0
 4at 2at at3 = 0  t2 = 2.

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 39

Illustration 42

If the normals at two points P and Q of a parabola y2 = 4a x intersect at a third point R on

the curve. Show that the product of the ordinates of P and Q is 8 a 2.
Solution :
Let P (at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) be two points on the parabola y2 = 4ax. It is given that the
normals at P and Q intersect at R on the parabola. Therefore,
t1 t2 = 2.
So, product of the ordinates at P and Q = (2at1) (2at2)
= 4a2 + t1 t2 = 8a2 [ . t1 t2 = 2]

Illustration 43

Prove that the normal chord of a parabola at the point whose ordinate is equal to the
abscissa subtends a right angle at the focus.
Solution :
Let P(at12, 2at1) be a point on the parabola and PQ be a chord normal at point P. Let the
coordinates of Q be (at22, 2at2). Then,

2
t2 = t1
t1

It is given that at12 = 2at1  t1 = 0 or t1 = 2.

For t1 = 0, t2 is not defined, which means that the normal chord does not intersect the
parabola.

2
 t1 = 2  t2 = 2 = 3.
2

Thus, the coordinates of P and Q are (4a, 4a) and (9a, 6a). Let S (a, 0) be the focus of
the parabola.

9 a a 4
Thus, m1 = slope of SQ = =
6 a  0 3

4 a a 3
and, m2 = slope of SP = =
4 a 0 4

Clearly, m1 m2 = 1  SP  SQ.
Hence, PQ subtends a right angle at S.

PARABOLA
40 QUIZRR

Illustration 44

Prove that two parabolas y2 = 4a x and y2 = 4c (x ă b) cannot have a common normal unless

b
> 2.
a c

Solution :
The equation of any normal of slope m to the parabola y2 = 4c (x b) is
3
y = m (x b) 2cm cm
or, y = mx mb 2cm cm3
For this to be normal to y2 = 4ax, we must have
mb 2cm cm3 = 2am am3
 b + 2c + cm2 = 2a + am2
 b + 2c 2a = (a c) m2

b 2( a c)
 m2 =
a c

b
 m = 2
a c

Since m is real, therefore,

b b
2 > 0  > 2.
a c a c

Illustration 45

If normal at the point (a t2, 2a t) in the parabola y2 = 4a x intersects the parabola again at the
point (a m 2, 2a m), then find the minimum value of m 2.
Solution :
Since normal at the point ÂtÊ intersects again at the point ÂmÊ

2
we have m = t
t

 t2 + tm + 2 = 0
since ÂtÊ is real, D  0
m2  8
so, least value of m2 is 8.

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 41

6.4 FROM ANY POINT THREE NORMALS CAN BE DRAWN TO A PARABOLA OF WHICH
AT LEAST ONE WILL BE REAL.
Let the equation of the parabola be y2 = 4ax and let the given point be (x1, y1).
The equation of any normal to the parabola in the slope form is
y = mx 2am am3 ...(1)
If this normal passes through (x1, y1), then
y1 = mx1 2am am3 or am3 + (2a x1)m + y1 = 0.
This is a cubic equation in m and has three roots, say m1, m2 and m3.
Corresponding to these three values of m we will get three normals to the parabola passing
through (x1, y1).
Since imaginary roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients always occur in pair,
therefore at least one root will be real and hence at least one normal will be real.
Note : Any three points on a parabola normals at which pass through a common point are called
co-normal points.

Illustration 46
Three normals are drawn from the point (c, 0) to the curve y2 = x. Show that c must be
greater than 1/2. One normal is always the x-axis. Find c for which the other two normals
are perpendicular to each other.
Solution :
Equation to normal to the parabola

m m3
y2 = x is y = mx  is passing through (c, 0)
2 4

m m3 1FG m3IJ
0 = cm
2

4
 m c
2 H
=
4 K
1 m2
m = 0 or c =
2 4

1 F m2 I
c
2 GH
 0 since
4
0 JK
1 1
c  . If c = , then m = 0
2 2
Then only one normal will be there i.e., x-axis.

1
Since three normals are there, c >
2

PARABOLA
42 QUIZRR

F2 1 I F 2 1 I
Then GH c
2 JK GH c
2 JK = 1

1 1 3
 c   c=
2 4 4

6.5 CO-NORMAL POINTS

The points on the curve at which the normals pass through a common point are called co-
normal points.
Q, R and S are co-normal points. The co-normal points are also called the feet of the normals.

SOME RESULTS ON CO-NORMAL POINTS

Let y2= 4ax be a parabola and let P (x1, y1) a point. The equation of any normal to y2 = 4ax is
y = mx 2am am3
If it passes thought P(x1, y1), then
y1 = mx1 2am am3
 am3 + (2a x1) + y1 = 0
This is a cubic equation in m. So, it gives three values of m, say, m1, m2, m3. Corresponding
to each of these values of m there is a normal to the parabola passing through point P(x1, y1).
Let Q, R and S be three points on the parabola such that the normals at these points pass through
P. If m1, m2 and m3 are the slopes of the normals at Q, R and S respectively. Then, the coordinates
of Q, R and S are (am12, 2am1), (am22, 2am2) and (am32, 2am3) respectively. These three
points are called the feet of the normals.
Now, m1, m2 and m3 are roots of (i). Therefore,
m1 + m2 + m3 = 0 ...(ii)

(2 a  x1 )
m1 m2 + m2 m3 + m3 m1 = ...(iii)
a

y1
and, m1 m2 m3 = ...(iv)
a

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 43

Result I. The sum of the slopes of the normals at conormal points is zero.
Result II. The sum of the ordinates of the co-normal points is zero.
Proof : The coordinates of the feet of the normals are (am12, 2am1), (am22, 2am2) and
(am32, 2am3).
 Sum of the ordinates of the co-normal points
= 2a (m1 + m2 + m3) = 2a 0 [Using (i)]
= 0
Result III. The centroid of the triangle formed by the co-normalpoints lies on the axis of the
parabola :
Proof : The vertices of the triangle formed by the co-normal points are (am12, 2am1),
(am22, 2am2) and (am32, 2am3).

2a
So, y-coordinates of the centroid = (m1 + m2 + m3)
3

2a
= 0= 0
3

Hence, the centroid lies on the x-axis i.e. axis of the parabola.

Illustration 47

Find the locus of the points of intersection of the three normals to the parabola y2 = 4a x,
two of which are inclined at right angles to each other.
Solution :
Let (h, k) be the point of intersection of three normals to the parabola y2 = 4ax. The equation of
any normal to y2 = 4ax is
y = mx 2am am3.
If it passes through (h, k), them
k = mh 2am am3
 am3 + m (2a h) + k = 0 ...(i)
This equation, being a cubic in m, gives three values of m say, m1, m2, m3.
 m1, m2, m3 = k/a
But two of the three normals are at right angles.

k k
 m1 m2 = 1  m3 =   m3 = .
a a
Since m3 is a root of (i), therefore,
am33 + m3 (2a h) + k = 0

FG kIJ 3
k
 a 
H aK 
a
(2a h) + k = 0 [ . m3 = k/a]

PARABOLA
44 QUIZRR

 k {k2 + (3a h) a} = 0
So, locus of (h, k) is y (y2 + (3a h) a) = 0

Illustration 48

Prove that the locus of points such that two of the three normals from them to the parabola
y2 = 4a x coincide is 27a y2 = 4(x ă 2a )3.
Solution :
we have
m1 + m2 + m3 = 0 ...(i)

(2 a  h)
m1 m2 + m2 m3 + m3 m1 = ...(ii)
a

k
and, m1 m2 m3 = ...(iii)
a

But here two of the three normals are given to be coincident i.e. m1 = m2
Putting m1 = m2 in (i) and (iii), we get
2m1 + m3 = 0 ...(iv)

k
and, m12 m3 = ...(v)
a

Putting m3 = 2m1, from (iv) in (v), we get

k k
2m13 =  m13 =
a 2a

Since m1 is a root of the equation

am3 + m(2a h) + k = 0
 am13 + m1 (2a h) + k = 0

k FG IJ
k
1/3
[Putting m1 = (k/2a)1/3

2
+
H K
2a
(2a h) + k = 0

FG k IJ 1/3
3k

H 2 aK (2a – h) =
2

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 45

k 27 k3
(2a h)3 =  27ak2 = 4 (h 2a)3
2a 8

Hence, the locus of (h, k) is

27ay2 = 4(x 2a)3

Illustration 49
Find the locus of a point which is such that () two of the normals drawn from it to the
parabola are at right angles, () the three normals through it cut the axis in points whose
distances from the vertex are in arithmetical progression.
Solution :
Any normal is y = mx 2am am3, and this passes through the point (h, k), if
am3 + (2a h) m + k = 0 ...(1)
If then m1, m2 and m3 be the roots, we have, by Art.2,
m1 + m2 + m3 = 0 ...(2)

2 a h
m2m3 + m3m1 + m1m2 = ...(3)
a

k
and m1m2m3 = ...(4)
a
(a) If two of the normals, say m1 and m2, be at right angles, we have m1m2 = 1, and hence,
k
from (4), m3 =
a

k
The quantity is therefore, a root of (1) and hence, by substitution, we have
a

k3 k
+ (2a h) + k= 0
a2 a
i.e., k2 = a (h 3a)
The locus of the point (h, k) is therefore the parabola y2 = a(x 3a) whose vertex is the point
(3a, 0) and whose latus rectum is one-quarter that of the given parabola.
The student should draw the figure of both parabolas.
() The normal y = mx 2am am3 meets the axis of x at a point whose distance fromthe
vertex is 2a + am2. The conditions of the question then give
(2a + am12) + (2a + am32) = 2(2a + am22)
i.e., m12 + m32 = 2m22 ...(5)
If we eliminate m1, m2 and m3 from the equations (2), (3), (4) and (5), we shall have a
relation between h and k.

PARABOLA
46 QUIZRR
From (2) and (3), we have

2 a h
= m1m3 + m2(m1 + m3) = m1m3 m22 ...(6)
a
Also, (5) and (2) give
2m22 = (m1 + m3)2 2m1m3 = m22 2m1m3
i.e., m22 + 2m1m3 = 0 ...(7)
Solving (6) and (7), we have

2 a h 2 a h
m1m3 = , and m22 = 2
3a 3a
Substituting these values in(4), we have

2 a h 2 a h k
2 =
3a 3a a
i.e., 27ak2 = 2(h 2a)3
so that the required locus is
27ay2 = 2(x 2a)3

Illustration 50
If the normals at three points P, Q and R meet in a point O and S be the focus, prove that
SP . SQ . SR = a . SO 2.
Solution :
As in the previous question we know that the normals at the points (am12, 2am1), (am22,
2am2) and (am32, 2am3) meet in the point (h, k), if
m1 + m2 + m3 = 0 ...(1)

2 a h
m2m3 + m3m1 + m1m2 = ...(2)
a

k
and m1m2m3 = ...(3)
a
By Art. 202, we have
SP = a(1 + m12), SQ = a (1 + m22), and SR = a (1 + m32)

SP.SQ.SR
Hence, = (1 + m12) (1 + m22) (1 + m32)
a3

= 1 + (m12 + m22 + m32) + (m22 m32 + m32 m12 + m12 m22) + m12 m22 m32
Also, from (1) and (2), we have
m12 + m22 + m32 = (m1 + m2 + m3)2 2(m2m3 + m3m1 + m1m2)

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 47

FG h 2 aIJ
= 2
H a K
and m22 m32 + m32 m12 m22 = (m2m3 + m3m1 + m1m2)2 2m1m2m3 (m1 + m2 + m3)

FG h 2 a IJ 2
=
H a K by (1) and (2)

SP. SQ. SR h 2 a h 2 a FG IJ 2
k2
Hence,
a3
= 1+ 2
a
+
a H K +
a2

( h a) 2 + k2 SO2
= = 2
a2 a
i.e., SP . SQ .SR = SO2 . a

Illustration 51
Prove that the normal chord to a parabola y2 = 4a x at the point whose ordinate is equal
to abscissa subtends a right angle at the focus.
Solution :
Let the normal at P(at12, 2at1) meet the curve at Q(at22, 2at2) PQ is a normal chord.

2
and t2 = t1 ...(1)
t1

By given condition 2at1 = at12

 t1 = 2 from equation (1), t2 = 3
then P(4a, 4a) and Q(9a, 6a)
but focus S(a, 0)
4 a 0
 Slope of SP =
4 a a

PARABOLA
48 QUIZRR

4a 4
= =
3a 3

6 a  0
and Slope of SQ =
9 a a

6a 3
= =
8a 4

4 3
. Slope of SP Slope of SQ =  = 1
3 4
 PSQ = /2
i.e., PQ subtends a right angle at the focus S.

Illustration 52
Three normals are drawn from the point (7, 14) to the parabola x 2 ă 8x ă 16y = 0. Find the
coordinates of the feet of the normals.
Solution :
The equation of the given parabola is
x2 8x 16y = 0
Differentiating above equation thrughout w.r.t. x, we have

dy
2x 8 16 = 0
dx

dy x 4
gives =
dx 8

If (h, k) be a point on the given parabola, then we have

h2  8 h
k =
16

8
and slope of the normal at (h, k) =
4h

Therefore, equation of the normal at (h, k) is

y k=
FG 8 IJ (x h)
H 4  hK
If the normal passes through (7, 14), then we have

h2  8 h 8 FG IJ h)
14
16
=
4h
(7
H K
PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 49

i.e., (4 h) (224 h2 + 8h) = 128(7 h)

i.e., h3 12h2 64h = 0
2
i.e., h(h 12h 64) = 0
gives h = 0, 4, 16
Putting the values of h in equation (3) gives k = 0, 3, 8 respectively.
Therefore, the coordinates of the feet of the normals are (0, 0), ( 4, 3) and (16, 8).

7.1 THE EQUATION OF CHORD OF CONTACT

If from P(x1, y1) tangents PA and PB are drawn to the parabola y2 = 4ax then equation of chord

of contact AB is yy1 = 2a (x + x 1)

which follows from the fact that the equation which is being claimed to be equation of AB
represents a line and is satisfied by co-ordinates of A and B. Indeed if A be
( ) then AP is tangent at P

 Equation of AP is y = 2a (x + )
 Since it passes through P(x1, y1) we must have
y1 = 2a (x1 + )
 which shows that the point A( ) lies on the line
yy1 = 2a(x + x1)
 Similarly the point B lies on the line yy1 = 2a (x + x1) which completes the proof.
NOTE :
The equation of chord of contact resembles with that of the tangentÊs equation but in the tangentÊs
case the point (x1, y1) lies on the parabola.

PARABOLA
50 QUIZRR

Illustration 53

Find the equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point (3, 4) to the
parabola y2 = 2x.
Solution :
Using yy1 = 2a (x + x1), the equation of the chord of contact is
4y = (x + 3) or x 4y + 3 = 0

Illustration 54

Tangents are drawn at the points where the line lx + my + n = 0 is intersected by the
parabola y2 = 4a x. Find the point of intersection of tangents.
Solution :
Let the point of intersection of tangents be (x1, y1) then the equation of the chord of contact of
tangents drawn from P to the parabola y2 = 4ax is

yy1 = 2a (x + x1)
Clearly, lx + my + n = 0 is also the chord of contact of
tangents. Therefore, yy1 = 2a (x + x1) and lx + my + n = 0
represent the same line. Hence,

2 a  y1 2 a x1
= =
l m n

n 2 am
 x1 = and y1 =
l l

FG n , 2 am IJ
Hence, the required point is
Hl l K

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 51

Illustration 55
Show that the length of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from (x 1, y1) tothe parabola
y2 = 4a x is
1
( y12  4 a x 1 ) ( y12 + 4 a 2 )
a
Solution :
Let AB be the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a
point P(x1, y1) to the parabola y2 = 4ax. Then, the equation
of AB is
yy1 = 2a (x + x1)
The ordinates of A and B are the roots of the equation

y2 = 4a
FG yy  2 ax IJ or y2 ă 2yy1 + 4ax1 = 0
H 2a K
1 1

 k1 + k2 = 2y1 and k1 k2 = 4ax1 ...(i)

Illustration 56
Prove that the area of the triangle formed by the tangents drawn from (x 1, y1) to y2 = 4a x
( y12  4a x 1 )3/ 2
and their chord of contact is .
2a
Solution :
Equation of AB (chord of contact) is
yy1 = 2a (x + x1)
or yy1 ă 2a (x + x1) = 0
ĉ.ĉ PM = length of perpendicular from
P(x1, y1) on AB

y1 y1  2 a( x1 + x1 )
=
( y12 + 4 a2 )

( y12  4 ax1 )
=
y12 + 4 a 2 )

1
(since P(x1, y1) lies outside the parabola  y12 ă 4ax1 > 0} and area of PAB = AB.PM
2

1 1 ( y12  4 ax1 )
= . . ( y12  4 ax1 ) ( y12 + 4 a 2 ) .
2 |a| ( y12 + 4 a 2 )

( y12  4 ax1 ) 3/2

= , if a > 0.
2a
PARABOLA
52 QUIZRR
8.1 EQUATION OF THE CHORD OF THE PARABOLA WHICH IS BISECTED AT A GIVE
POINT
The equation of the chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax which is bisected at (x1, y1) is

yy1 ă 2a (x + x 1) = y12 ă 4a x1 or T = S´
where S´ = y12 ă 4ax1 and T = yy1 ă 2a (x + x1).
Proof : The equation of a line passing through (x1, y1) is
y ă y1 = m (x ă x1) ...(i)
where m is a variable.
The abscissae of the points of intersection of y2 = 4ax and (ii) are the roots of the equation
(y1 ă mx1 + mx)2 = 4ax
or m2 x2 + 2 {ă 2a + my1 ă m2 x1} x + (y1 ă mx1)2 = 0
Let p1 and p2 be the roots of this equation. Then,

2 { 2 a+ my1  m2 x1 }
p1 + q2 =
m2
Since (x1, y1) is the mid-point of the chord joining the points of intersection of (i) and the
parabola.

p1 + q2 { 2 a+ my1  m2 x1 } 2a
 x1 =  x1 = m=
2 m2
y1
Substituting this value of m in (i), we obtain

2a
y ă y1 = (x ă x1)  yy1 ă y12 = 2a (x ă x1)
y1

 yy1 ă 2a (x + x1) = y12 ă 4ax1  T = S´

This is the equation of the chord bisected at (x1, y1).

Illustration 57
Find the equation of the chord of y2 = 8x which is bisected at (2, ă3).
Solution :
The equation of the required chord is given by
S´ = T  9 ă 8 ï 2 = ă 3y ă 4 (x + 2)
 9 ă 16 = ă 4x ă 3y ă 8  4x + 3y + 1 = 0

Illustration 58
Find the mid-point of the chord intercepted on the line 4x ă 3y + 4 = 0 by the parabola
y2 = 8x.
Solution :
Let (x1, y1) be the middle point of the chord intercepted on the line 4x ă 3y + 4 = 0 by the parabola
y2 = 8x. Then the equation of the chord whose middle point is (x1, y1) is
PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 53

yy1 ă 4 (x + x1) = y12 ă 8x1

or, 4x ă yy1 + y12 ă 4x1 = 0 ...(i)
Clearly, (i) and 4x ă 3y + 4 = 0 represent the same line.

4  y1 y12  4 x1 y y2  4 x1
 = = 1= 1 = 1
4 3 4 3 4
 y1 = 3 and y12 ă 4x1 = 4  y1 = 3 and x1 = 5/4
Hence, the required co-ordinates of the mid-point are (5/4, 3)

Illustration 59
Find the locus of the middle points of the chords of the parabola y2 = 4a x which pass
through the focus.
Solution :
Let (h, k) be the co-ordinates the mid-point of one of the chords which pass through the focus
(a, 0).
Then the equation of the chord whose mid-point is (h, k) is
ky ă 2a (x + h) = k2 ă 4ah
or ky ă 2ax + 2ah ă k2 = 0
If this line passes through the focus (a, 0), then
ă 2a2 + 2ah ă k2 = 0  k2 ă 2ah + 2a2 = 0

Illustration 60
Find the locus of the mid points of the chords of the parabola y2 = 4a x which subtend a right
angle at the vertex of the parabola.
Solution :
Let P(h, k) be the mid point of a chord QR of the parabola y2 = 4ax then equation of chord QR
is
T = S1
or yk ă 2a(x +h) = k2 ă 4ah
 yk ă 2ax = k2 ă 2ah ...(1)

If A is the vertex of the parabola. For combined equation of AQ and AR making homogeneous
2
of y = 4ax with the help of (1)
 y2 = 4ax (1)

PARABOLA
54 QUIZRR

y2 = 4ax
FG yk 2 ax IJ
H k  2 ah K
2

y2 (k2 ă 2ah) ă 4akxy + 8a2x2 = 0

 Co-efficient of x2 + Co-efficient of y2 = 0
k2 ă 2ah + 8a2 = 0
Hence the locus of P(h, k) is
y2 ă 2ax + 8a2 = 0

Illustration 61

Show that the locus of the middle points of normal chords of the parabola y2 = 4a x is
y4 ă 2a (x ă 2a ) y2 + 8a 4 = 0.
Solution :
Equation of the normal chord at any point (at2, 2at) of the parabola y2 = 4ax is
y + tx = 2at + at3 ...(1)

But if M(x1, y1) be its middle point its equation must be also

T = S1

yy1 ă 2a (x + x1) = y12 ă 4ax1

or yy1 ă 2ax = y12 ă 2ax1 ...(2)

ĉ.ĉ Equations (1) and (2) are identical, comparing them

1 t 2 at+ at3
= = 2
y1 2 a y1  2 ax1

2a
From first two relations t = ă ...(3)
y1

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 55

t 2 at+ at3
From last two relations = 2
2 a y1  2 ax1

y12  2 ax1
or = 2a + at2
2 a

y12  2 ax1
= 2a + a
FG
2 a IJ 2

or
2 a y1 H K (from equation (3)

y12  2 ax1 2 ay12 + 4 a 3

or =
2 a y12

or y14 ă 2ax1y12 = ă 4a2y12 ă 8a4

or y14 ă 2a (x1 ă 2a) y12 + 8a4 = 0
Hence locus of middle point (x1, y1) is
y4 ă 2a (x ă 2a) y2 + 8a4 = 0

Illustration 62
If Ât1Ê and Ât2Ê are two points of the parabola and chord joining them subtend 90Ĉ at origin
show that t1t2 = ă 4.
Solution :
The co-ordinate of points Ât1Ê and Ât2Ê are A (at12, 2at1) and B (at22, 2at2)

2 at1  0 2
 Slope OA = =
at12  0 t1

2
Similarly slope OB =
t2

2 2
We must have . = ă 1
t1 t2

 t1t2 = ă 4

Illustration 63
Find the locus of a point P which lies on the focal chord AB of the parabola y2 = 8x such
that AP : PB = 2 : 1.
Solution :
Let A be (at12, 2at1) and B be (at22, 2at2) (Note that a = 2)

2 at22 + at12 2.2 at2 + 2 at1

If P be the point (h, k) then h = , k=
3 3

PARABOLA
56 QUIZRR
and t1t2 = ă 1 (since AB is a focal chord)
The required locus must be eliminant of above equations. On putting a = 2 we have
3h = 4t22 + 2t12
3k = 8t2 + 4t1

1
t2 = ă
t1

1
On putting t2 = ă in the above system we get
t1

4
+ 2t12 = 3h (*)
t12

8
4t1 ă = 3k (**)
t1

On squaring the second relation (**) we get

64
16t12 + ă 64 = 9k2 (***)
t12

64
Multiplying the first relation by 64 and subtracting it from (***) (Eliminating ) we get
t12

48 h 9 k2  64
t12 =
9
On putting (t12 in (*) we get

36 96 h 18 k2  128
+ = 3h
48 h 9 k2  64 9
Thus the locus of point P is

36 96 x 18 y2  128
+ = 3x
48 x 9 y2  64 9

Illustration 64
Find the locus of point of intersection of tangents drawn at the extremities of normal
chords of the parabola y2 = 8(x ă 1).
Solution :
Putting x ă 1 = X, y = Y the parabola becomes
Y2 = 8X with a = 2

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 57

Let the extremities of a normal chord be (at12, 2at1) and (at22, 2at2) then tangents at these points
will intersect at a point ( ) where
 = at1t2,  = a(t1 + t2)

2
Also, t2 = ă t1 ă
t1

Putting a = 2 these relations become

2
 = 2t1t2,  = 2 (t1 + t2), t2 = ă t1 ă
t1

since we have to find the locus of () we must eliminate t1 and t2 from above equations. From
2
third relation t1 + t2 = ă
t1

 2  4
and from second t1 + t2 =   =  t1 = 
2 t1 2 

2 4 
whence t2 = ă t1 ă = +
t1  2

On substituting t1, t2 in first relation we get

 = 2 
FG 4 IJ FG 4 +  IJ  ( + 4) = ă 32
H  K H  2K
 Locus of ( ) is Y2 (X + 4) = ă 32
Switching over to old system of co-ordinates the locus is y2 (x + 3) + 32 = 0

9. POLE AND POLAR

If through a point P(within or outside a Parabola) there be drawn any straight line to meet
the parabola in Q & R, then the locus of point of intersection of the tangents at Q & R is called
the Polar of P; also P is called the Pole of the Polar.
The polar of a point (x1y1) with respect to the parabola y2 = 4ax is

yy1 = 2a (x + x 1)

Note :
Ć When the point (x1y1) lies outside the parabola the equation to its polar is the same as the
equation to the chord of contact of tangents drawn at (x1y1).
Ć When (x1y1) is on the parabola the polar is the same as the tangent at the point.

PARABOLA
58 QUIZRR
If the polar of a point P passes through the point T, then the polar of T goes through
P.
Let P be the point (x1, y1) and T the point (h, k).
The polar of P is yy1 = 2a (x + x1).
Since, it passes, through T, we have
y1k = 2a(x1 + h) ...(1)
The polar of T is, yk = 2a (x + h).
Since, (1) is true, this equation is satisfied by the coordinates x1 and y1.
Hence, the proposition.
Cor. : The point of intersection, T, of the polars of two points, P and Q, is the pole of the
line PQ.

To find the pole of a given straight line with respect to the parabola.
Let the given straight line be
Ax + By + C = 0
If its pole be the point (x1, y1), it must be the same straight line as,
yy1 = 2a(x + x1)
i.e., 2ax ă yy1 + 2ax1 = 0
Since, these straight lines are the same, we have

2a y 2 ax1
= 1 =
A B C

C 2 Ba
i.e., x1 = and y1 = ă
A A

Illustration 65
Show that the locus of the poles of normal chords of y2 = 4a x is (x + 2a ) y2 + 4a 3 = 0.
Solution :
Given parabola y2 = 4ax ...(1)
Equation of normal of (1) is
y = mx ă 2am ă am3 ...(2)
Let (x1, y1) be the pole of (2) with respect to (1), then (2) is the polar (x1, y1) with respect
to (1) i.e.,
yy1 = 2a (x + x1)
or yy1 = 2ax + 2ax1 ...(3)

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 59

Comparing (2) and (3) we get

y1 2 a 2 ax1
= =
1 m 2 am am 3
Then we get y1 = 2a/m ...(4)
2
and x1 = ă 2a ă am ..(5)
Eliminating m between (4) and (5) we get

FG 2 a IJ 2

x1 = ă 2a ă a
Hy K1

 (x1 + 2a) y12 + 4a3 = 0

 Required locus of (x1, y1) is (x + 2a) y2 + 4a3 = 0

Illustration 66
Find the locus of the poles of the chords of the parabola y2 = 4a x which subtend a constant
angle at the vertex.
Solution :
The given parabola is y2 = 4ax ...(1)
2
Let (x1, y1) be the pole of a chord of y = 4ax
Then the equation of the chord of the polar of (x1, y1) with respect to (1) is
yy1 = 2a (x + x1)

yy1  2 ax
or = 1 ...(2)
2 ax1

For the equation of the lines joining the points of intersection of (1) and (2) with the vertex
O(0, 0)

The making (1) homogeneous with the help of (2), we get

y2 = 4ax
FG yy  2 axIJ
1
H 2 ax K1

PARABOLA
60 QUIZRR
2 2
or 4ax ă 2y1xy + x1y = 0 ...(3)
If chord subtends an angle  at the vertex then
AOB = 

2 h2  ab 2 ( y1  4 ax1 )
2
 tan  = =
|a+ b| |4 a+ x1|

or (4a + x1)2 tan2  = 4(y12 ă 4ax1)

 The required locus of (x1, y1) is
(4a + x)2 tan2  = 4(y2 ă 4ax)
where  is constant.

10. LENGTHS OF TANGENT, SUBTANGENT, NORMAL AND SUBNORMAL

Let the parabola y2 = 4ax. Let tangent and normal at P(x, y) meet the axis of parabola at
T and G respectively and let tangent at P(x, y) makes angle  with the +ve direction of x-axis.

Then PT = Length of Tangent

PG = Length of Normal
TN = Length of Subtangent
and NG = Length of Subnormal
If A(0, 0) is the vertex of the parabola
ĉ.ĉ PN = y
 PT = PN cosec  = y cosec 
PG = PN cosec (90Ĉ ă ) = y sec 
TN = PN cot = y cot 
and NG = PN cot (90Ĉ ă ) = y tan 

2a
where tan  = = m [slope of tangent at P(x, y)]
y

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 61

Illustration 67
Find the length of tangent, subtangent, normal and subnormal ty2 = 4a x at (a t2, 2a t).
Solution :
ĉ.ĉ Equation of tangent of (at2, 2at) of parabola y2 = 4ax is
ty = x + at2

1
Slope of this tangent m =
t
Let tangent makes angle  with +ve direction of x-axis

1
tan  =
t
then t = cot 
2
Length of tangent at (at , 2at) = 2at cosec 

= 2at (1 + cot 2) = 2 at (1 + t2 )

Length of normals at (at2, 2at) = 2at sec 

= 2at (1 + tan2)

= 2a (t2 + t2 tan2) = 2 a (t2 +1)

Length of subtangent at (at2, 2at) = 2at cot  = 2at2

Length of subnormal at (at2, 2at) = 2at tan  = 2a

11. DIAMETER OF A PARABOLA

Def. Diameter of a conic is the locus of middle points of a series of its parallel chords.
Equation of diameter of a parabola :
Let the parabola be y2 = 4ax ...(1)
Let AB be one of the chords of a series of parallel chords
having slope m.
Let P() be the middle point of chord AB, then equation of
AB will be T = S1
or y ă 2a(x + ) = 2 ă 4a       ...(2)

2a
Slope of line (2) =


But slope of line (1) i.e., line AB is m.

2a 2a
 = m or  =
 m

PARABOLA
62 QUIZRR

Hence locus of P( ) i.e., equation of diameter (which is the locus of a series of parallel
chords having slope m) is

2a
y= ...(3)
m
Clearly line (3) is parallel to the axis of the parabola.
Thus a diameter of a parabola is parallel to its axis.
Note : 1. The point is which any diameter meets the curve is called the extremity of the diameter.
2. Any line which is parallel to the axis of the parabola drawn through any point on the
parabola is called diameter and its equation is y-co-ordinate of that point. If point on
diameter (x1, y1), then diameter is y = y1.
Remark 1. The tangent at the extremity of a diameter of a parabola is parallel to
the system of chords it bisects.
Let y = mx + c (c variable) represents the system of parallel chords, then the equation of the
diameter of

y2 = 4ax

2a
is y=
m

FG a , 2 a IJ a
The diameter meets the parabola y2 = 4ax at Hm mK
2 and tangent is y = mx +
m
which is

parallel to y = mx + c.
Remark 2 : Tangents at the end of any chord meet on the diameter which bisects
the chords.
If extremities of the chord be P(at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) then its slope

2 at2  2 at1 2
m=  m =
2
at2  at1 2
( t2 + t1 )

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 63

Equation of diameter is
y = 2a/m  y = a(t1 + t2) ...(1)
Now tangents at P(at12, 2at1) and
Q(at22, 2at2) meet at a point [at1t2, a(t1 + t2)] which lies on (1).
Alternative Method : Let equation of any chord PQ be y = mx + c
If tangents at P and Q meet at R(x1, y1) then PQ is the chord of contact with respect to
R(x1, y1).
 Equation of PQ is
2a 2 ax1
yy1 = 2x (x + x1) or y= x+
y1 y1
which is identical to y = mx + c
2a 2a
m = or y1 =
y1 m

2a
Hence locus of R(x1, y1) is y = which bisects the chord PQ.
m
Note : The quantity 4a cosec2 is called the parameter of the diameter AQ. It is equal to length
of the chord which is parallel to AT and passes through the focus.
i.e., a cosec2  = a(1 + cot2 ) = a + a cot2 
a
=a+
m2
= a + VL = SP
but length of focal chord if P(at2, 2at) is {ĉ.ĉ S (a, 0)}

a FG t+ 1IJ 2

H tK
2 at 0 2t
tan  = =
at2  a t2  1

1
or t ă = 2 cot 
t

PARABOLA
64 QUIZRR

F 1I
aG t+ J
2 R|F 1 I
= a SG t J
2
U|
H tK |TH t K V|
+ 4 = a{(2 cot )2 + 4}
W
= 4a cosec2
= 4 . SP

Illustration 68
If the diameter through any point P of a parabola meets any chord in A and the tangent
at the end of the chord meets the diameter in B and C, then prove that PA 2 = PB . PC.
Solution :
The equation of the parabola referred to the diameter through P and tangent at P as axes is
y2 = 4 x ...(1)
2
where  = a cosec 
Let QR be any chord of the parabola (1) let the extremities Q and R be (t12, 2t1) and (t22, 2t2)
Then the equation of QR is
y (t1 + t2) ă 2x ă 2t1t2 = 0 ...(2)
It meets the diameter through P i.e., x-axis or y = 0 then (2) reduces
0 ă 2x ă 2 t1t2 = 0
or x = ă t1t2 = PA
Now tangent at Q is t1y = x + t12 ...(3)
It meets the diameter through P i.e., x-axis or y = 0 then (3) reduces
0 = x + t12
or x = ă t12 = PB ...(4)
Similarly ă t22 = PC ...(5)
 (PA) = (ă t1t2)2 = 2t12t22
2

= (ăt12) (ăt22) {from equations (4) and (5)}

= PB . PC

12. THE OPTICAL PROPERTY OF A PARABOLA

The tangent at any point P on a parabola bisects the
angle between the focal chord through P and the
perpendicular from P on the directrx.
Sol. Let the parabola be
y2 = 4ax ...(1)
2
Let P(at , 2at) at a point on parabola (1) and let PM 
the directrix.

PARABOLA
 QUIZRR 65

Equation of the tangent to parabola (1) at P is

yt = x + at2 ...(2)

1
Slope of this tangent PT, tan  = ...(3)
t

2
2 at 2t
Slope of PS = = 2 = t
a(t  1) t  1 1  1
2

t2

2 tan 
= = tan 2
1  tan 2
 PSX = 2
 TPS = PSX ă PTS = 2 ă  = 
Hence SPT = MPT = 
Therefore PT bisects MPS.
Note. Reflection from the parabola of a ray parallel to the axis :
In  PTN
TPN = 90Ĉ and PTN = 
Since PR || TN
 RPN = TNP = 90Ĉă 
[ĉ.ĉ TNP = 90Ĉ ă ]
Also SPN = 180Ĉ ă PSN ă SNP
= 180Ĉ ă 2 ă (90Ĉ ă )
= 90Ĉ ă 
 SPN = RPN
Hence A ray parallel to the axis of the parabola after reflection from the parabola passes
through the focus.

Illustration 69
A ray of light is coming along the line y = b from the positive direction of x-axis and strikes
a concave mirror whose intersection with the xy-pane is a parabola y2 = 4a x. Find the
equation of the reflected ray and show that it passes through the focus of the parabola.
Both a and b are positive.
Solution :
A ray of light along y = b intersects the

F
b2 I
GH
parabola at P 4 a , b JK
Equation to the parabola is y2 = 4ax

PARABOLA
66 QUIZRR

dy 2 a
Differentiating (i) =
dx y

b
Slope of normal at P is ă
2a

b
 If the angle between ray of light and the normal is  then tan  = ă
2a
Let the slope of PQ be m.

b b
 m m+
2 a b 2 a
tan  =  ă =
1
b
m 2a 1  b m
2a 2a

b b2 b
 + = m+
2a 4a 2
2a

F4a  b I
2 2
2b 4 ab
m GH 4 a JK
2
= 
2a
 m= 
4 a 2  b2

4 ab F b2 I
 Equation to the reflected ray is y – b = ă
4 a 2  b2
GH
x
4a JK
4 ab F 4 ax b I
2
yă b = ă
4 a 2  b2
GH 4 a JK
4abx + (4a2 ă b2) y ă 4a2b + b3 = 0
If we put x = a, y = 0, we get
4a2b + (4a2 ă b2) 0 ă 4a2b = 0
 Reflected ray passes through the focus.

PARABOLA
THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 3

THE CIRCLE
A circle is the locus of a point which moves, so that its distance from a fixed point, called the
centre, is equal to a given distance.
The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the constant distance is called its radius.
i.e., CP = constant distance = Radius

fixed ius
rad
point (moving point)
C(centre) constant
distance

1. Standard equation of a circle

If the centre of circle is at origin and radius is a, then the equation of circle is given by

x 2 + y2 = a 2

and this is also known as standard equation of circle.

In case the centre is a point (h, k), and not origin then the equation of circle is given by

(x ă h)2 + (y ă k)2 = a2

CP = radius = a
according to constraint defined by circle P(x,y)
a
distance CP = radius = a
 (x ă h)2 + (y ă k)2 = a2 C (h,k)
This form is known as central form of equation of circle.

2. General Equation of a Circle :

General equation of second degree in x and y is
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(i)
The equation of a circle with centre (, ) and radius r is
(x ă )2 + (y ă )2 = r2 ...(ii)
2 2 2 2 2
x + y ă 2x + 2y + ( +  ă r ) = 0
Comparing (i) and (ii)

1 1 0 g f c
    
a b h     2  r 2
2
 
 a = b i.e. coefficient of x 2 = coefficient of y2
h = 0 i.e., coefficient of xy = 0

THE CIRCLE
 4 QUIZRR
The general equation of a circle is

x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(iii)

where g, f and c are constants

To find the centre and radius.
Equation (i) can be written as

2
 x  g 2   y  f 2 


g 2

 f2  c 

Comparing with the equation of the circle given in (ii), h = ă g, k = ă f

2 2
and a  ( g  f  c)

 Coordinates of the centre are (ă g, ă f) and radius = ( g 2  f 2  c)

Important remarks
(i) If g2 + f2 ă c > 0, equation (i) represents real circle with centre (ă g, ă f).
(ii) If g2 + f2 ă c = 0, the equation (i) represents a circle whose centre is (ă g, ă f) and radius
is zero i.e., the circle coincides with the centre and so it represents a point (ă g, ă f). It is
therefore, called a point circle.
(iii) If g2 + f2 ă c < 0, radius of the circle is imaginary. In this case, there are no real points on
the circle and so it is called a virtual circle or imaginary circle.
(iv) Dependence of the circle on three unknown parameters : The equation (i) i.e., x2 + y2 + 2gx
+ 2fy + c = 0 contains three unknown quantities g, f, c. Hence for determining the
equa tion of a circ le, three conditions a re required.
Note : In case the equation of circle is given by ax2 + ay2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. Divide the equation

by a first. i.e. x2  y2  2 g x  2 f y  c  0
a a

 g2 f2 c
 g  f    
then centre is  ,
a 
& radius  2 2 a
 a  a a

Remember that for finding centre and radius of circle the coefficients of x & y should be
equal to 1.
Note : Rule for finding the centre and radius of a circle :
(i) Make the coefficients of x2 and y2 equal to 1 and right hand side equal to zero.
(ii) Then co-ordinates of centre will be (, ),
1 1
where     coefficient of x and     coefficient of y
2 2

(iii) Radius = 2  2   constant term 

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 5

3. Other Forms of Circle

3.1 Diametric Form

The equation to the circle which is described on the line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
as diameter.

( x  x1 )( x  x 2 )  ( y  y1 )( y  y2 )  0

Proof :
Let A be the point (x1, y1) and B the point (x2, y2), and let the coordinates of any point P on the
circle be h and k. (Where AB is a diameter)

P (x,y)

B (x2,y2)
A C
(x1,y1)

The equation to AP is

k  y1
y ă y1 = ( x  x1 ) ...(1)
h  x1

and the equation to BP is

k  y2
y ă y2 = h  x ( x  x2 ) ...(2)
2

But, since APB is a semicircle, the angle APB is a right angle, and hence the straight lines (1)
and (2) are at right angles.
Hence, we have

k  y1 k  y2
.  1
h  x1 h  x2

i.e., (h ă x1)(h ă x2) + (k ă y1)(k ă y2) = 0

But this is the condition that the point (h, k) may lie on the curve whose equation is,
(x ă x1)(x ă x2) + (y ă y1)(y ă y2) = 0
This therefore, is the required equation.

3.2. Parametric form :

If the radius of a circle whose centre is at C (0, 0) makes an angle  with the positive direction
of x-axis, then  is called the parameter.

THE CIRCLE
 6 QUIZRR
Let CP = a Y
 CM = x, PM = y
P(x,y)
 x = a cos , y = a sin 
Hence (a cos , a sin ) or ÂÊ are the parametric co-ordinates a

of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 and x = a cos  and y = a sin are called X´ X
C (0,0)M
parametric equations of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 with parameters a
and . (  <  2)
Note :
1. The parametric co-ordinates of any point on the circle
Y´
(x ă h)2 + (y ă k)2 = a2
are given by (h + a cos , k + a sin ) (0   < 2)
and parametric equations of the circle
(x ă h)2 + (y ă k)2 = a2 are x = h + a cos , y = k + a sin .
2. Equation of the chord of the circle x2 + y2 = a 2 joining (a cos , a sin ) and
(a cos , a sin ) is

        
x cos    y sin    a cos  
 2   2   2 

3.3.Equation of circle through 3 points

If three points A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C (x3, y3) are non-collinear, an unique circle passes
through A, B and C. To find the equation of this circle, we can proceed in the following way :
Let required circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(i)
Since this circle passes through A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C (x3, y3), we have

x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c = 0 ...(ii)

x22  y22  2 gx2  2 fy2  c = 0 ...(iii)

x32  y32  2 gx3  2 fy3  c = 0 ...(iv)

Solving these three, we can find g, f, c and hence the equation of the circle.
Students acquainted with determinants, can put the equation of this circle in determinant form
as follows :
Eliminating g, f and c from (i) and (iv), we have

x2  y2 x y 1
x12  y12 x1 y1 1
0
x22  y22 x2 y2 1 ...(v)
x3 y3 1
x32  y32
(vi) is an equation of the circle passing through the points A, B and C.

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 7

4. EQUATION OF A CIRCLE IN SPECIAL CASES

(i) When the circ le pa sses through the origin :
Y
Let the equation of circle be
(x ă )2 + (y ă )2 = a2
Since it passes through O (0, 0)
 (0 ă )2 + (0 ă )2 = a2 M C(,)
or 2
a =  + 2 2 

Hence the equation of the circle in this case will be X
O L
2 2 2 2
(x ă ) + (y ă ) =  + 
i.e. x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 2x = 0
Note : Thus if a circle passes through the origin its equation may be taken as

x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy = 0

(ii) When the circ le touches x-a xis

Let the centre of the circle be C (, )
Y
Since the circle touches the x-axis the radius of the circle
= CL = ||
Hence the equation of the circle is
C()
(x ă )2 + (y ă )2 = ||2
or (x ă )2 + (y ă )2 = 2 
2 2
Note : If the circle x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 touches
X
x-axis then g2 + f2 ă c = f2. i.e. c = g2 O L
Hence the equation of a circle touching x-axis may be
taken as

x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + g 2 = 0
Y
(iii) When the circ le touches y-a xis.
Let the centre of the circle be C (, )
Since the circle touches the y-axis; the radius of the

circle = CM = || M ()
Hence the equation of the circle is
(x ă )2 + (y ă )2 = ||2
or (x ă )2 + (y ă )2 = 2 X
O
Note : The equation of a circle touching y-axis may be taken

as x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + f 2 = 0

THE CIRCLE
8 QUIZRR
(iv) When the circ le touches both the a xes. Y
y=x
In this case || = || = a.
Hence the equation of the circle, in the first quadrant, is
y=-x C
2 2 2 M (a,a)
(x ă a ) + (y ă a ) = a ...(1)
a

O X
L

The equation of the circle in the second quadrant is

Y
y=x

(-a,a) y=-x

(x + a )2 + (y ă a )2 = a 2 ...(2)
a

X´ O X
L

Y´
The equation of the circle in the third quadrant is

y=-x Y
y=x

(x + a )2 + (y + a )2 = a 2 ...(3)
X´ O X

(-a,a) a
L
C

The equation of the circle in the fourth quadrant is

Y´

Y y=x
y=-x
2 2 2
(x ă a ) + (y + a ) = a ...(4)

X´ X
O

C
L (a,-a)
a
Thus if a circle touches both axes its centre may be taken
as ( a, a) where a is positive or negative and radius as
|a|.
Y´

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 9

(v) When the circ le pa sses through the origin a nd Y

centre lies on x-a xis :
Let centre of circle be C (a, 0)
 radius = a
 Equation of circle is (x ă a)2 + (y ă 0)2 = a2 C
X
O (a,0)
2 2
or x + y ă 2a x = 0

Y
(vi) When the circ le pa sses through the origin a nd
centre lies on y-a xis :
Let centre of circle be C (0, a)
 radius = a C (0,a)
 Equation of circle is (x ă 0)2 + (y ă a)2 = a2

or x2 + y2 ă 2a y = 0 O
X

(vii) When the circ le cut off interc epts on x-a xis a nd y-a xis of lengths 2l a nd 2k a nd not
pa ssing through origin :
Let centre be (, ) Y
 radius = CP = CQ =  (say)
(CP)2 = (CQ)2 = 2
2 + k2 = 2 + l2 = 2 k
 C()
N
  = 2
 k 2 [for I quadrant] k 
P l l
and  = 2  l 2 M X
O Q

 Equation of circle is ( x   2  k 2 )2  ( y   2  l 2 )2   2

Illustration 1
For what value(s) of , the equation (10 ă  2)x 2 + ( 2 ă 8)y2 + (3 ă )yx ă 10x + 4y + 3 = 0
represent a real circle.
Solution :
For equation of circle we must satisty the following 2 conditions.
Condition 1 : coeff. of x2 = coeff. of y2
 10 ă 2 = 2 ă 8    2 = 9   =  3
Condition 2 : and coeff. of xy = 0
 3 ă  = 0   = 3
So, the common value is  = 3.

THE CIRCLE
10 QUIZRR

Illustration 2
Find the equation of the circle which touches the axes and whose centre lies on the line
x ă 2y = 3.
Solution :
Since the circle touches both the axes, therefore its centre will be (a,  a) and radius will be |a|,
where a is a positive or negative number.
Given line is x ă 2y = 3 ...(i)
Case I : When centre is (a,  a)
Since (a,  a) lies on line (i)
 centre of the circle is (ă 3, ă 3) and radius = |ă 3| = 3.
Hence equation of the circle will be
(x + 3)2 + (y + 3)2 = 32 or x2 + y2 + 6x + 6y + 9 = 0
Case II : When centre is (a, ă a)
Since (a, ă a) lies on line (i)
 a + 2a = 3
 a = 1
 centre of the circle is (1, ă 1) and radius = |1| = 1
Hence equation of the circle will be
(x ă 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 12 or x2 + y2 ă 2x + 2y + 1 = 0

Illustration 3
Find the equation of the circle passing through the origin and cuts off chords of length 4
and 6 on the positive side of x and y-axis respectively.
Solution :
If the centre C be (h, k) then the values of h, k will be length of perpendicular CM and CN from
C to x- and y-axis respectively.
 M and N are mid points of chords OA and OB
 OM = 2, ON = 3 B
 C is (2, 3)

N C
Also radius OC = 22  32  13

M
O A

 
2
Hence the equation of the required circle is (x ă 2)2 + (y ă 3)2 = 13

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 11

Illustration 4
Find the equation to the circle which passes through the points (1, 0), (0, 6) and (3, 4).
Solution :
Let the equation to the circle be,
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
Since, the three points, whose coordinates are given, satisfy this equation, we have
1 + 2g + c = 0 ...(2)
36 + 12f + c = 0 ...(3)
and 25 + 6g + 8f + c = 0 ...(4)

Subtracting (2) from (3) and (3) from (4), we have

2g + 12f = 35
and 6g + 20f = 11

47 71
Hence, f  and g  
8 4

69
Equation (2), then gives c 
2

Substituting these values in (1) the required equation is,

4x2 + 4y2 ă 142x + 47y + 138 = 0

Illustration 5
Find the equation to the circle which touches the axis of y at a distance + 4 from the origin
and cuts off an intercept 6 from the axis of x.
Solution :
Any circle is, x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
This meets the axis of y in points given by
y2 + 2fy + c = 0
The roots of this equation must be equal and each equal to 4, so that it must be equivalent to
(y ă 4)2 = 0
Hence, 2f = ă 8 and c = 16
The equation to the circle is then
x2 + y2 + 2gx ă 8y + 16 = 0
This meets the axis of x in points given by,
x2 + 2gx ă 8y + 16 = 0

THE CIRCLE
12 QUIZRR
i.e., at points distant

 g g 2  16 and  g  g2  16

Hence, 6  2 g2  16

Therefore, g =  5, and the required equation is, x2 + y2  10x ă 8y + 16 = 0

Therefore, are therefore, two circle satisfying the given conditions. This is geometrically obvious.

Illustration 6
The abscissae of two points A and B are the roots of the equation x 2 + 2a x ă b 2 = 0 and the
ordinates are the roots of the equation x 2 + 2px ă q 2 = 0. Find the equation and the radius
of the circle with AB as diameter.
Solution :
Given equations are
x2 + 2ax ă b2 = 0 ...(i)
2 2
and x + 2px ă q = 0 ...(ii)
Let the roots of equation (i) be  and  and and those of equation (ii) be  and , then

     2a   +  =  2p
2 
and
   b   =  q2

Let A = (, ) and B = (, )

Now equation of the circle whose diameter is AB will be
(x ă ) (x ă ) + (y ă ) (y ă ) = 0
or x2 + y2 ă ( + ) x ă ( + )y +  +  = 0
or x2 + y2 + 2ax + 2py ă (b2 + q2) = 0 ...(iii)
Centre of circle (iii) is (ă a, ă p)

and radius = ( a)2  ( p) 2  b2  q2  a 2  b2  p2  q2

Illustraion 7
If the parametric of form of a circle is given by
(i) x = ă 4 + 5 cos  and y = ă 3 + 5 sin 
(ii) x = a cos  + b sin  and y = a sin  ă b cos 
find its cartesian form.
A
Solution :
(i) The given equations are
x = ă 4 + 5 cos  and y = ă 3 + 5 sin 
or (x + 4) = 5 cos  ...(1)
and (y + 3) = 5 sin  ...(2)

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 13

Squaring and adding (1) and (2), then

(x + 4)2 + (y + 3)2 = 52
or (y + 4)2 + (y + 3)2 = 25
(ii) The given equations are
x = a cos  + b sin  ...(1)
y = a sin  ă b cos  ...(2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), then
x2 + y2 = (a cos  + b sin )2 + (a sin  ă b cos )2
 x2 + y2 = a2 + b2

Illustration 8
Show that the four points (1, 0), (2, ă 7), (8, 1) and (9, ă 6) are concyclic.
Solution :
Since the given four points a re concyclic , we a re to show tha t they lie on a circ le. Let
the general equation of circle is
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
has three parameters, it is sufficient to obtain the equation of the circle passing through any three
of these points. For concyclic, the fourth point should lie on this circle.
Let three points A (1, 0), B (2, ă 7) and D (8, 1) lie on (1) then
1 + 0 + 2g + 0 + c = 0 or 1 + 2g + c = 0 ...(2)
2 2
(2) + (ă 7) + 2g (2) + 2f (ă 7) + c = 0
or 53 + 4g ă 14f + c = 0 ...(3)
and (8)2 + (1)2 + 2g (8) + 2f (1) + c = 0
 65 + 16g + 2f + c = 0 ...(4)
Now subtracting (2) from (3), we get
52 + 2g ă 14f = 0
or 26 + g ă 7f = 0 ...(5)
and subtracting (3) from (4), we get Y
D(8,1)
12 + 2g + 16f = 0
X´ X
 3 + 3g + 4f = 0 ...(6) O A(1,0)
Solving (5) and (6), we get
g = ă 5 and f = 3
From (2), 1 ă 10 + c = 0 C(9,ă6)
Y´
 c = 9 B(2,ă1)
Therefore equation of circle passing through these point is
x2 + y2 ă 10x + 6y + 9 = 0

THE CIRCLE
14 QUIZRR
Substituting the fourth point in the equation of this circle, we get
(9)2 + (ă 6)2 ă 10 (9) + 6 (ă 6) + 9 = 0
Hence point C (9, ă 6) lies on the circle, that is, the four points are concyclic.

Illustration 9
Find the equation of all the circles touching x-axis, y-axis and line 3x + 4y ă 12 = 0.
Solution :
We can easily observe that there will be four
circles touching x-axis, y-axis and the line B
3x + 4y ă 12 = 0. The centre of any such circle
must be of the form ( r,  r) where r is the
radius of the circle. If we want to determine
the circles whose centres lie in first quadrant 3x + 4y ă 12 = 0
and which touch x-axis, y-axis and the line 3x O
+ 4y ă 12 = 0 then centres must be (r, r) (r >
0) and perpendicular distance of (r, r) from the
line 3x + 4y ă 12 = 0 must also be r.

3r  4 r  12
 r
5

 7r ă 12 = 5r, 7r ă 12 = ă 5r
 r = 6, r = 1
Thus two such circles are
(x ă 6)2 + (y ă 6)2 = 62, (x ă 1)2 + (y ă 1)2 = 12

 3r  4 r  12
Next in the second quadrant the centre of such a circle must be (ă r, r) and r
5

 r = ă 3, r = 2
The value r = ă 3 is inadmissible since r > 0. Thus the equation of circle touching axes and the
line 3x + 4y ă 12 = 0, in the second quadrant is (x + 2)2 + (y ă 2)2 = 22

 3r  4 r  12
In the third quarant r
5

 r =, r = ă 6
 Both values are inadmissible.
Thus there is no such circle in the third quadrant.
Finally in the fourth quadrant

3r  4 r  12
r  r= 3
5

The circle in the fourth quadrant must be (x ă 3)2 + (y + 3)2 = 32

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 15

Second Method :
Note : We can solve the problem by trigonometry also. Denote the origin by C we have
a = CB = 3, b = CA = 4 and c = AB = 5  s = 6

  s( s  a)( s  b)( s  c)  6

 6
Now r   1
s 6

 6
r1 =  2
sa 63

 6
r2 =  3
sb 64

 6
r2 = s  c  6  5  6

Since radii of such circles are determined the equations can be immediately written down since
circle touches both axes. You must note that the four circles obtained are the inscribed circle (the
one with the smallest radius) and the three described circles of the triangle formed by co-ordinate
axes and the line 3x ă 4y ă 12 = 0

Illustration 1 0
Find the area of an equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Solution :
Given circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
Let O be the centre and ABC be an equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle (1).
O    g,  f 

and OA = OB = OC = g2  f 2  c ...(2)

BM
In OBM, sin 60 
OB

3 A
 BM = OB sin 60Ĉ =  OB 
2
60Ĉ
BC = 2BM = 3  OB  ...(3)
O
3
Area of ABC =  BC2 60Ĉ
4

3 B M C
3  OB  (from (3))
2
=
4

 
3 3 2 2
= g  f2  c sq. units.
4
THE CIRCLE
16 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 1
Find the equation of the circumcircle of the quadrilateral formed by the four
lines a x + by  c = 0 and bx ă a y + c = 0
Solution : C
ăc=0
The given lines can be re-written as by

=0
ax+

c
ax + by + c = 0 ...(1)

ay+
D
ax + by ă c = 0 ...(2)

bxă
0
bx ă ay + c = 0 ...(3)

ăc=
bx ă ay ă c = 0 ...(4)

ay
Equation (1) and (2) are parallel and equations (3) and (4) are also B

bxă
c =0
parallel. by +
a ax+
Slope of (1) or (2) =   m1 (say) A
b
b
and Slope of (3) or (4) =  m2 (say)
a
Since m1m2 = ă 1
Hence ABCD be a square and AC and BD are the diameters of the circle. After solving, we get

 bc  ca bc  ca   ac  bc ac  bc 
A 2 ,  and C   2 , 2 
 a  b2 a2  b2  2 2
  a b a  b 

 bc  ca  ac  bc   bc  ca   cc  bc 
 Equation of circle is  x  2  x  2
2  2
   y  2  y 2
2
0
 a  b  a b   a b  a  b2 

 2 ac   2bc 
x2  y2   2 x 2 y0
  a  b2   a  b2 
   

Illustration 1 2
A circle of radius 5 units touches the co-ordinate axes in first quadrant. If the circle makes
one complete roll on x-axis along the positive direction of x-axis, find its equation in the
new position.
Solution :
Let C be the centre of the circle in its initial position and D be its centre in the new position.
Y

5 C(5,5) D(5+105)
N
5 5

X´ X
M L
O
5 10
Y´
THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 17

Since the circle touches the co-ordinates axes in first quadrant and the radius of circle be 5 units.
 Centre of circle is (5, 5)
Moving length of circle = circumference of the circle
= 2r = 2 (5) = 10 
Now centre of circle in new position is (5 + 10 , 5) and radius is 5 units, therefore, its equation
will be
(x ă 5 ă 10)2 + (y ă 5)2 = 52
or x2 + y2 ă 10 (1 + 2) x ă 10y + 1002 + 100 + 25 = 0

5. Position of a point with respect to circle

Let the equation of the circle be S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and A (x1, y1) be any point.

Distance between the centre (ă g, ă f) and A is given by d  ( x1  g)2  ( y1  f )2

d 2  r 2  x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  g2  f 2  g 2  f 2  c  x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c  S1

Clearly A lies inside, on or outside the circle as d <, =, or > i.e., d 2 ă r2 <, =, or < 0
Hence S1(A) < 0  point lies inside the circle.
S1(A) = 0  point lies on the circle.
S1(A) > 0  point lies outside the circle.

Maximum and Minimum Distance of a Point from the Circle

Let any point P (x1, y1) and circle
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
The centre and radius of the circle are

C (ă g, ă f) and ( g 2  f 2  c) respectively

Case I :
If P inside the circle
In this case S1 < 0 A

 r  ( g 2  f 2  c)  CA = CB P
C
The minimum distance of P from circle = PA = CA ă CP
B
= |r ă CP|
and the maximum distance of P from circle = PB
= CB + CP = |r + CP|

THE CIRCLE
18 QUIZRR
Case II : P
If P outside the circle
A
In this case S1 > 0
the minimum distance of P from circle C
= PA = CP ă CA = |CP ă r| B
and the maximum distance of P from the circle
= PB = CP + CB = |r + CP|

Case III : P
If P on the circle
In this case S1 = 0 C
the minimum distance of P from the circle = 0 A
and the maximum distance of P from the circle = PA = 2r

Illustration 1 3
Find the shortest and largest distance from the point (2, ă 7) to the circle
x 2 + y2 ă 14x ă 10y ă 151 = 0
Solution :
Y
Let S  x2 + y2 ă 14x ă 10y ă 151 = 0 B
 S1 = (2)2 + (ă 7)2 ă 14(2) ă 10 (ă 7) ă 151
= ă 56 < 0
 P (2, ă 7) inside the circle C(7,5)
X´ X
O
radius of the circle, r 7  2 
2
   5   151  15
2 P
A
 Centre of circle  (7, 5) Y´

 CP = 7  22   5  72 = 13

 Shortest distance = PA = r ă CP = 15 ă 13
= 2
and Largest distance = PB = r + CP = 15 + 13 = 28

6. Contact of Two Circles

Working Rule :
The two circles having centres at A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) and radii r1 and r2 respectively touch
each other.

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 19

AB < r1 ă r2 r1 ă r2 < AB < r1 + r2 AB > r1 + r2

< >
Smaller circle lies AB circle intersects AB One circle lies out
inside the bigge r = r1 ă r2 in two = r1 + r2 side the other
circle                                    points              
circles touch circles touch
internally externally

r1 r1 r1

A C A C A D L B
B r2 B C
D
r2 r2

r1 ă r2 = AB + DC AB = r1 ă r2 r1 + r2 = AC + CB + DC
 AB < r1 ă r2 = AB + DC
 AB < r1 + r2

r1 r2 r1 r2
A B A B
C CD

AB = r1 + r2 + CD
AB = r1 + r2 AB > r1 + r2

Illustration 1 4
Examine if the two circles x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y = 0 and x 2 + y2 ă 8y ă 4 = 0 touch each other
externally or internally.
Solution :
Given circles are x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y = 0 ...(1)
and x2 + y2 ă 8y ă 4 = 0 ...(2)
Let A and B be the centres and r1 and r2 the radii of circles (1) and (2) respectively, then

THE CIRCLE
20 QUIZRR

A  1, 2  , B  (0, 4), r1  5, r2  2 5

Now AB = (1  0) 2  (2  4)2  5

and r1  r2  3 5. r1  r2  52 5  5

Thus AB = |r1 ă r2|, hence the two circles touch each other internally.

Illustration 1 5
Prove that the circle x 2 + y2 + 2a x + c 2 = 0 and x 2 + y2 + 2by + c 2 = 0 touch each other if
1 1 1
2
 2

a b c2
Solution :
Given circles are
x2 + y2 + 2ax + c2 = 0 ...(1)
and x2 + y2 + 2by + c2 = 0 ...(2)
Let A and B be the centres of circles (1) and (2) respectively and r1 and r2 be their radii, then

A    a, 0  , B   0, b  , r1  a2  c2 , r2  b2  c2

The two circles (1) and (2) will touch each other externally or internally according as
AB = r1 + r2 or AB = |r1 ă r2|
i.e. AB2 = (r1 + r2) or AB2 = (r1 ă r2)2
Thus the two circles will touch each other if

AB2   r1  r2 
2
or a 2  b2  r12  r22  2r1 r2

or a2 + b2 = a2 ă c2 + b2 ă c2  2 a2  c2 b2  c2

or 2c2   2 a2  c2 b2  c 2

C2   a 2  c2 b2  c 2

or c4 = (a2 ă c2) (b2 ă c2) or c4 = a2b2 ă c2b2 ă a2c2 + c4

or c2b2 + a2c2 = a2b2

1 1 1
or 2
 2
 [dividing by a2b2c2]
a b c2

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 21

Illustration 1 6
Prove that x 2 + y2 = a 2 and (x ă 2a )2 + y2 = a 2 are two equal circles touching each other. Find
the equation of circle (or circles) of equal radius touching both the circles.
Solution :
Given circles are
x2 + y2 = a2 ...(1)
and (x ă 2a)2 + y2 = a2 ...(2)
Let A and B be the centres and r1 and r2 the radii of the two circle (1) and (2) respectively, then
A  (0, 0), B  (2a, 0), r1 = a, r2 = a

Now AB = (0  2 a)2  02  2 a  r1  r2

Hence the two circles touch each other externally.

Let the equation of equal circle touching circles (1) and (2) be (x ă )2 + (y ă )2 = a2 ...(3)
Its centre C is (, ) and radius r3 = a.
Since (3) touches (1).
 AC = r1 + r3 = 2a. [Here AC  |r1 ă r3| as r1 ă r3 = a ă a = 0]
or AC2 = 4a2 or 2 + 2 = 4 a2 ...(4)
Again since circle (3) touches circle (2)
 BC = r2 + r3 or BC2 = (r2 + r3)2
 (2a ă )2 + 2 = (a + a)2 or 2 + 2 ă 4a = 0
or 4a2 ă 4a = 0 [from (4)]

  = a and from (4),    3 a

 
2
Thus required circles are  x  a   y  3a
2
 a2

or x2  y2  2ax  2 3 ay  3a 2  0

7. THE INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A CIRCLE

Any line will cut a circle either
(a) at two distinct points or
(b) at two coincident points or
(c) at two imaginary points.
In the second case the line will be tangent to the circle. Let us observe the intersection of the line
y = mx + c and the circle x2 + y2 = a2. The x-ordinates of points of intersection of the line and
the circle are given by the equation

THE CIRCLE
22 QUIZRR
x2 + (mx + c)2 = a2
 (1 + m2)x2 + 2mcx + c2 ă a2 = 0
In general, there are 3 cases arises. When circle and a line intersects
Case I :
There are two different real points of intersection.
i.e.,  > 0
 4m2c2 ă 4(1 + m2) (c2 ă a2) > 0
 a2 (1 + m2) > c2

c
or a
1  m2
Case II :
There are two coincident points of intersection.
i.e.,  = 0
4m2c2 ă 4(1 + m2) (c2 ă a2) = 0
 a2 (1 + m2) = c2

c
 a
1  m2

 c   a 1  m2

This is the required condition of tangency.

2
 the equation the tangents are y  mx  a 1  m

and y  mx  a 1  m2
Case III :
There is no real point of intersection
i.e.,  < 0
 4m2c2 ă 4(1 + m2) (c2 ă a2) < 0
 m2c2 ă (1 + m2) (c2 ă a2) < 0
 m2c2 ă c2 ă m2c2 + a2 + a2m2 < 0
 a2 (1 + m2) < c2
c2
a2 

1  m  2

c
 a
1  m2

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 23

Thus the line y = mx + c; will

(i) cut the circle x2 + y2 = a2 at two distinct points if a2 (1 + m2) > c2
(ii) touch the circle if, a2 (1 + m2) = c2
(iii) not cut the circle at all if a2 (1 + m2) < c2.

Note :

(1) The line y  mx  a 1  m 2 will be a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 for all values of m.

(2) The condition of tangency can also be obtained by equating perpendicular distance of the
centre (0, 0) than the line y ă mx ă c = 0 to the radius of the circle.
(3) In case the circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 we may shift the origin to the centre of the
circle and apply the results described above.

Another Method :
Let S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and L = lx + my + n = 0
Let r be the radius of the circle and p be the length of the
perpendicular drawn from the centre (ă g, ă f) on the line L. Then
(i) line intersect the circle in two distinct points if p < r. p
(ii) line touch the circle if p = r r c
(iii) line neither intersects nor touches the circle i.e., passes outside
the circle if p > r.

Illustration 1 7
Find the values of k for which the line 3x ă 4y ă k = 0 will touch the circle x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y
+ h = 0. Find the point of contact also.
Solution :
We will solve the problem by two methods. The circle is
(x ă 1)2 + (y ă 2)2 = 1
Shifting the origin to (1, 2) the circle becomes x2 + y2 = 1 and the line becomes
3x ă 4y ă (5 + k) = 0
Now applying c2 = a2 (1 + m2)
2
 5  k  9 
  4   1  1  16   k = 0, k = 10
   

5
If k = 0 then c  
4

 3/ 4 1  3  4
and the point of contact is   ,  or, is  , 
  5/4  5/4  5 5 

THE CIRCLE
24 QUIZRR

3 4  8 6
Now with reference to old origin this point will be   1,  2  or will be  , 
5 5  5 5
Alternatively we can proceed as follows. For intersection of line and circle

2
 3x  k   3x  k 
x2     2x  4 40
 4   4 
 25x2 ă (6k + 80)x + (k + 8)2 = 0

6 k  80  (6 k  80)2  100( k  8)2

 x =
50

3 k  40  (8 k  80)( 2 k)
=
25
In case the line happens to be tangent we must have only one value of x.
 Discriminant of the quadratic = 0
 k = 0, k = ă 10

Illustration 1 8
Show that the line 3x ă 4y ă c = 0 will meet the circle having centre at (2, 4) and the radius
5 in real and distinct points if ă 35 < c < 15.
Solution :
Given line is 3x ă 4y ă c = 0 ...(i)
Centre of given circle circle is (2, 4) and its radius is 5, therefore its equation will be
(x ă 2)2 + (y ă 4)2 = 52
or x2 + y2 ă 4x ă 8y ă 5 = 0 ...(ii)
1
From (i), y  3 x  c  . Putting the value of y in (ii), we get
4

1 1
x2   3 x  c 2  4 x  8  3 x  c   5  0
16 4

or 16x2 + 9x2 ă 6cx + c2 ă 64x ă 96x + 32c ă 80 = 0

or 25x2 ă 2(80 + 3c) x + c2 + 32c ă 80 = 0 ...(iii)
Line (i) will meet the circle (ii) in real and distinct points if discriminant of equation (iii) > 0
i.e., if 4(80 + 3c)2 ă 100 (c2 + 32c ă 80) > 0 or (80 + 3c)2 ă 25(c2 + 32c ă 80) > 0
or 6400 + 9c2 + 480c ă 25c2 ă 800c + 2000 > 0
or ă 16c2 ă 320c + 8400 > 0 or 16c2 + 320c ă 8400 < 0
or c2 + 20c ă 525 < 0

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 25

sign scheme for c 2 + 20c ă 525 :

When c2 + 20c ă 525 = 0

 20  400  2100  20  50
c   35,15
2 2

Therefore, sign scheme for c2 + 20c ă 525 is as follows

 
+ve ă35 ăve 15 +ve

 c2 + 20c ă 525 < 0 ă 35 < c < 15

Length of the chord

B
Let O be the centre of the circle S = 0 and the line of the chord AB be
r
L= 0
Let p = length of  from centre to the line L = 0 O p C

Then AB = length of the chord = 2 (r 2  p2 ) . (by Pythagoras theorem)

A
L=0

TANGENT
In Geometry the tangent at any point of a circle is defined to be a straight line which meets the
circle there, but, being produced, does not cut it; this tangent is shown to be always perpendicular
to the radius drawn from the centre to the point of contact.

8. DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE EQUATION OF TANGENT

8.1.1. Point form

The equation of the tangent at a point P (x, y) to a circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is

xx1 + yy1 + g (x + x 1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0

for equation of circle in standard form the equation becomes

xx1 + yy1 = a 2

Note : For equation of tangent of circle at (x1, y1), substitute xx1 for x2, yy1 for x2, yy1 for
x  x1 y  y1 xy1  x1 y
y2 , for x, for y and for xy and keep the constant as such
2 2 2

8.2. Parametric form :

The equation of tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 at the point (a cos , a sin ) is
x cos  + y sin  = a

THE CIRCLE
26 QUIZRR
Note : The equation of the tangent to the circle (x ă a)2 + (y ă b)2 = r2 at the point (a + r cos
, b + r sin ) is
(x ă a) cos  + (y ă b) sin  = r.

8 .3. Slope form :

The equation of a tangent of slope m to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is y  mx  a 1  m 

2
and the

 am a 
 
co-ordinates of the point of contact are   ,
 (1  m2 ) (1  m2 ) 

We already have done the proof for this.

Illustration 1 9
Find the condition that the straight line lx + my + n = 0 may touch circle x 2 + y2 = a 2 and
also find the co-ordinates of the point of contact.
Solution :
given line is lx + my + n = 0 ...(1)
2 2 2
and given circle is x + y = a ...(2)
line (1) will touch the circle (2) if the length of the perpendicular from its centre (0, 0) to line (1)
= radius of circle (2)

l.0  m.0  n
a
i.e. if
l2  m2

or n2 = a2(l2 + m2) This is the required condition.

Second part :
Let line (1) be tangent to circle (2) at (, ).
Now equation of the tangent to circle (2) at (, ) is x + y ă a2 = 0 ...(3)
Since (1) and (3) are equations of the same straight line, therefore comparing the coefficients, we
get

   a2
 
l m n
 i   ii   iii 

la 2 ma 2
From (i) and (iii),    and from (ii) and (iii),   
n n

 la2 ma 2 
Thus point of contact of line (1) and circle (2) is   n ,  n 
 
THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 27

la2 ma 2
Note : Condition for tangency can be obtained by putting x   , y in the equation
n n
of the circle because point of contact lies on the circle.

Illustration 20
Prove that the tangent to the circle x 2 + y2 = 5 at the point (1, ă 2) also touches the circle
x 2 + y2 ă 8x + 6y + 20 = 0 and find its point of contact.
Solution :
Given circles are x2 + y2 = 5 ...(1)
2 2
and x + y ă 8x + 6y + 20 = 0 ...(2)
Given point is (1, ă 2).
Now equation of the tangent to circle (1), at (1, ă 2) will be
x . 1 + y(ă 2) ă 5 = 0 or x ă 2y ă 5 = 0 ...(3)
Centre of circle (2) is C (4, ă 3) and its radius is 5
Now length of the perpendicular from C(4, ă 3) to line (3)

4  2  3  5 5
=   5 = radius of circle (2)
5 5

Hence line (3) also touches circle (2).

Second part :
Let (, ) be the point of contact of line (3) and circle (2).
Now equation of the tangent to circle (2) at (, ) is

 x    y  
x  y  8   6   20  0
 2   2 

or ( ă 4)x + ( + 3)y ă (4 ă 3 ă 20) = 0 ...(4)

Comparing equations (3) and (4), we get

  4   3 4  3  20
 
1 2 5
 i  ii   iii 

From (i) and (ii), we get 2 +  = 5 ...(5)

and from (i) and (iii), we get  + 3 = 0 ...(6)
Solving (5) and (6), we get  = 3,  = ă 1
Hence point of contact of circle (2) and line (3) is (3, ă 1).

THE CIRCLE
28 QUIZRR

Illustration 21
Prove that the equation x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 2  y ă 8 = 0, where  is a parameter, represents a family
of circles passing through two fixed points A and B on the x-axis. Also find the equation of
that circle of the family, the tangents to which at A and B meet on the line x + 2y + 5 = 0
Solution :
Given equation of the family of circles is
x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 2y ă 8 = 0 ...(1)
It can be written as x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 8 ă 2y = 0 ...(2)
Clearly (2) is the equation of circles passing through the point of intersection of circle
x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 8 = 0
and the line y = 0 ...(3)
2
Putting y = 0 in (2), we get x ă 2x ă 8 = 0  x = 4, ă 2
Let A  (4, 0) and B (ă 2, 0). Thus (1) represents a family of circles passing through two fixed
points A (4, 0) and B (ă 2, 0) on the x-axis.
Now equation of tangents to circle (1) at (4, 0) and B (ă 2, 0) are
4x + y.0 ă (x + 4) ă (y + 0) ă 8 = 0 or 3x ă y ă 12 = 0 ...(4)
and ă 2x + y.0 ă (x ă 2) ă (y + 0) ă 8 = or ă 3x ă y ă 6 = 0 ...(5)

9
Solving (4) and (5), we get x = 1, y  


 9
If  1,   lies on line x + 2y + 5 = 0
 

18
then 1   5  0 or  = 3

Putting the value of  in (1), we have the equation of the required circle as
x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 6y ă 8 = 0

Illustration 22
Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x 2 + y2 = 9, which
(i) are parallel to the line 3x + 4y ă 5 = 0
(ii) are perpendicular to the line 2x + 3y + 7 = 0
(iii) make an angle of 60Ĉ with the x-axis.
Solution :
3
(i) Slope of 3x + 4y ă 5 = 0 is 
4

3
Let m  
4
and equation of circle is x2 + y2 = 9

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 29

3   3 
2
 Equations of tangents y   x  3 1     
4   4  


 4y = ă 3x  15
or 3x + 4y  15 = 0

2
(ii) slope of 2x + 3y + 7 = 0 is 
3

3
 Slope of perpendicular to 2x + 3y + 7 = 0 is  m (say)
2
and given circle is x2 + y2 = 9
 Equations of tangents perpendicular to 2x + 3y + 7 = 0 is

2
3 3
y x3 1 
2 2

 2 y  3 x  3 13

or 3 x  2 y  3 13  0
(iii) Since tangent make an angle 60Ĉ with the x-axis

 m  tan60  3
and given circle x2 + y2 = 9

 3
2
 Equation of tangents y  3 x  3 1 

or 3x y 6  0

Alternative Method
(i) Let tangent parallel to 3x + 4y ă 5 = 0 is
3x + 4y +  = 0 ...(1)
2 2
and circle x + y = 9
then perpendicular distance from (0, 0) on (2) = radius

3
(3  4 2 )
2

or || = 15
  = 15
From (1), equations of tangents are
3x + 4y  15 = 0

THE CIRCLE
 30 QUIZRR
(ii) Let tangent perpendicular to 2x + 3y + 7 = 0 is
3x ă 2y +  = 0 ...(2)
2 2
and circle x + y = 9
then perpendicular distance from (0, 0) on (2) = radius


3
32  ( 2)2

or   3 13

or    3 13

From (2), equations of tangents are 3 x  2 y  3 13  0

(iii) Let equation of tangent which makes an angle of 60Ĉ with the x-axis is

y  3x  c ...(3)

or 3x ă y + c = 0
and circle x2 + y2 = 9
then perpendicular distance from (0, 0) to (3) = radius

c
3
(3)2  ( 1)2

or |c| = 6
or c =  6

From (3), equations of tangent are 3x  y  6  0

5. Length of Tangent

I. The length of the tangent drawn from a given external point (x 1, y1) to the circle

x2 + y2 = a 2 is given by x12  y12  a 2

Proof :
Equation of given circle is x2 + y2 = a2 ...(1)
Its centre is C (0, 0) and radius is a. Let P (x1, y1) be the given point. From P let PT be a tangent
to the circle touching the circle at T. Then PT will be the length of the tangent. Join C, P and
C, T since PT  CT hence from right angled CTP, CT2 + PT2 = CP2
or PT2 = CP2 ă CT2 ...(1)
But CT = the radius of the circle = a

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 31

and CP2 = (x1 ă 0)2 + (y1 ă 0)2 = x12  y12

T
2 2 2 2 P(x1,y1)
Therefore, from (1) PT = x1  y1  a

C
or PT  x12  y12  a 2 (0,0)

This is the required length of the tangent drawn from an external point (x1, y1) to circle (1).

II. The length of the tangent drawn from a given external point (x1, y1) to the circle

x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 given by x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c ...(1)

The equation of given circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

T
Its centre is C (ă g, ă f) and radius is g2  f 2  c . P
(x1,y1)
g2+f2ăc
Let P (x1, y1) be the given point. From P Let PT be a tangent to
the circle touching the circle at T. Then PT will be the length of C
(ăg,ăf)
the tangent. Join C, T and C, P. Since CT  PT.
 from right angled CTP,
CT2 + PT2 = CP2, or PT2 = CP2 ă CT2 ...(2)

But CT = the radius of the circle = g2  f 2  c

and CP2 = (x1 ă (ă g)}2 + {y1 ă (ă f)}2 = (x1 + g)2 + (y1 + f)2

= x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  g 2  f 2

Therefore, from (2), we have

PT2 = ( x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  g2  f 2 )  ( g 2  f 2  c)2

= x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  g2  f 2  g 2  f 2  c

 PT = x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c

This is the required length of the tangent drawn from an external point (x1, y1) to the given
circle (1).
Tip : If S  0 is the equation of given circle and s1  0 is the equation achieved by butting

(x, y1) in s, then the length o tangent from (x1 y1) is given by S1 .

THE CIRCLE
32 QUIZRR

Illustration 23
If the length of tangent from (f, g) to the circle x 2 + y2 = 6 be twice the length of the tangent
from (f, g) to circle x 2 + y2 + 3x + 3y = 0 then will f 2 + g 2 + 4f + 4g + 2 = 0 ?
Solution :
According to the question

( g 2  f 2  6)  2 ( f 2  g 2  3 f  3 g)

On squaring g2 + f2 ă 6 = 4f2 + 4g2 + 12f + 12g

or 3f2 + 3g2 + 12f + 12g + 6 = 0
or f2 + g2 + 4f + 4g + 2 = 0
which is true  yes.

Illustration 24

Let 2x 2 + y2 ă 3xy = 0 be the equation of a pair of tangents drawn from origin O to a circle
of radius 3 with centre in the first quadrant. If A is one of the points of contact find the
length of OA.
Solution :
The given equation represents lines y = x and y = 2x
if 2  is the angle between them
21 1 2 tan 
tan 2   
1  2 3 1  tan 2   tan    3  10

But, as centre lies in the first quadrant


and 0   
4

3
tan    3  10 only. Now OA = 3 cot  =  3  10

Illustration 25
Tangents PA and PB are drawn from P (ă 1, 2) to the circle x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y + 2 = 0
(i) Find the lengths PA (or PB)
(ii) Find the area of PAB
(iii) Find the equation of PA and PB A
Solution :
(i) PA2 or PB2
(ă1,2) P M
= value of circles equation for x = ă 1 and y = 2
= 1 + 4 + 2 ă 8 = 1  PA = PB = 1
B

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 33

(ii) Equation of chord of contact AB must be

x (ă 1) + y (2) ă 1 (x ă 1) ă 2 (y + 2) + 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0

2   1  1 1
Now PM =  distance of P (ă 1, 2) from AB = 
2 02 2 2

2 2 1 3
 AM = PA  PM  1  
4 2

1 3 1 3
 Area of PAB = base. height =   square units.
2 2 2 4

(iii) Equation of any line through P (ă 1, 2) is y ă 2 = m (x + 1) or y ă mx ă 2 ă m = 0

If this happens to be tangent to the given circle the length from the centre (1, 2) on the line
must be equal to the radius 3.

2m2m 2 2
  3  4m = 3m + 3  m   3
2
1m

Thus the equations of tangents PA and PB are y ă 2 = 3 (x + 1) and y ă 2 = ă 3 (x + 1)

Note : Part (iii) can also be done by using S S1 = T2
We already know the values of S1 and T in this problem
S1 = 1 (since (length)2 of PA or PB)
T = 2x + 1 (equation of chord of contact)
Therefore combined equation of PA nd PB is
(x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y + 2) . 1 = (2x + 1)2 or ă 3x2 + y2 ă 6x ă 4y + 1 = 0

Let y2 ă 3x2 ă 6x ă 4y + 1 y  3 x  c1  y 3 x  c2 

On comparing coeffs. of x, y and constant terms, we get

 6   c2 3  c1 3, ă 4 = c2 ă c1, 1 = c1 c2

On solving first two we get c1  2  3, c2  2  3

These values satisfy the third equation c1 c2 = 1  The assumption (1) is justified

 Lines are y  3 x  2  3 and y   3 x  2  3

Illustration 26
AB is a diameter of a circle. CD is a chord parallel to AB and 2 CD = AB. The tangent at
B meets the line AC produced at E. Prove that AE = 2AB.

THE CIRCLE
34 QUIZRR
Solution :
Let O be the centre of the circle which is taken as the origin. Let a be the radius of the circle.
Now A  (ă a, 0), B  (a, 0) E
Since CD || AB and 2CD = AB

CD AB 2a
Also CL =    a/2
2 4 4
In OLC
a, 3a a , 3a
2 2 C D
aL 2 2
2 a22 2 3a 2
OL  OC  CL  a   a 3a
4 2 2 B
A X
(a,0)
a O a (a,0)
 a 3  a 3 
 C    , a  , D   , a 
 2 2  2 2 
Now equation of circle is x2 + y2 = a2 ...(1)
and equation of tangent at B(a, 0) is
xa + y.0 = a2 or x= a ...(2)

3
a 0
Equ. of AC is y ă 0 = 2
a
 x  a  or y  x  x  a ...(3)
a
2

Solving (2) and (3), we get x = a, y  2 3a  E  a, 2 3a  

Now AE  ( a  a)2  (0  2 3a)2  4 a  2.2 a  2.AB

10. Equation of pair of tangents

The equation of pair of pair of tangents drawn
A
from an external point P (x1 y1) to the circle x2 + y2 = a2
is given by
C (0,0)
2 2 2 2
(x + y ă a ) ( x12  y12  a ) = (xx1 + yy1 ă a )
2 P (x1y1)

OR we can say SS1 = T2 B

where S  equation of circle
S1  value after putting (x1 y1) in equation of circle
T  equation of tangent at point (x1 y1)
Note : If the equation of circle is given in general form then also the condition SS1 = T2 is valud
for the equation of circle, x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, the equation becomes

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 35

(x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c) ( x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c)

= (xx1 + yy1 + g (x + x1) + f (y + y1))2 + c

Note that the equation of tangent is also with respect to the general equation of circle.

1 1. Director circle
The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to a given conic is known as
its director circle.
The equation of the director circle of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is x 2 + y2 = 2a 2

12. Normal To the Circle

The normal at any point P of a curve is the straight line which passes through P and is perpendicular
to the tangent at P.
Generally there is no need to remember the formula for normal to circle. We follow the following
steps to find the equation of normal.
Step 1 : Write the equation of tangent to the given circle at (x1 y1)
Step 2 : Write the equation of a line which is perpendicular to the above line & passes through
(x1 y1). The equation obtained is the equation of normal.
To find the equation to the normal at the point (x´, y´) of (1), the circle,
x2 + y2 = a2
and (2), the circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

(1) The tangent at (x´, y´) is

xx´ + yy´ = a2

x´ a2
i.e. y x
y´ y´
The equation to the straight line passing through (x´, y´) perpendicular to this tangent is,
y ă y´ = m (x ă x´)

 x´ 
Where m      1
 y´ 

y´
i.e., m
x´
The required equation is therefore

y´
y  y´   x  x´ 
x´
i.e., x´y ă xy´ = 0

THE CIRCLE
36 QUIZRR
Similary you can find the equation of normal to the general form of circle.
Note : The equation of normal to circle x2 + y2 = a2 will always poss through centre and thus will
be of the form y = mx

Illustration 27
Find the equation of the normal to the circle x 2 + y2 = 2x, which is parallel to the line
x + 2y = 3.
Solution :
Given circle is x2 + y2 ă 2x = 0
Centre of given circle is (1, 0)
Since normal is parallel to x + 2y = 3
let the equation of normal is x + 2y = 
Since normal passes through the centre of the circle i.e., (1, 0)
then 1 + 0 =l
  = 1
then equation of normal is x + 2y = 1
or x + 2y ă 1 = 0

Alternative Method :
Equation of normoal at (x1, y1) of x2 + y2 ă 2x = 0 is

x  x1 y  y1

x1  1 y1  0

y1
or slope = x  1  m1 (say)
1

since normal is parallel to x + 2y = 3

1
 Slope =   m2 (say)
2
but given m1 = m2

y1 1

x1  1 2

or x1 + 2y1 ă 1 = 0
 locus of (x1, y1) is x + 2y ă 1 = 0

13. Chord of Contact

If from any point T outside a circle two tangents TP and TQ be drawn to the circle, the straight
line PQ joining the points of contact is called the chord of contact of tangents from T.

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 37

The equation of chord of contact of tangents to the circle at Y

2 2 2
x + y = a is given by
xx1 + yy1 = a 2 P(x´,y´)
Proof : T(x1,y1)
Let T be the point (x1, y1) and P and Q the points (x´, y´) and Q(x'',y'')
(x´´, y´´) respectively. X
O
The tangent at P is xx´ + yy´ = a2 ...(1)
and that at Q is, xx´ + yy´ = a2 ...(2)
Since, these tangents pass through T, its coordinates (x1, y1)
must satisfy both (1) and (2).
Hence x1x´´ + y1y´´ = a2 ...(3)
and x1x´´ + y1y´´ = a2 ...(4)
The equation to PQ is then,
xx1 + yy1 = a2 ...(5)
For, since (3) is true, it follows that the point (x´, y´), i.e., P, lies on (5). Also, since (4) is true, it
follows that the point (x´´, y´´), i.e., Q, lies on (5).
Hence, both P and Q lie on the straight line (5), i.e., (5), is the equation to the required chord
of contact.
If the point (x1, y1) lie within the circle the argument of the preceding article will show that the
line joining the (imaginary) points of contact of the two (imaginary) tangents drawn from (x1, y1)
is xx1 + yy1 = a2.

1 4. The equation of the chord of the circle x2 + y2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 whose middle

point is ( x1, y1)
The equation of the chord o the circle S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 bisected at the point (x1y1)
is given by

T = S1

where T  xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c

and S1  x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c

Proof :
The equation of given circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
Its centre is C  (ă g, ă f)
Let PQ be the chord whose mid-points is L (x1, y1).
We have to find the equation of the chord PQ of the circle
y1  f C(ăg,ăf)
Slope of CL = x  g
1
Since CL  PQ
P L Q
x1  g
 slope of PQ = (x1,y1)
y1  f

THE CIRCLE
38 QUIZRR

x1  g
Now equation of chord PQ is y  y1  y  f ( x  x1 )
1

or (y ă y1) (y1 + f) = ă (x1 + g) (x ă x1)

or yy1 ă y12 + yf ă y1f = ă xx1 + x12 ă xg + gx1

or xx1 + yy1 + gx + fy = x12 + y12 + gx1 + fy1

Adding gx1 + fy1 + c to both sides, we get

xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c

This is the required equation of the chord PQ whose mid-point is (x1, y1).
Note : This equation can be written as T = S1,

15.1 Common chord of two Circles :

The chord joining the points of intersection of two given circles is called their common chord.

C1 M C2

S1=0 S2=0
Q

The equation of common chord of two circles is given by

S1 ă S2 = 0

Where S1  x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 ...(i)

S2  x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 ...(ii)
subtracting (i) & (ii), we get 2x (g1 ă g2) + 2y (f1 ă f2) + c1 ă c2 = 0
which is the required equation of common chord.

15.2 Length of common chord :

P
We have PQ = 2(PM) ( M is mid point of PQ)

C1 C2
= 2 {(C1 P)2   C1 M 2 } M
S´=0
S=0 Q
where C1P = radius of the circle S = 0
and C1M = length of perpendicular from C1 on common chord PQ.

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 39

Illustration 28

Find the length of the common chord of the two circles

x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y = 0
x 2 + y2 = 9
Solution :
The equation of the common chord AB is 2x + 4y ă 9 = 0
Since centre of C2 is (0, 0). The perpendicular length from C2 to the common chord AB is

9 9 A
= 
22  42 20
C1

81 99 M
AM = C2 A 2  C2 M2  9   C2
 (0,0)
20 2 5 B

99
 Length of common chord = 2AM =
5

Illustration 29
Tangents are drawn at those points of the circle x 2 + y2 ă 9 = 0 where it is intersected by
the circle x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y = 0. Find the intersection point of these tangents.
Solution :
Let the circles intersect at A and B and tangents to C1 are drawn at A and B which intersect at
P (, ) then the line AB has two status. At first it is a common chord of two circles and secondly
it is t he chor d of cont act when t angent s ar e dr awn fr om P (, ) to x2 + y2 ă 9 = 0
 The lines 2x + 4y ă 9 = 0 and x + y ă 9 = 0 are coincident.

  9
     = 2,  = 4
2 4 9

Thus tangents intersect at (2, 4).

Illustration 30
Find the equation of the chord of x 2 + y2 ă 6x + 10y ă 9 = 0 which is bisected at (ă 2, 4).
Solution :
The equation of the required chord is
ă 2x + 4y ă 3 (x ă 2) + 5 (y + 4) ă 9 = 4 + 16 + 12 + 40 ă 9
ă 5x + 9y ă 46 = 0
or 5x ă 9y + 46 = 0

THE CIRCLE
40 QUIZRR

Illustration 31
Find the middle point of the chord intercepted on line lx + my + n = 0 by the circle
x 2 + y2 = a 2.
Solution :
Let (x1, y1) be the middle point of the chord intercepted by the circle x2 + y2 = a2, on the line
lx + my + n = 0. Then equation of the chord of the circle x2 + y2 = a2, whose middle points is
(x1, y1), is

xx1 + yy1 ă a2 = x12  y12 ă a2

or xx1 + yy1 = x12  y12 ...(1)

Clearly lx + my + n = 0 and (1) represented the same line,

x1 y1 x12  y12
 =   (say)
l m n
 x1 = l 
...(2)
y1 = m

and x12  y12 = – n

or l22 + m22 = ă n (from (2))

n
  =
l  m2
2

nl mn
so from (2), x1   , y1  
2 2
l m l  m2
2

 nl nm 
Hence, the required point is   2 ,  
 l m
2
l2  m2 

Illustration 32
Find the locus of middle points of chords of the circle x 2 + y2 = a 2, which subtend right angle
at the point (c , 0). Y
Solution : A
Let N (h, k) be the middle point of any chord
)
,k
(h

AB, which subtend a right angle at P (c, 0)

N
Since APB = 90Ĉ X´ X
P(c,0)
 NA = NB = NP
B O
(since distance of the vertices from middle point of the hypotenuse are
equal)

Y´
THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 41

or (NA)2 = (NB)2 = (h ă c)2 + (k ă 0)2 ...(1)

But also BNO = 90Ĉ
 (OB) 2 = (ON)2 + (NB)2
 ă (NB)2 = (ON)2 ă (OB)2
 ă [(h ă c)2 + (k ă 0)2] = (h2 + k2) ă a2
or 2 (h2 + k2) ă 2ch + c2 ă a2 = 0
 Locus of N (h, k) is
2(x2 + y2) ă 2cx + c2 ă a2 = 0

1 6. Pole and Polar

If through a point P (within or outside a circle) there be drawn any straight line to meet the circle
in Q and R, the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents at Q and R is called the polar
of P; also P is called the pole of the polar.
The equation to the polar of the point (x 1, y1) with respect to the circle x 2 + y2 = a 2.

T
R

xx1 + yy1 = a 2

In a similar manner it may be proved that the polar of (x1, y1) with respect to the circle.
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
is xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0

To find the pole of a given line with respect to any circle.

Let the equation to the given line be
Ax + By + C = 0 ...(1)
1. Let the equation to the circle be,
x2 + y2 = a2
and let the required pole be (x1, y1)
Then, (1) must be the equation to the polar of (x1, y1), i.e., it is the same as the equation.
xx1 + yy1 ă a2 = 0 ...(2)

THE CIRCLE
42 QUIZRR
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we have

x1 y  a2
 1 
A B C

A 2 B
so that x1  a and y1   a 2
C C
The required pole is therefore, the point

 A 2 B 2
 C a ,  C a 
 
2. Let the equation to the circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
If (x1, y1) be the required pole, then (1) must be equivalent to the equation,
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0 ...(3)
i.e., x(x1 + g) + y(y1 + f) + gx1 + fy1 + c = 0
Comparing (1) with (3), we therefore, have

x1  g y1  f gx  fy1  c
  1
A B C
By solving these equations we have the values of x1 and y1.
If the polar of a point P pass through a point T, then the polar of T passes through P.
Let P and T be the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) respectively.
The polar of (x1, y1) with respect to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is,
xx1 + yy1 = a2
This straight line passes through the point T if,
x2x1 + y2y1 = a2 ...(1)
Since the relation (1) is true, it follows that the point (x1, y1), i.e., P, lies on the straight line
xx2 + yy2 = a2, which is the polar of (x2, y2), i.e., T, with respect to the circle.

Problems based on pole and polar with respect to a circle

Working Rule : Use the following formula whichever is needed.

x  y1
(i) In order to find the equation of the polar of point (x1, y1) in place of x and in place
2
of y in the equation of the circle.
(ii) If the pole of the given line lx + my + n = 0 with respect to the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy
+ c = 0 is to be obtained. Let the pole be (, ) and then compare the equation of this polar
and the equation of given line.
(iii) Two points are said to be conjugate to each other if the polar of one point w.r.t. the circle
passes through the other.
Also two lines are conjugate of each other w.r.t. a circle if pole of one line lies on the other.

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 43

Illustration 33
Find the equation of the polar of the point (2, ă 1) with respect to the circle x 2 + y2 ă 3x +
4y ă 8 = 0.
Solution :
Given circle is x2 + y2 ă 3x + 4y ă 8 = 0 ...(1)
Given point is (2, ă 1) let P  (2, ă 1). Now equation of the polar of point P with respect to circle
(1) is
 x  2  y  1
x.2  y   1  3  4 2 80
 2   
or 4x ă 2y ă 3x ă 6 + 4y ă 4 ă 16 = 0 or x + 2y ă 26 = 0

Illustration 34
Find the pole of the line 3x + 5y + 17 = 0 with respect to the circle x 2 + y2 + 4x + 6y + 9 = 0
Solution :
Given circle is x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y + 9 = 0 ...(1)
and given line is 3x + 5y + 17 = 0 ...(2)
Let P (, ) be the pole of line (2) with respect to circle (1).
Now equation of polar of point P(, ) with respect to circle (1) is
x + y + 2(x + ) + 3(y + ) + 9 = 0
or ( + 2)x + ( + 3)y + 2 + 3 + 9 = 0 ...(3)
Now lines (2) and (3) are same, therefore,
  2   3 2  3  9
 
3 5 17
i   ii   iii 
From (i) and (ii), we get 5 + 10 = 3 + 9 or 5 ă 3 = ă 1 ...(4)
From (i) and (iii), we get
17 + 34 = 6 + 9 + 27 or 11 ă 9 = ă 7 ...(5)
Solving (4) and (5), we get  = 1,  = 2
Hence required pole is (1, 2).

Illustration 35
Show that the polars of the point (1, ă 2) with respect to the circles x 2 + y2 + 2x + 8y + 5 =
0 and x 2 + y2 + 2x + 8y + 5 = 0 coincide. Prove also that there is another point, the polars
of which with respect to these circles are the same and find its co-ordinates.
Solution :
Given circles are
x2 + y2 + 6y + 5 = 0 ...(1)
and x2 + y2 + 2x + 8y + 5 = 0 ...(2)
Let P  (1, 2)
Now polar of point P (1, ă 2) with respect to circle (1) is
x.1 + y(ă 2) + 3(y ă 2) + 5 = 0 or x + y ă 1 = 0 ...(3)
Again polar of point P (1, ă 2) with respect to circle (2) is

THE CIRCLE
44 QUIZRR
x.1 + y(ă 2) + x + 1 + 4(y ă 2) + 5 = 0
or 2x + 2y ă 2 = 0 or x+ yă1 = 0 ...(4)
From (3) and (4) it follows that the polars of point (1, ă 2) with respect to circles (1) and (2) are
same.
Second part :
Let Q(, ) be a point the polars of which with respect to circles (1) and (2) are same.
Now equation of polars of point P(, ) with respect to circles (1) and (2) are respectively.
x + y + 3(y + ) + 5 = 0 or x + ( + 3)y + 3 + 5 = 0 ...(5)
and x + y + (x + ) + 4(y + ) + 5 = 0
or ( + 1)x + ( + 4)y +  + 4 + 5 = 0 ...(6)
Now equations (5) and (6) are identical

  1   4   4  5
 
  3 3  5
 i  ii  iii 
From (i) and (ii), we have
 +  + 3 + 3 =  + 4 or  ă  = 3 ...(7)
From (i) and (iii), we have
3 + 3 + 5 + 5 = 2 + 4 + 5
or 2 +  ă 3 ă 5 = 0
or ( + 3)2 + ( + 3) ă 3 ă 5 = 0 [(from (7)]
or 22 + 6 + 4 = 0 or 2 + 3 + 2 = 0    = ă 1, ă 2.
From (7), when  = ă 1,  = 2 and when  = ă 2,  = 1.
Thus points are (2, ă 1) and (1, ă 2).
But given P is (1, ă 2), therefore, required point Q will be (2, ă 1).

Illustration 36
Let C be the centre of a circle. The lines L1 and L2 are the polars of points A and B
respectively with respect to the circle. Perpendiculars AM and BN are dropped from A to
the line L2 and from B to the line L1. Prove that CA : CB = AM : BN.
Solution :
Let the circle be x2 + y2 ă a2 = 0 ...(1)
A  (x1, y1) and B  (x2, y2)
Since C is the centre of circle (1)
 C  (0, 0)
Now Polars of A and B w.r.t. circle (1) are respectively
xx1 + yy1 ă a2 = 0 ... (2) and xx2 + yy2 ă a2 = 0 ...(3)

x1 x2  y1 y2  a2 x2 x1  y2 y1  a2 x12  y12 CA
AM  
 = = CB
BN x22  y22 x12  y12 x22  y22

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 45

1 7. Family of Circles
1. The equation of the family of circles passing
through the point of intersection of two given
circles S = 0 and S´ = 0 is given as S + S´ = 0
(where  is a parameter,   ă 1)

S=0 S´=0
S+S´=0

2. The equation of the family of circles passing

S+L=0
through the point of intersection of circle S = 0
and a line L = 0 is given as S + L = 0 (where
 is a parameter)

S=0
L=0

3. The equation of the family of circles touching

the circle S = 0 and the line L = 0 at their point

S+L=0
of contact P is S + L = 0 (where  is a
parameter)

S=0 L=0

4. The equation of a family of circles passing

through two given points P(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) P(x1,y1)
can be written in the form
(x ă x 1) (x ă x 2) + (y ă y1) (y ă y2)

x y 1 Q(x2,y2)
  x1 y1 1  0
x 2 y2 1

(where  is a parameter)
5. The equation of family of circles which touch y
ă y1 = m(x ă x1) at (x1, y1) for any finite m is
(x ă x1)2 + (y ă y1)2 +  {(y ă y1) ă m(x ă x1)} (x1,y1)
= 0
and if m is infinite, the family of circles is
(x ă x1)2 + (y ă y1)2 + (x ă x1) = 0
(where  is a parameter) yăy1=m(xăx1)

THE CIRCLE
46 QUIZRR
6. Equation of the circles given in diagram are

(x ă x1)(x ă x2) + (y ă y1) (y ă y2)
 cot  {(x ă x1) (y ă y2) ă (x ă x2) (y ă y1)} = 0
(x1, y1) (x2,y2)

Illustration 37
Find the equation of a circle which passes through the intersection of the circles x 2 + y2 ă
9 = 0, x 2 + y2 + 2x + 4y + 3 = 0 and also passes through (0, 0).
Solution :
The equation of the required circle must be of the form
x2 + y2 ă 9 +  (x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y + 3) = 0
If this passes through (0, 0) we must have
ă 9 + 3 = 0   = 3
The required circle, is x + y ă 9 + 3(x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y + 3) = 0
2 2

or 2x2 + 2y2 ă 3x ă 6y = 0

Illustration 38
Find the equation of a circle which passes through the intersection of the circles x 2 + y2 ă
2x + 4y ă 3 = 0, x 2 + y2 ă 6x ă 8y + 5 = 0 and
(i) whose centre lies on y-axis
(ii) whose centre lies on the line 2x + y = 7
(iii) whose diameter is the common chord of given circles.
Solution :
The required circles must be of the form
x2 + y2 ă 2x + 4y ă 3 + (x2 + y2 ă 6x ă 8y + 5) = 0 ...(1)
which, on arranging becomes
(1 + )x2 + (1 + )2 ă 2 (1 + 3)x + 2 (2 ă 4)y + 5 ă 3 = 0
1  3 2  4 5  3
or x2 + y2 ă 2. 1   x  2. 1   y  1    0

 1  3 4  2 
The centre =  , 
 1 1 

1  3
For part (i), we must have 1    0

1 1
  . On putting     at (1)
3 3

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 47

We get the answer to part (i)

For part (ii) we must have

 1  3   4  2  7
2  7   
 1     1    3

(iii) The common chord of the two given circle is 4x + 12y ă 8 = 0 or x + 3y ă 2 = 0

 1  3 4  2 
Now the centre  ,  must lie on this common chord since common chord is the
 1 1 
diameter

1  3  4  2  7
  3 20  
1  1  13

Note : The student will determine easily that certain problems of this type will either lead to
indeterminate equations or equations which have no solutions. Let us discuss one case. Suppose
we want the equation of circles passing through the intersection of the circles x2 + y2 ă 9 = 0
and x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y = 0and passing through origin then on putting x = 0, y = 0 in
x2 + y2 ă 9 +  (x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y) = 0 ...(1)
we get ă 9 = 0  does not exist.
But it can easily noticed that the second circle satisfies both the condition. (It passes through
origin and passes through the intersection of two given circles). Can we settle this paradox ?
Indeed the equation x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y = 0 can be obtained from (1) if  =  or else, from the
beginning itself we can take the family of the circles equation as
x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 4y +  (x2 + y2 ă 9) = 0
which will yield  = 0
Thus in all such complex situations we must re-do the problem and must observe intricacies of
the situation.

Illustration 39
Find the equation of a circle passing through the points (2, 0), (3, ă 1) and (2, 5).
Solution :
The equation of circles passing through first two points (2, 0) and (3, ă 1) may be taken as

x y 1
( x  2)( x  3)  ( y  0)( y  1)   2 0 1  0
3 1 1

Or x2 + y2 ă 5x + y + 6 + (x + y ă 2) = 0
If this passes through (2, 5) we must have
4 + 25 ă 10 + 5 + 6 + 5 = 0   = ă 6
Thus the required circle is x2 + y2 ă 5x + y + 6 ă 6(x + y ă 2) = 0
 x2 + y2 ă 11x ă 5y + 18 = 0
THE CIRCLE
48 QUIZRR

Illustration 40
Find the equation of circle passing through (2, 0) and (3, ă 1) and cutting a chord length
4 units on y-axis.
Solution :
From the equation x2 + y2 ă 5x + y + 6 + (x + y ă 2) = 0 we conclude that length of the chord

2
1   
intercepted on y-axis = 2     6  2  (applying 2 f 2  c )
 2 

2
1  
 2     6  2   4
 2 

  = 3,  = ă 13
Thus one such circle is x2 + y2 ă 5x + y + 6 + 3(x + y ă 2) = 0
 x2 + y2 ă 2x + 4y = 0

Illustration 41
Show that any chord that arises as an intersection of a circle through A (2, 0) and B
(3, ă 1) and the circle x 2 + y2 ă 2x + 6y ă 11 = 0 passes through a fixed point. Find the co-
ordinates of that point.
Solution :
Any circle through A (2, 0) and B (3, ă 1) is x2 + y2 ă 5x + y + 6 + (x + y ă 2) = 0
This will cut the circle x2 + y2 ă 2x + 6y ă 11 = 0 in a chord whose equation is
ă 3x ă 5y + 17 +  (x + y ă 2) = 0
It is clear that these chords are concurrent at a point whose co-ordinates are given by
ă 3x ă 5y + 17 = 0, x + y ă 2 = 0

 7 11 
We easily get the fixed point as   , 
 2 2 

18. Angle of Intersection of Two Circles

The angle between two circles is the angle between their
tangents at their point of intersection.
Let P be a point of intersection of the two circles. Let PT and P
PT´ be the tangents to the two circles at P. Then the angle of
intersection of the two circles at P is the TPT´ or  ă TPT´ B A

If A and B be the centres of the two circles then T T´
PA  PT and PB  P´   TPT´ = APB or  ă APB.

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 49

19. ORTHOGONAL CIRCLES

Two circles are said to be intersect orthogonally when the tangents at their points of intersection
are at right angles.
If the two circles intersect at P, the radii, O1P and O2P, which are P
a1 a2
perpendicular to the tangents at P, must also be at right angles.

Hence, O1O22  O1 P 2  O2 P 2 O1 O2

i.e., the square of the distance between the centres must be equal
to the sum of the squares of the radii.
Also the tangent frrom O2 to the other circle is equal to the radius a2, i.e., if two circles be
orthogonal the length of the tangent drawn from the centre of one circle to the second circle is
equal to the radius of the first.
Either of these two conditions will determine whether the circles are orthogonal.
The centres of the circles,
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2g´x + 2f´y + c´ = 0
are the points (ă g, ă f) and (ă g´, ă f´); also the squares of their radii are
g2 + f2 ă c and g´2 + f´2 ă c´.
They therefore, cut orthogonally if
(ă g + g´)2 + (ă f + f´)2 = g2 + f2 ă c + g´2 + f´2 ă c´,

i.e., if 2gg´ + 2ff´ = c + c ´

Illustration 42
Show that the circles x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 6y ă 12 = 0 and x 2 + y2 + 6x + 4y ă 6 = 0 cut each other
orthogonally.
Solution :
Given circles are x2 + y2 ă 2x ă 6y ă 12 = 0 ...(1)

and x2 + y2 + 6x + 4y ă 6 = 0 ...(2)

We know that the circles x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and

x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0

will cut each other orthogonally if 2gg1 + 2ff1 = c + c1

Here g = ă 1, f = ă 3, c = ă 12

and g1 = 3, f1 = 2, c1 = ă 6

Now 2gg1 + 2ff1 = 2(ă 1)(3) + 2(ă 3).2 = ă 18 = c + c1

Hence circles (1) and (2) cut each other orthogonally

THE CIRCLE
50 QUIZRR

Illustration 43

If S = 0 and S1 = 0 are the two circles with radii a and a 1 respectively. Show that the circles

S S1
 intersect at right angles.
a a1

Solution :
Let A and B be the centre of the two circles. We take AB as x-axis and its middle point as the
origin. Let AB = 2k, then A  (ă k, 0), B  (k, 0).
A(ăk,O) O B(k,O)
Now the equation of the two circles are
S  (x ă k)2 + y2 ă a2 = 0 and S1  (x + k)2 + y2 ă a12 = 0

S S1
Also  0  a1S  aS1 = 0
a a1

 a1 [( x  k)  y  a ]  a[( x  k)  y  a1 ]  0
2 2 2 2 2 2

  2 2 2 2 2 2
 a1 [( x  k)  y  a ]  a[( x  k)  y  a1 ]  0

(a  a1 )( x  y )  2 kx  ( a1  a)  ( k  aa1 )( a1  a)  0
2 2 2

  2 2 2
 (a1  a) ( x  y )  2 kx( a1  a)  ( k  aa1 )( a1  a)  0

 2  a1  a
2
 x  y  2k 
2
 x  k  aa1  0 ... 1
  a1  a

  x2  y2  2 k  a1  a
 
2
 x  k  aa1  0 ...  2 
  a1  a

 a1  a  2
Here g     k, f1  0, c  k  aa1
 a1  a 

a  a 2
and g1    1  k, f2  0, c1  k  aa1
 a1  a 

Now 2gg1 + 2ff1 = 2k2 + 0 = 2k2 = c + c1

S S1 S S1
Hence circles a  a  0 and a  a  0 intersect at right angles.
1 1

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 51

Illustration 44
Prove that the two circles which pass through the points (0, a ) and (0, ă a ) and touch the
line y = mx + c will cut orthogonally if c 2 = a 2(2 + m 2).
Solution :
Let a circle be x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy +  = 0 ...(1)
Since circle (1) passes through (0, a) and (0, ă a).
 a2 + 2fa +  = 0 and a2 ă 2fa +  = 0
Solving these equations, we get f = 0,  = ă a2
Since line mx ă y + c = 0 touches circle (1)
 radius of the circle = length of the perpendicular from the centre (ă g, ă f) to the line.

 mg  f  c
g2  f 2   

1  m2

 mg  c
g 2  a2 
 [ f = 0 and  = ă a2]
1  m2

or (1 + m2)(g2 + a2) = (ă mg + c)2

or g2 + 2mcg + (1 + m2)a2 ă c2 = 0 ...(2)

Let g1 and g2 be the roots of eqn. (2)

 g1 + g2 = ă 2mc, g1g2 = (1 + m2)a2 ă c2
Corresponding to the two values of g the two circles are
x2 + y2 + 2g1x ă a2 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2g2x ă a2 = 0
They will cut orthogonally if 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 = c1 + c2
i.e. if, 2{(1 + m2) a2 ă c2} + 2.0. 0 = ă a2 ă a2
or (1 + m2)a2 ă c2 + a2 = 0; or c2 = (2 + m2)a2.

Illustration 45
Find the angle between the circles
S : x 2 + y2 ă 4x + 6y + 11 = 0 and S´ : x 2 + y2 ă 2x + 8y + 13 = 0
Solution :
Centres and radii of circles S and S´ are

C1(2, ă 3), r1  2 , C2 (1, ă 4), r2 = 2

Distance between centres, d = C1C2

= (2  1)2  ( 3  4)2  2

THE CIRCLE
52 QUIZRR
If angle between the circles is , then

 r12  r22  d 2 
cos (180Ĉ ă ) =  2r1 r2


 

2  4  2 1
cos (180Ĉ ă ) =  
 2. 2.2  2
180Ĉ ă  = 45Ĉ
 = 135Ĉ

20. RADICAL AXIS

The radical axis of two circles is the locus of a point, which moves so that the lengths of the
tangents drawn from it to the two circles are equal.
Let the equations of the two circles be

x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 ...(1)

and x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 ...(2)

and let P(, ) be any point such that the tangents from it to these circles are equal.

P(,) P(,)
Radical axis

B A
A B

Radicalaxis

Now PA = 2  2  2 g1  2 f1  c1

and PB =  2  2  2 g2   2 f2  c2

We have PA = PB    PA2 = PB2

 2 + 2 + 2g1 + 2f1 + c1 = 2 + 2 + 2g2 + 2f2 + c2
or 2(g1 ă g2)  + 2 (f1 ă f2)  + c1 ă c2 = 0
Hence, the locus of P (, ) is 2(g1 ă g2) x + 2 (f1 ă f2) y + c1 ă c2 = 0

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 53

 The equation of the radical axis of circles (1) and (2) is

2(g1 ă g2) x + 2 (f1 ă f2) y + c1 ă c2 = 0
Note :
(i) If we denote the L.H.S. of (1) and (2) by S1 and S2 respectively, we see that the equation
of the radical axis of the circles S1 = 0 and S2 = 0 will be S1 ă S2 = 0
Hence in order to write down the equation of the radical axis of two circles make the co-
efficient of x2 in the equation of the two circles unity and then subtract.
(ii) Since S1 ă S2 is of the form S1 + kS2 = 0, where k = ă 1 hence radical axis of two circles
will pass through the point of intersection of the two circles if they cut each other. Thus
(a) if the two circles cut each other at two different points, then their radical axis will be
their common chord.
(b) if the two circles touch each other (internally or externally), then their radical axis will
be the common tangent at the point of contact.
(c) According to the above definition radical axis of two intersecting circles will be their
common chord but from any point on this chord lying inside the circles no tangent can
be drawn to the circles and hence definition of radical axis as given above is not correct
and must be modified.
Modified definition of radical axis :
If S1 = 0 and S2 = 0 be the equations of the two circles where coefficients of x2 in S1 and S2 are
equal, then their radical axis is the straight line S1 ă S2 = 0.

Properties of Radical axis :

Property I : The radical axis of two circles is perpendicular to the line of centres.
Let the equation of the two circles be
x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 ...(1)
and x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 ...(2)
Let A and B be the centres of the two circles (1) and (2) respectively, then
A  (ă g1, ă f1) and B  (ă g2, ă f2)

f2  f1
slope of AB =  m1 (say)
g2  g1

2(g1 ă g2) x + 2(f1 ă f2) y + c1 ă c2 = 0 ...(3)

g1  g2 g  g1
Its slope =  2  m2 (say)
f1  f2 f2  f1

since m1m2 = ă 1, hence radical axis is perpendicular to the line joining the centres.

THE CIRCLE
54 QUIZRR
Property II : The radical axis of three circles taken two at a time are concurrent.
Let the equation of the three circles be
S1  x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 ...(1)
S2  x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 ...(2)
2 2
S3  x + y + 2g3x + 2f3y + c3 = 0 ...(3)
Radical axis of circles (1) and (2), (2) and (3) and (3) and (1) are
S1 ă S2  = 2(g1 ă g2) x + 2(f1 ă f2) y + c1 ă c2 = 0 ...(4)
S2 ă S3  = 2(g2 ă g3) x + 2(f2 ă f3) y + c2 ă c3 = 0 ...(5)
and S3 ă S1  = 2(g3 ă g1) x + 2(f3 ă f1) y + c3 ă c1 = 0 ...(6)
Adding (4), (5) and (6) we see that L.H.S. is indentically zero, hence the three lines are concurrent.
Note : The point of intersection of these three radical axes is called the radical centre of the three
circles.

Property III : The radical axis of two circles bisects their common tangent.
Let AB be one of the common tangents meeting the radical axis at P, then since P lies on the
radical axis hence by definition of radical axis PA = PB.
Thus the radical axis bisects the common chord.

Property IV : If two circles cut a third circle orthogonally, then the radical axis of the two
circles will pass through the centre of the third circle.
Or
The locus of the centre of a circle cutting two given circles orthogonally is the radical axis
of the two circles.
Let the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
cut the circles
x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 ...(2)
and x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 ...(3)
orthogonally, then
2gg1 + 2ff1 = c + c1 ... (4) and 2gg2 + 2ff2 = c + c2 ...(5)
(4) ă (5), we get 2(g1 ă g2) g + 2(f1 ă f2) f = c1 ă c2 ...(6)
centre of circle (1) is (ă g, ă f).  from (6) locus of (ă g, ă f) is
2(g1 ă g2) (ă x) + 2(f1 ă f2) (ă y) = c1 ă c2
or 2(g1 ă g2) x + 2(f1 ă f2) y + c1 ă c2 = 0 ...(7)
Clearly (7) is the radical axis of circles (2) and (3).

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 QUIZRR 55

R adical Centre :

The point of concurrence of the radical axes of three circles whose centre are non-colliener, taken
in pair, is called the radical centre of circles

Properties of Radical Centre :

1. Co-ordinates of radical centre can be found by solving the equations

S1 = S2 = S3 = 0
2. The radical centre of three circles described on the sides of a triangle as diameters is the
orthocentre of the triangle.
3. The radical centre of three given circles will be the centre of a fouroth circle which cuts all
the three circles orthogonally and the radius of the fourth circle is the length of tangent
drawn from radical centre of the three given circles to any of these circles.

Illustration 46

Find the radical centre of three circles described on the three sides 4x ă 7y + 10 = 0, x + y
ă 5 = 0 and 7x + 4y ă 15 = 0 of a triangle as diameters.
Solution :
Since the radical centre of three circles described on the sides of a triangle as diameters is the
orthocentre of the triangle.
 Radical centre = orthocentre
Given sides are 4x ă 7y + 10 = 0 ...(1)
x+ yă 5= 0 ...(2)
7x + 4y ă 15 = 0 ...(3)
Since lines (1) and (3) are perpendiculars the point of intersection of (1) and (3) is (1, 2), the
orthocentre of the triangle. Hence radical centre is (1, 2).

21. Coaxial circles

Definition : A system of circles is said to be coaxial when they have a common radical axis, i.e.,
when the radical axis of each pair of circles of the system is the same.

Some properties

1. Circles passing through two fixed points form a coaxial system of circles, because every pair
of circles has the same common chord and hence the same radical axis.
2. The equation x2 + y2 + 2gx + c, where g is variable and c is a constant, is the simplest
equation of a coaxial system of circles. The common radical axis of this system of circles is
y-axis.

THE CIRCLE
56 QUIZRR
To find the equation of a system of coaxial circles.
Since, the radical axis of any pair of the circle is perpendicular to the line joining their centres,
it follows that the centres of all the circles of a coaxial system must lie on a straight line which
is perpendicular to the radical axis.
Take the line of centres as the axis of x and the radical axis as the axis of y so that O is the origin.
The equation to any circle with its centre on the axis of x is
x2 + y2 ă 2gx + c = 0 ...(1)
Any point on the radical axis is (0, y1).

The square on the tangent from it to the circle (1) is by y12  c .

Since, this quantity is to be the same for all circles of the system it follows that c is the same for
all such circles; the different circles are therefore obtained by giving different values to g in the
equation (1).
The intersections of equation (1) with the radical axis are then obtained by putting x = 0 in

equation (1), and we have y   c.

If c be negative, we have two real points of intersection. In such cases the circles are said to be
of the Intersecting Species.
If c be positive, we have two imaginary points of intersection.

Illustration 47
Find the equation of the system of circles co-axial with the circles
x 2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0
and x 2 + y2 ă 2x + 6y ă 6 = 0
Also, find the equation of that particular circle whose centre lies on the radical axis.
Solution :
Given circles are
S1  x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0
and S2  x2 + y2 ă 2x + 6y ă 6 = 0
 Radical axis is S1 ă S2 = 0 ...(1)
i.e., 6x ă 4y + 7 = 0
Now system of co-axial circle is
S1 +  (S1 ă S2) = 0
2 2
 (x + y + 4x + 2y + 1) +  (6x ă 4y + 7) = 0
 x + y2 + 2x (2 + 3) + 2y (1 ă 2) + 1 + 7= 0
2
...(2)

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 QUIZRR 57

Its central [ă (2 + 3), ă (1 ă 2)] lies on (1)

 6 ï ă (2 + 3) ă 4 ï ă (1 ă 2) + 7 = 0
or ă 12 ă 18 + 4 ă 8 + 7 = 0
or ă 26 ă 1 = 0

1
 
26
Substituting the value of  in (2), the equation of circle is

 3   2  7
x2  y2  2 x  2    2 y  1  26   1  26  0
 26   
 26(x2 + y2) + 98x + 56y + 9 = 0

Illustration 48
If A, B, C be the centres of three co-axial circles and t1, t2, t3 be the lengths of the tangents
to from any point, prove that BC. t12  CA. t22  AB t32  0
Solution :
Let the equations of three circles are x2 + y2 + 2gix + c = 0, i = 1, 2, 3,
According to the question A  (ă g1, 0), B  (ă g2, 0), C  (ă g3, 0)
Let any point be P (h, k)

 t1 = h2  k2  2 g1 h  c

t2 = h2  k2  2 g2 h  c

t3 = h2  k2  2 g3 h  c

and AB = (g1 ă g2)

BC = (g2 ă g3)

and CA = (g3 ă g1)

Now BC. t12  CA . t22  AB t32

=  (g2 ă g3) (h2 + k2 + 2g1h + c)

= (h2 + k2 + c)  (g2 ă g3) + 2h  g1 (g2 ă g3)
= (h2 + k2 + c) (g2 ă g3 + g3 ă g1 + g1 ă g2) + 2h {g1(g2 ă g3) + g2 (g3 ă g1) + g3 (g1 ă g2)
= (h2 + k2 + c) (0) + 2h(0)
= 0
which proves the result.

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58 QUIZRR
2 2. The Common Tangents of Two circles
Let C1 and C2 be two circles whose radii are r1 and r2 respectively. Let r1 > r2 and let d be the
distance between the centres C1 and C2. Five different cases arise.

Case 1 : C2 completely within C1

In this case C1D > C1B (The line joining centres C1 and C2
cuts C2 at A and B
 r1 > C1C2 + C2B  r1 > d + r1  d < r1 ă r2 C1 C2
D
A B
condition : d < |r 1 ă r 2|
No. of tangents : No ta ngent possible
The distance between the centres is less than the difference of the radii.

Case 2 : C2 touches C1 internally

condition : d = r 1 ă r 2
No. of tangents : 1 common ta ngent
C1 C2
The distance between the centres is equal to the
difference of their radii.
In this case there is one common tangent whose Transverse
equation is S ă S´ = 0 tangent

Case 3 : C1 & C2 intersect (not just touching)

condition : r 1 ă r 2 < d < r 1 + r 2
No. of tangents : 2 common ta ngents
The distance between the centres is greater than the difference of the radii and less than
the sum of radii.

C1 C2
T

Direct tangents

It is easy to observe by inspection that the necessary and sufficient condition for this case
is r1 ă r2 < d < r1 + r2
There will be two direct common tangents only. The length and the equation of tangents can
be found as in the last case.

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 QUIZRR 59

Case 4 : C1 and C2 touch externally

T1 direct tangents
condition : d = r 1 + r 2
No. of tangents : 3 common ta ngents T2
C1 M
1 tra nsverse ta ngent P
C2
2 direct ta ngents
Transverse tangent

C1C22   C1 M   d 2   r1  r2 
2 2
The length of direct common tangent = T1T2 = C2M =

The equation of common tangent T1T2 can be obtained by finding the co-ordinate of the
point P which is the point of intersection of T1T2 and C1C2 (produced). Note that
PC1 C1 T1 r1
 
PC2 C2 T2 r2

By external division formula P can be determined after which the common tangent T1T2 can
be found.

Case 5 : C2 lies outside C1 completely

condition : d > r 1 + r 2
No. of tangents : 4 common ta ngents
2 tra nsverse ta ngents M
2 direct ta ngents
The necessary and sufficient condition for this T1 T2
case is d > r1 + r2
C1 C2
The direct common tangents can be obtained P
by the method described in case (iii), the length
T1 T2
d 2   r1  r2 
2
of direct common tangent =

Now observe the following figure for length and equation of the transverse common tangents.
Let one of the transverse common tangent meet C1 at T1 and C2 at T2 and T1T2 is intersected

PC1 C1 T1 r1
by C1C2 at P. Then  
PC2 C2 T2 r2

from which P can be determined easily if C1 and C2 are given. The length T1T2 = C2M where
M be the foot of the perpendicular from C2 to C1T1 produced.

Now C2M =  C1C2 2   C1M 2  d 2   C1 T1  T1 M  

2
d 2   r1  r2 
2

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60 QUIZRR

Illustration 49
Determine the number of common tangents to the two circles
C1 : x 2 + y2 = 25, C2 : x 2 + y2 ă 4x + 6y + 4 = 0 and find their lengths.
Solution :
The centres are (0, 0), (2, 3) and radii are 5 and 3.

d  13, r1  5, r2  3
We can note that r1 ă r2 < d < r1 + r2
 The circles intersect at two distinct real points.
 There are two direct common tangents.

d 2   r1  r2   13   5  3   3 units
2 2
Their lengths =

Illustration 50
Find all the common tangents to the circles C1 : x 2 + y2 + 22x ă 4y ă 100 = 0 and C2 : x 2 + y2
ă 22x + 4y + 100 = 0. Find their lengths also.
Solution :
(C1 and C2 will also denote the centre of the two circles)

15 L
5 
C (11  P
(ă11,2) ,ă C
2) 2

M
S

Note that centre of C1 is (ă 11, 2) and its radius is 15.

The centre of C2 is (11, ă 2) and its radius is 5.
Let the common tangent meet circle C1 at N and C2 at L.
Produce NL so that it intersects the line joining C1 and C2 at P.
Since the triangle PNC1 and PLC2 are similar.

C1 P r1 15
  3
C2 P r2 3

Since P lies externally. The co-ordinates of P are

 15  11  5   11  15    2   5  2 
 ,  i.e. P is (22, ă 4)
 15  5 15  5 
Any line through (22, ă 4) may be taken as y + 4 = m (x ă 22) or y ă mx + 4 + 22m = 0

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 QUIZRR 61

S L

C C
P

N M

Since it is a tangent to C2, we must have  from centre of C2 = radius of C2

 2  11m  4  22m 7 3
  5  m  ,
24 4
1  m2

7 3
 The direct common tangents are y  4  ( x  22) and y  4   ( x  22)
24 4
or 7x ă 24y = 250 and 3x + 4y = 50 ...(1)
Again for transverse common tangents

C1 P r1 15
we note that common tangent NL is intersected by C1 C2 at P and  
PC2 r2 5

 15  11  5   11 15    2   5  2   11 
 P is  ,  i.e. P is  ,  1 
 15  5 15  5   2 

 11   11 
Now any line through  ,  1  may be taken as y + 1 = m  x 
 2   2 

24 4
As before we get m   or
7 3

24  11  4 11 
 Transverse common tangents are y + 1 =   x  and y + 1 =  x 
7  2  3 2 

or 24x + 7y = 125 or 4x ă 3y = 25 ...(2)

Note : If we take one of the common tangents (1) and solve it with C1 and C2. The distance
between the points of contact will be the length of the direct common tangent. But the length
can be found without finding these points and without finding the equation of common
tangents. Indeed length of the direct

common tangents = d 2   r1  r2   ( 11  11) 2  (2  2)2  (15  5)2  400  20

2

d 2   r1  r2   10
2
The length of the tranverse common tangent =

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62 QUIZRR

Illustration 51
Find the coordinates of the point at which the circles x 2 + y2 ă 4x ă 2y + 4 = 0 and x 2 + y2
ă 12x ă 8y + 36 = 0 touch each other. Also find the equation of common tangents touching
the circles in distinct points.
Solution :
I Circle II Circle
Centre A(2, 1) B (6, 4)

Radius r1  4  1  4  1 r2  36  16  36  4

AB = 16 + 9  25  5  1  4  r1  r2

 the two circles touch externally

 1 P 4
Q A B(6,4)
(2,1)
+ 2,0
3

 14 8 
P, the point of contact, divides AB internally in the ratio 1 : 4 hence P is  ,  and Q which
 5 5

2 
divides AB externally in the same ratio is  , 0 
3 
The tangent from Q to the circle I will also be tangent to the circle II and hence will be a common
tangent touching the two circles in two distinct points.
If  be the angle that this tangent (actually there are two) makes with AB, then

1 1 3
sin    
AQ 16 5
1
9

3
 tan  
4
Now if ÂmÊ be the slope of one of the common tangents from Q, then

3
m
3
 tan   4  slope of AB = 3 
3  
1m 
4 4
4

16 m ă 12 = 12 + 9 m

24
7m = 24  m 
7
THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 63

3
m´ 
4  3
If ÂmÊ be the slope of the other common tangent 3  m´ = 0
4
1  m´
4

The two common tangents are

yă 0= 0  y= 0
i.e., the x-axis

24  2
y0 x 
7 
and
3

7y = 24x ă 16  24x ă 7y ă 16 = 0

THE CIRCLE
64 QUIZRR

SOME MORE PROBLEMS

Illustration 1
Let a circle be given by 2x (x ă a ) + y (2y ă b) = 0 (a  0). Suppose it is possible to draw two

 b
distinct chords from  a ,  on the circle such that each is bisected by x-axis. Show that the
 2
condition for this is a 2 > 2b 2.
Solution :

 b
Let (, ) be the other ends of the chord drawn from P  a,  then as it bisected by a point on
 2
x-axis we have P
b
 b
0 2  
2 2

 b
Since  ,   lies on the circle, we have O
 2

b
2 ( ă a) ă (ă 2b) = 0 or 22 ă 2a + b2 = 0
2
For two distinct such chords this should yield two distinct real roots.
 4a2 ă gb2 > 0 or a2 > 2b2

Illustration 2
Show that the circle circumscribing the triangle whose sides are
x cos  + y sin  = a sec + b sin
x cos b + y sin  = a sec + b sin
x cos + y sin = a sec + b sin
passes through the points (0, b)
Solution :
The equation of a conic circumscribing the triangle must be of the form
(x cos  + y sin  ă a sec  ă b sin )(x cos  + y sin  ă a sec  ă b sin )
+  (x cos + y sin ă a sec  ă b sin)(x cos  + y sin  ă a sec  ă b sin )
+ ø (x cos  + y sin  ă a sec  ă b sin )(x cos  + y sin  ă a sec  ă b sin ) = 0 ...(i)
Since this represents a circle
coeff. of x2 = coeff. of y2 ...(ii)
coeff. of xy = 0 ...(iii)

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 QUIZRR 65

(ii)  cos  cos  +  (cos  cos ) + ø (cos  cos ) = sin  sin  +  (sin  sin ) + ø (sin  sin )
 cos ( + ) +  sin ( + ) + ø cos( + ) = 0 ...(iv)
(iii)  sin ( + ) +  sin ( + ) + ø sin( + ) = 0 ...(v)
Solving (iv) and (v) for  and ø, we get

  1
 
sin      sin      sin     

sin      sin     
  ,
sin      sin     

Now the circle (i) will pass through (0, b) if

(ă a sec) (ă a sec) +  (ă a sec) (ă a sec) + ø (ă a sec ) (ă a sec) = 0
Which is equivatent to cos  +  cos  +  cos  = 0 ...(vii)

sin      sin     
To prove (vii) it is difficult to show cos   cos   cos   0
sin      sin     

Which is indeed true in the light of C-D formulas.

Illustration 3
Find the range of parameter Âa Ê for which the variable line y = 2x + a lies between the circles
x 2 + y2 ă 2x ă 2y + 1 = 0 and x 2 + y2 ă 16x ă 2y + 61 = 0 without intersecting or touching either
circle.
Solution :
The given circles are C1 : (x ă 1)2 + (y ă 1)2 = 1 and C2 : (x ă 8)2 + (y ă 1)2 = 4
The line y ă 2x ă a = 0 will lie between these circles if centre of the circles lie on opposite sides
of the line, i.e., (1 ă 2 ă a) (1 ă 16 ă a) < 0  a  (ă 15, ă 1)

12a 1  16  a
Line will not touch or intersect the circles if,  1, 2
5 5

 1  a  5, 15  a  2 5

 a  5  1 or a   5, a  2 5  15 or a   2 5  15
On taking the intersection of these inequations the required values of a lie in the interval

2 5  15,  5  1 
Illustration 4

Find the area of the quadrilateral formed by a pair of tangents from the point (4, 5) to the
circle x 2 + y2 ă 4x ă 2y ă 11 = 0 and a pair of its radii.

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66 QUIZRR
Solution :
Given circle is S  x2 + y2 ă 4x ă 2y ă 11 = 0 ...(1)
Let C be its centre and a be its radius; then C  (2, 1) and a = 4.
Let P  (4, 5)
Now length of tangent PA or PB from P to circle (1)

A
= 42  52  4.4  2.5  11  2

and radius CA = 4
 area of PAC P C

1 1
= PA.AC = 2.4  4
2 2
B
 area of quadrilateral PACB
= 2 area of PAC = 8 square units.

Illustration 5
Prove that the circle x 2 + y2 ă 6x ă 4y + 9 = 0 bisects the circumference of the circle x 2 + y2
ă 8x ă 6y + 23 = 0
Solution :
Given circles are
S1  x2 + y2 ă 6x ă 4y + 9 = 0 ...(1)
2 2
and S2  x + y ă 8x ă 6y + 23 = 0 ...(2)
Equation of common chord of circles (1) and (2) which is also the radical axis of circles (1) and
(2) is
S1 ă S2 = 0
or 2x + 2y ă 14 = 0 or x + y ă 7 = 0 ...(3)
Centre of circle (2) is (4, 3)
Clearly line (3) passes through the point (4, 3) and hence line (3) is the diameter of circle (2).
Hence circle (1) bisects circumference of circle (2).

Illustration 6
One of the diameters of the circle circumscribing the rectangle ABCD is 4y = x + 7. If A and
B are the points (ă 3, 4) and (5, 4) respectively, find the area of the rectangle.
Solution : C
Given A  (ă 3, 4) and B  (5, 4) D
H 4y=x+7
Let P be the middle point of AB, then P  (1, 4)

44 B
Equation of AB is y  4  ( x  3) or y = 4, clearly
35 P
A
(1,4)
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 QUIZRR 67

AB is parallel to x-axis, therefore perpendicular bisector of AB will be parallel to y-axis and since
it passes through the point P (1, 4) therefore its equation will be x = 1. ...(1)
Also equation of one diameter of circle is 4y = x + 7 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 1, y = 2
If H be the centre of the circle circumscribing the rectangle ABCD, then H  (1, 2)

 length of perpendicular from H to AB i.e., HP  (1  1)2  (4  22 )  2

 one side of the rectangle = 2HP = 4

Also other side of rectangle = AB  (3  5)2  (4  4)2

Now area of rectangle ABCD = 4 ï 8 = 32 units

Illustration 7
C1 and C2 be two concentric circles. The radius of C2 being twice that of C1. From a point
P on C2 tangents PA and PB are drawn to C1. Prove that the centroid of the triangle PAB
lies on C1.
Solution :
Let the equations of C1 and C2 be
x2 + y2 = a2, x2 + y2 = 4a2 P

From any point P (2a cos , 2a sin ) tangents PA and PB are drawn then
A B
AB will be chord of contact whose equation must be
x. 2a cos  + y. 2a sin  = a2 or x cos  + y sin  = a/2 ...(i) C2
C1
If A be (x1, y1) and B be (x2, y2) must be roots of

2
a 
  x cos  
x2   2 2
  a (since A, B be points of intersection of AB
sin 
 
 

and C1)

 a2 
x2  a cos  x    a 2 sin 2    0  x1 + x2 = a cos 
 4 
 

We similarly get y1 = y2 = a sin  (on eliminating x term)

Therefore the co-ordinates of centroid G of triangle PAB

 2a cos   x1  x2 2 a sin   y1  y2 
=  ,    a cos , a sin  
 3 3 
Which obviously lies on C1.

THE CIRCLE
68 QUIZRR

Illustration 8
Let S  x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 be a given circle. Find the locus of foot of the  drawn
from origin upon any any chord of S = 0 which subtend a right angle at the origin.
Solution :
Let AB be any arbitrary chord subtending 90Ĉ at origin whose equation is
y = mx + d ...(i)
Then equation of OA and OB can be obtained by homogenizing equation of S with the help of (i)
Thus equation of OA and OB is
2
 y  mx   y  mx   y  mx 
x2  y2  2 gx    2 fy    c  0 ...(ii)
 d   d   d 

90 M

Since OA  OB (given) in equation (ii), coeff. of x2 + coeff. of y2 = 0

2 gm cm2 2f c
 1  2 1  2 0 ...(iii)
d d d d
Now equation of line  to AB and passing through origin must be

1
y  x ...(iv)
m
Since the point M whose locus is to be determined is point of intersection of OM and AB the
required locus must be eliminant of (i), (iv) and (iii). On solving (i) and (iv) for m and d,

x x2  y2
we get m and d 
y y

on putting m and d in (iii), we get

2
 x   x  y cy2
1  2g 2   c     1  2 f  0
 x  y2   x2  y2  x2  y2
 
2
    x2  y2

c
which simplifies to x2 + y2 + gx + fy + = 0 (on multiplying by (x2 + y2)2).
2

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 69

Illustration 9

A circle touches the line y = x at P such that OP = 4 2 . The circle contains (ă 10, 2) in its
interior and the lengths of its chord on the line x + y = 0 is 6 2 . Determine the equation
of the circle.
Solution :
Let y = x cuts circle at A and B and M is the mid point of AB. Then if C be the centre of the circle
CPOM must be a rectangle.
(CMO = 90Ĉ, CPO = 90Ĉ, (y = x)  (y = ă x)
 CM = OP = 4 2

 radius CA = CM 2  MA 2  (4 2) 2  (3 2) 2  5 2

If C be (h, k) then  from (h, k) on y = x must be equal to radius

k h
   5 2  k ă h =  10 ...(i)
2

Again  from (h, k) y = ă x must be equal to 4 2

kh
 4 2  k+ h =  8 ...(ii)
2

A
M
B
C P´
O

P
B´

In all, there are four possibilities in which equations (i) and (ii) can exist
k ă h k+ h Solution

+ 10 + 8 h = ă 1, k = 9 The circle is (x + 1)2 + (y ă 9)2 = (5 2)2 this

doesnÊt contain (ă 10, 2) in its interior

+ 10 ă 8 h = ă 9, k = 1 The circle is (x + 9)2 + (y + 1)2 = (5 2)2 and

which satisfies all given conditions.

ă 10 + 8 h = 9, k = ă 1 The circle does not contain (ă 10, 2)
ă 10 ă 8 h = 1, k = ă 9 The circle does not contain (ă 10, 2)

Thus the only circle satisfying the condition of the problem is (x + 9)2 + (y + 1)2 = (5 2)2
THE CIRCLE
70 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 0
A ray is drawn from origin to cut the given circle x 2 + y2 = 2a x (a > 0) at B. From B equal
segments BM and BN of constant length b are laid of in either direction. As the ray revolves
the points M nd N describe a curve (limacon of Pascal). Find its equation.
Solution :
Let y = mx be any ray OB drawn from O then for B

2a 2am
we solve y = mx and x2 + y2 ă 2ax = 0. We easily get x  2
, y
1m 1  m2

Let us now put equation of OB in parametric from with respect to point B (since M and N are
situated at a distance b from B).

2 am  2a 
Indeed equation of OB is y   m 

x  
1  m2  1  m2 

2a 2 am
x 2
y
1m 1  m2
or 
1 / 1  m2 m / 1  m2

For the points M and N we can equate to  b and the squared result will be satisfied by both M
2
 2a  b2
and N. Taking first expression equal to b and on squaring, we get  x   
 1  m2  1  m2

But M and N satisfy the simple relation y = mx (since they lie on OB)

y
Therefore on putting m  , we get a pure relation between abscissa and co-ordinates of M
x

2
 
  2
 x  2a   b
(or N) as  y2  y2
 1 2  1 2
 x  x

which easily simplifies to (x2 + y2 ă 2ax)2 = b2 (x2 + y2) and which is the equation of limacon of
Pascal.

Illustration 1 1

Consider two circles C1 : x 2 + y2 = r12 and C2 : x 2 + y2 = r22 (r 2 > r 1). Let ÂAÊ be a fixed point
on the circle C1 say A (r 1, 0) and ÂBÊ a variable point on the circle C2. The line BA meets the
circle C2 again at C. Find

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 71

(a) show that OA2 + OB2 + BC2  [5r 22 ă 3r 12, 5r 22 + r 12]

(b) the locus of mind point of AB, ÂOÊ being the origin
Solution :
A must be (r1, 0). Let B be the point (r2 cos , r2 sin ), it is evident that the length of BC will
be maximum when BC is the diameter of C2 and minimum when BC is tangent to C1 at A.

 max BC = 2r2, min BC = 2 r22  r12

Y
Now, OA2 + OB2 + BC2 = r12  r22 + BC2, which will lie between

r22  r12  4(r22  r12 ) and r22  r12  4 r22

B
 5r22  r12  OA 2  OB2  BC2  5r22  3r12

OA2 + OB2 + BC2  [5r22  3r12 , 5r22  r12 ] O A

Now let ÂDÊ be the mid-point of AB C1

C2
 r  r2 cos  r2 sin   C
 D 1 ,  ( h, k) (say)
 2 2 

2k 2h  r1
 sin   , cos    4k2 + (2h ă r1)2 = r22
r2 r2

2
 r1  2 r22
Locus of ÂDÊ is,  x    y 
 2 4

Illustration 1 2

Prove that the square of the length of the tangent drawn from a point on one circle to
another circle is equal to twice the product of the perpendicular distance of that point from
the radical axis of the two circles and the distance between their centres.
Solution :
Without loss of generality, the equation of the two circles can be taken as
x2 + y2 = a2 and (x ă c)2 + y2 = b2

P(acos, asin)
M A

X
C1 (0,0) C2 (c,0)

(xăc)2 + y2 = b2
x2 + y2 = a2 B

Radical axis

THE CIRCLE
72 QUIZRR
 Radical axis of the two circles is given by (x ă c)2 ă x2 ă b2 + a2 = 0 ...(1)

c2  a 2  b2
 ă 2cx + c2 + a2 ă b2 = 0  x 
2c

Let P (a cos , a sin ) be any point on the first circle, then

PA = ( a cos   c)2  a 2 sin 2   b2  a2  b2  c2  2 ac cos 

c 2  a2  b2 c2  a 2  b2  2ac cos 
Also, PM   a cos   and C1C2 = c
2c 2c

c2  a2  b2  2ac cos 
2  PM  .  C1C2   . c  c2  a 2  b2  2 ac cos    PA 
2

c
Hence, (PA)2 = 2 (PM). (C1C2)

Illustration 1 3
Tangents are drawn from the point (h, k) to the circle x 2 + y2 = a 2. Prove that the area of
3
2 2 2 2
a (h  k  a )
the triangle formed by them and their chord of contact is
h 2  k2

Solution :
Given circle is x2 + y2 = a2 ...(1)
The equation of the chord of contact AB of tangents drawn from P(h, k) to the circle (1) is
xh + yk = a2 ...(2)

We have to find the area of PAB. From P(h, k) draw PL  AB.

h2  k2  a2
Now PL  ...(3)
h2  k2
..
Here h2 + k2 ă a2 > 0 . P(h, k) lies outside circle (1)

Also PA  h2  k2  a 2 P(h,k)
...(4)

(h2  k2  a2 )2
2 2 2 2 2 2
 AL = AP ă PL = (h + k ă a ) ă
h2  k2
A
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 L
( h  k  a )( h  k )  ( h  k  a )
=
h2  k2 C
(0,0) B

(h2  k2  a 2 ) (h2  k2  h2  k2  a 2 )
 AL 
( h2  k2 )

THE CIRCLE
 QUIZRR 73

1
a( h2  k2  a2 ) 2
= 1
2 2 2
(h  k )

1
Now the area of APB = .AB.PL = AL.PL
2
1 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a( h  k  a ) (h  k  a ) a (h  k  a )
= 1
. 1

h2  k2
( h2  k2 ) 2 ( h2  k2 ) 2

Illustration 1 4
Find the equation of a circle which is coaxial with the circles 2x 2 + 2y2 ă 2x + 6y ă 3 = 0 and
x 2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0. It is given that the centre of the circle to be determined lies on the
radical axis of these circles.
Solution :
Equation of the given circles are

3
S1  x2 + y2 ă x + 3y ă = 0 ...(1)
2
S2  x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0 ...(2)
 The radical axis of circles (1) and (2) is

5
S1 ă S2 = O or ă 5x + y ă = 0 or 10x ă 2y + 5 = 0 ...(3)
2
 Required circle will have the equation of the form
x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 + k(10x ă 2y + 5) = 0
or x2 + y2 + 2(2 + 5k)x + 2(1 ă k)y + (1 + 5k) = 0 ...(4)
Its centre is (ă 2 ă 5k, k ă 1). From question it lies on line (3)
 10(ă 2 ă 5k) ă 2(k ă 1) + 5 = 0; or ă 52k ă 13 = 0;

1
 k 
4
Putting the value of k in (4), we get

 5  1  5
x2 + y2 + 2  2   x  2 1   y  1  4   0
 4  4  

3 5 1
or x2 + y2 + x  y   0;
2 2 4
or 4(x2 + y2) + 6x + 10y ă 1 = 0 ...(5)
This is the required circle.

THE CIRCLE
STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 3

The rec t angular c oordinat e syst em .

The old familiar rectangular coordinate system is just two directed lines meeting at right angles.
The point of intersection is called the origin and is usually lettered O. It is customary to make
one of these lines horizontal and to take the direction to the right of O as the positive direction
on this line. This horizontal line is called the x-axis, or the horizontal axis. The other directed line
which is perpendicular to the x-axis is called the y-axis, or the vertical axis, and the positive
direction on this axis is upward from O. Q. I, Q. II, Q. III and Q. IV for convenience, as indicated
in Fig.
Once a rectangular coordinate system has been chosen, any point in the plane can be located with
respect to it. Suppose P is some point in the plane. Let PQ be the line segment from P perpendicular
to the x-axis at the point Q, and let PR be the line segment perpendicular to the y-axis at the
point R (see Fig. 2). Then the directed distance OQ is called the x-coordinate of P, or the abscissa
of P. The directed distance OR is called the y-coordinate of P, or the ordinate of P. For example,
in Fig., OQ = 1 aqnd OR = 3, so the x-coordinate, the abscissa of P, is 1 and the y-coordinate,
the ordinate of P, is 3. y

Q.II. Q.I.
P(1, 3)
B(-6, 1.5)
F(5, 0)
x
G(-6, 0) 0 Q

E(, 2)
C(-4.5, -2) D(0, -3)
Q.III. Q.IV.

It is customary to enclose this pair of numbers in parentheses thus : (x, y) or in our specific case
(1, 3) and these numbers are called the coordinates of the point P. Since the figure OQPR is a
rectangle OQ = RP and OR = QP, so an alternate definition is possible, namely :
The x-coordinate of P is the directed distance of P from the y-axis,
The y-coordinate of P is the directed distance of P from the x-axis.
Note :
1. The ordinate of every point on x-axis is 0.
2. The abscissa of every point on y-axis is 0.
3. The abscissa and ordinate of the origin O(0, 0) are both zero.
4. The abscissa and ordinate of a point are at perpendicular distance from y-axis and x-axis
respectively.
5. Table for conversion sign of co-ordinates :
Location of point x-coordinate y-coordinate (x, y)
Ist quadrant + + (+, +)
2nd quadrant ă + (ă, +)
3rd quadrant ă ă (ă, ă)
4th quadrant + ă (+, ă)
6. Equation of x-axis, y = 0 and equation of y-axis, x = 0.

STRAIGHT LINE
 4 QUIZRR

Po l a r Co -o r d i n a t e s o f a p o i n t
If OP = r (radius vector)
and XOP =  (vectorial angle)
Then the ordered pair of real numbers (r, ) is called the polar co-ordinates of the point P.

Co n v e n t i o n o f s i g n o f p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s
1. r may be positive or negative according as  is measured P(r, )
in anticlockwise or clockwise direction.  lies between ă r
 to  i.e., ă  <   . If it is greater than , then we

subtract 2 from it and if it is less than ă , then we add O X
2 to it. I is also known as principal value of P. (Pole) Initial line

2. Always take  in radian.

(r, ă)
Illustration 1

 5 
Draw the polar co-ordinate  3,  on the plane.
 4 
Solution :
5
Here  =  O
4 x
3
5 3 3 4
then  ă 2 =  2  
4 4
3, 5 or 3, 3
 5   3  P 4 4
  3, 4  is same  3,  4 
   

Re l a t i o n b e t w e e n Ca r t e s i a n a n d Po l a r Co o r d i n a t e s
Let P be the point (x, y) with reference to rectangular axes OX, OY and the point (r, ) with
reference to the pole O and initial line OX. i.e., the X-axis.
 we have x = r cos ; y = r sin 
y
Hence tan   and x2 + y2 = r2
x
These relations enable us to change from one system of coordinates to the other.
Y
 y
  = tană1  
 x

y P(x, y)
If  = tană1
x
r
The values of  in four quadrants y
Quadrant I II III IV

   ă  ă +  ă 
O x N X

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 5

Illustration 2
Find the polar co-ordinates of the points whose cartesian co-ordinates are (i) (ă 2, ă 2)
(ii) (ă 3, 4).
Solution :
(i) Given x = ă 2, y = ă 2

r = x 2

 y2  4  4 = 2 2

1 x 2 
and  = tan  tan1  tan1 
y 2 4

Since point (ă 2, ă 2) lies in 3rd quadrant.

 3
  
4 4

 3 
Hence polar co-ordinates of the given points will be  2 2,  
 4 

Remark : If we find , from the equation,

y 2
tan    1
x 2

 and then (x, y) = (r cos , r sin ) =  2 2  1 , 2 2  1 

then   
4  2 2
= (2, 2)  (ă 2, ă 2)

(ii) Given x = ă 3, y = 4

 r = ( x2  y2 )  (9  16)  5

y 4 4
and  = tană1  tan 1  tan1  
x 3 3

Since point (ă 3, 4) lies in 2nd quadrant

1  4 
  =  ă  =  ă tan  
3

 1  4  
Hence polar co-ordinates of the given points will be  5,   tan    .
  3 

STRAIGHT LINE
 6 QUIZRR

Illustration 3
Transform the equation r 2 = a 2 cos 2
 into cartesian form.
Solution :

1  y 
r  ( x2  y2 ) and   tan  x 
 

y
or r2 = (x2 + y2) and tan  
x

 1  tan 2  
r 2  a2 cos 2  a 2 
Given  1  tan 2  
 

 y2 
1  
a 2  x2 
or ( x2  y2 ) =  y2 
 1  
 x2 

or (x2 + y2)2 = a2 (x2 ă y2)

This is the required equation in cartesian form.
Alternative Method :
r2 = a2 cos 2
or r2 = a2 (cos2  ă sin2 )
 x = r cos  and y = r sin 
and r2 = x2 + y2

2 x y2 
2
then r2 = a  2  2 
r r 

or r4 = a2 (x2 + y2)
or (x2 + y2) = a2 (x2 + y2)

Di s t a n c e f o r m u l a
Let two points P1 and P2 be given in the plane. If we are given
y
the coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) of these points then it is
quite easy to compute the distance between the two points. Indeed P2(x2, y2)
if we draw a line segment joining the two points and then make
this segment the hypotenuse of a right triangle P1QP2 as d b
y P1(x1,y1)
indicated in by drawing suitable lines parallel to the axes, the
distance P1P2 can be computed by the Pythagorean Theorem. a Q(x2, y1)
x
x
P1P2  a2  b2

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 7

where a is the length of the line segment P1Q and b is the length of the line segment QP2.
Now along the line P1Q, the height above the x-axis does not change, so that a = |x|. Similarly
along the line PQ2 the x-coordinate does not change, so that b = |y|. In the case pictured in
Fig. 4, both x and y are positive, but in other cases they may not be, so the absolute value signs
are necessary.
The distance between the points P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) is given by

d  x2   y2   x2  x1 2   y2  y1  .
2

given two points in the plane, the distance between them does not depend on the letter assigned,
so that either could be called P1 and the other one P2. Thus, either logically, or by inspection of
above equation, the quantity d is unchanged if the subscripts 1 and 2 are interchanged.

Illustration 4
Find the distance between (ă 3, 7) and (2, ă 5).
Solution : y

We select (ă 3, 7) as P1, and then (2, ă 5) is P2. (-3,7)

Therefore
x = x2 ă x1 = 2 ă (ă 3) = 5
y = y2 ă y1 = ă 5 ă 7 = ă 12 O x
52    12   25  144
2
d =

= 169  13 (-3,-5) (2,-5)

Illustration 5
A point P (x, y) moves so that it is always the same distance from A (4, 1) and B (2, 3). Find
a simple equation that the coordinates (x, y) must satisfy.
Solution :

PA  ( x  4) 2  ( y  1)2 , PB  ( x  2) 2  ( x  3)2

By the conditions of the problem PA  PB . Squaring both sides

x2 ă 8x + 16 + y2 ă 2y + 1 = x2 ă 4x + 4 + y2 ă 6y + 9
Dropping the terms and which appear on both sides, and collecting like terms gives
4y = 4x ă 4
or y = xă 1
Equation is obviously in as simple a form as possible and hence is the solution of our problem.
Conversely it can be shown that if y = x ă 1, then the point P (x, y) is equidistant from A
(4, 1) and B (2, 3), because the steps can be reversed to show that PA  PB .

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 8 QUIZRR

Illustration 6
Find the distance between the points (a cos , a sin ) and (a cos , a sin ) where a > 0.
Solution :
Let P = (a cos , a sin ) and Q (a cos , a sin )

then PQ = (a cos  a cos )2  (a sin   a sin )2

= 
a2 (cos   cos )2  (sin   sin ) 2 
=  
a2 cos2   cos2   2 cos  cos   sin 2   sin 2   2sin  sin 

= a2 1  1  2  cos  cos   sin  sin  

= a 2  2  2cos      

= 2a2 1  cos      

 2 2     
=  2 a .2sin  
  2 

  
= 4 a 2 sin 2  
 2 

   
= 2 sin  
 2 

  
= 2a sin   ( a > 0)
 2 

Illustration 7

An equilateral triangle has one vertex at the point (0, 0) and another at  3, 3  . Find the
co-ordinates of the third vertex.
Solution :

 
Let O = (0, 0) and A = 3, 3 be the given points and let B = (x, y) be the required point. Then

OA = OB = AB
 (OA)2 = (OB)2 = (AB)2

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 QUIZRR 9

Y
 
2
 (3 ă 0)2 + 30 = (x ă 0)2 + (y ă 0)2
(x,y)B
 y  3
2
= (x ă 3)2 +
A(3 3)
2 2 2 2
 12 = x + y = x + y ă 6x ă 2 3y + 12
Taking first two members then X´ X
O
x2 + y2 = 12 ...(1) (0,0)
and taking last two members then
Y´ B(x,y)
6 x  2 3 y  12 or y  3  2  x ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
x2 + 3 (2 ă x)2 = 12 or 4x2 ă 12x = 0
 x = 0, 3
Putting x = 0, 3 in (2), we get y  2 3,  3

Hence, the co-ordinates of the third vertex B are 0, 2 3   

or 3,  3 . 
Short cut Method :
 x1  x2  3( y2  y1 ) y1  y2  3( x2  x1 )   it (x1 y1) & (x2 y2) are 2 
 ,   
 2 2   points of an equilateral  
 then the third point is given 
 0  3  3( 3  0) 0  3  3(3  0)   by 
i.e.,  ,   
2 2  
   
  x1  x2  3( y2  y1 )  
3  3 3  3 3   , 
or  ,    2  
 2 2     
  y1  y2  3( x2  x1 )  
 
  0, 2 2  
or 3,  3    2  

Di s t a n c e b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s i n p o l a r c o -o r d i n a t e s :
Let O be the pole and OX be the initial line. Let A and B be two given points whose polar co-
ordinates are (r1, 1) and (r2, 2) respectively.
Then OA = r , AOX =  , B(r2,2)
1 1
OB = r2, BOX = 2
 AOB = 2 ă 1
A(r1,1)
From AOB,
2
AB2 = OA2 + OB2 ă 2OA.OBcos AOB

1
= r12  r22  2r1 r2 cos  2  1  O X

 AB = r12  r22  2r1 r2 cos  1  2 

[ cos (2 ă 1) = cos (1 ă 2)]

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10 QUIZRR

Illustration 8

   
Prove the points (0, 0),  3,  and  3,  are the vertices of an equilaterial triangle.
 2  6
Solution :

   
Let A = (0, 0), B =  3,  and C =  3, 
 2  6
Here given co-ordinates are in polar form

 
 AB = (02  32  2.0.3cos   0   3 units
2 

 2 2    
BC =  3  3  2.3.3cos    
  2 6 

 
=  18  18 sin   (18  9)  3 units
 6

 2 2  
and CA =  3  0  2.3.0 cos   0    3 units
 6 

 AB  BC  CA
Hence points A, B, C are the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
Alterenative Method :


 BAX =
2


and CAX =
6
B 3, 
2
  
 BAC =  
2 6 3
 In ABC, AB = AC
 ACB = ABC =  (say) 
C 3, 6
3
 3
  = /3
3
/6
 X
or  = A(0, 0)
3

Hence AB  BC  CA

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 QUIZRR 11

Se c t i o n Fo r m u l a
It is divided into two parts, for point P (x, y) dividing the 2 points A (x1, y1) & B (x2 y2) internally
or externally.
(i) When P divides AB internally
let the point P divide the line joining the points A & B in the ratio m : n

AP m
  n B
PB n (x2 y2)
Then the coordinates of point P

mx2  nx1 P
x= m
mn
A
my2  ny1 (x1, y1)
y=
mn

Tip : To remember the formula, multiply m with the coordinates of the point opposite to it,
i.e. here with B, and similarly n with A.

(ii) When P divides AB externally

Here P divides AB externally in the ratio

AP m P(x,y)
 n
PB n
m
then the coordinates of P are
B(x,y)
mx2  nx1
x=
mn
A(x,y)
my2  ny1
y= mn

Note : Using the same formula we can say that the mid point of AB will be

 x1  x2 y1  y2 
 ,
 2 2 

Wo r k i n g r u l e
(i) If you have to find the ratio in which a point divides the line segment, let the ratio be m
: n (i.e. you take for granted that it is an internal division). But if you get a negative ratio
then that means that the division is external.
(ii) Instead of taking the ratio to be m : n, we will take it to be  : 1. The advantage in the later
case is that it has only one new variable against to 2 new variables m, n in previous case.
Here also, if > 0, internal division
 < 0, external division

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12 QUIZRR

y1
l The line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is divided by the x-axis in the ratio  y and
2

x1
by y-axis in the ratio  x .
2

l In square, rhombus, rectangle and parallelogram diagonals bisect to each other.

Illustration 9
Find the length of median through A of a triangle whose vertices are A (ă 1, 3), B (1, ă 1)
and C (5, 1).
Solution :
Let D be the mid point of BC, then

1 5  1  1  A
co-ordinates of D are  ,  i.e., (3, 0)
 2 2  (ă1,3)
C(5,1)

 Median AD = (3  1)2  (0  3)2 D(3,0)

= 16  9  25 B(1,1)

= 5 units

Illustration 1 0
Find the ratio in which the point (2, y) divides the line segment joining (4, 3) and (6, 3) and
hence find the value of y.
Solution :
Let point P (2, y) divided points A (4, 3) & B (6, 3) internally in the ratio  : 1.

6  4
Then, 2
1

solving this we get

1

2
Since  is negative, it means that this is a case of external division opposed to what we have
thought.
Now finding the value of y, taking external division

3
3
3  3 2 3
y 
1 1
1  /2

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 QUIZRR 13

Illustration 1 1
In any triangle, ABC prove that :
AB2 + AC2 = 2(AD2 + DC2)
where D is the middle point of BC.
Solution :
Take B as origin, BC as the axis of x and a line through B perpendicular to BC as the axis of y.
Let BC = a, so that C is the point (a, 0) and let A be the point (x1, y1).

a 
Then D is the point  , 0 
2 

2 2
 a 2 a
Hence AD2 =  x1    y1 and DC2 =  
 2 2

 2 2 a2 
Hence, 2 2
2(AD + DC ) = 2  x1  y1  ax1  
 2 

= 2 x12  2 y12  2ax1  a2

Also, AC2 = (x1 ă a)2 + y12 ,

and AB2 = x12  y12

Therefore, AB2 + AC2 = 2 x12  2 y12  2ax1  a2

Hence, AB2 + AC2 = 2(AD2 + DC2)

Illustration 1 2
ABC is a triangle and D, E and F are the middle points of the sides BC, CA and AB; prove
that the point which divides AD internally in the ratio 2 : 1 also divides the lines BE and
CF in the same ratio.
Hence prove that the medians of a triangle meet in a point.
Solution :
Let the coordinates of the vertices A, B and C be (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) respectively.
The coordinates of D are therefore,

x2  x3 y2  y3
and
2 2

Let G be the point that divides internally AD in the ratio 2 : 1, let its coordinates be x and y .
By the last article

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14 QUIZRR

x2  x3
2  1  x1
2 x  x2  x3
x =  1
21 3

y1  y2  y3
So, y =
3
In the same manner we could show that these are the coordinates of the points that divide BE
and BE and CF in the ratio 2 : 1.
Since, the point whose coordinates are :

x1  x2  x3 y1  y2  y3
and
3 3
lies on each of the lines AD, BE and CF, it follows that these three lines meet in a point.
This point is called the Centroid of the triangle.

Illustration 1 3
The line segment joining A (6, 3) to B (ă 1, ă 4) is doubled in length by having its length
added to each end. Find the co-ordinates of the new ends.
P(x1,y1)
Solution :
Let P and Q be the required new ends
Let the co-ordinates of P be (x1, y1) A(6,3)
Given AB = 2AP

AB 2 B(ă1, ă4))
 =
AP 1
i.e., A divides BP internally in the ratio 2 : 1.
Q(x2,y2)
2  x1  1    1  19
Then 6 =  19 = 2x1 or x1 =
21 2

2  y1  1    4  13
and 3 =  13 = 2y1 or y1 =
21 2

 19 13 
 Co-ordinates of P are  , 
 2 2 
Also let co-ordinates of Q be (x2, y2)
Given AB = 2BQ

AB 2
 
BQ 1

i.e., B divides AQ internally in the ratio 2 : 1

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 QUIZRR 15

2  x2  1  6 9
Then ă 1 = 21
 ă 9 = 2x2 or x2 = 
2

2  y2  1  3 15
and ă 4 = 21
 ă 15 = 2y2 or y2 = 
2

 9 15 
 Co-ordinates of Q are   , 
 2 2 
Alternative Method :
 AB = 2AP

AB 2
 =
AP 1

AB 2
 1 = 1
AP 1

AB + AP 3 BP 3
   
AP 1 AP 1
 P divides AB externally in the ratio 1 : 3

1  ( 1)  3  6 19
Then x1 = 13
=
2

1    4  3  3 13
and y1 = =
13 2

 19 13 
 Coordinates of P are  , 
 2 2 
Also AB = 2BQ

AB 2
 =
BQ 1

AB 2
 1 = 1
BQ 1

AB + BQ 3
 =
BQ 1

AQ 3
 =
BQ 1
 Q divides AB externally in the ratio 3 : 1

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 16 QUIZRR

3  ( 1)  1  6 9
Then x2 = 31
= 
2

3    4  1  3 15
and y2 = = 
31 2

 9 15 
 Co-ordinates of Q are   , 
 2 2 

A r e a o f T ri a n g l e
To find the area of the triangle, the coordinates of whose angular points are given, the axes being
rectangular.
Let ABC be the triangle and let the coordinates of its angular points A, B and C be (x1, y1), (x2,
y2) and (x3, y3).
Draw AL, BM and CN perpendicular to the axis of x, and let Y
 denote the required area.
Then,
C

 = trapezium ALNC + trapezium

CNMB ă trapezium ALMB
B
1 1 A
= LN (LA + NC) + NM(NC + MB)
2 2

1
ă LM (LA + MB) L
2 O N M X

1
= [(x3 ă x1)(y1 + y3) + (x2 ă x3)(x2 + y3) ă (x2 ă x1)(y1 + y2)]
2
On simplifying we easily have

1
 =  x1 y2  x2 y1  x2 y3  x3 y1  x1 y3 
2
or the equivalent form,
 = [x1(y2 ă y3) + x2(y3 ă y1) + x3(y1 ă y2)
If we use the determinant notation this may be written as

x1 , y1 , 1
1
 x 2 , y2 , 1
2
x 3 y3 1

Cor. : The area of the triangle whose vertices are the origin (0, 0) and the points (x1, y1),
1
(x2, y2) is (x y ă x2 y1).
2 1 2

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 QUIZRR 17

Note : In order that the expression for the area may be a positive quantity (as all areas necessarily
are) the points A, B and C must be taken in the order in which they would be met by a person
starting from A and walking round the triangle in such a manner that the area of the triangle
is always on his left hand. Otherwise above expression would be found to be negative. Thus in
general to find the area of a quadrilateral the coordinates of whose angular points are given.

Area of polygon whose vertices are (x 1, y1), (x 2, y2), (x 3, y3), ...., (x n , yn ) is

1 x1 y1 x y x y x y
|  2 2  3 3  ......  n n |
2 x2 y2 x3 y3 x4 y4 x1 y1

Formula 2
If the co-ordinates of the vertices of the triangle are given in polar form i.e., A (r1, 1), B (r2, 2),
C (r3, 3) Y
Then area of triangle A(r1 ,1 )

1
= [r r sin (1 ă 2) + r2r3 sin (2 ă 3) + r3r1 sin (3 ă 1)]
2 1 2

1 B
= |  r1 r2 sin  1  2  | (r2 ,2 ) C(r3,3 )
2 X
O
Formula 3
If a1x + b1y + c1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3 = 0 are the sides of a triangle then
the area of the triangle is given by (without solving the vertices)

2
a1 b1 c1
1
 a2 b2 c2
2 C1C2C3
a3 b3 c3

where C1, C2, C3 are the cofactors of c1, c2, c3 in the determinant

a2 b2
Here C1 = a b = (a2b3 ă a3b2)
3 3

a3 b3
C2 = a b = (a3b1 ă a1b3)
1 1

a1 b1
and C3 = a b = (a1b2 ă a2b1)
2 2

a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2  c1C1  c2C2  c3C3
and
a3 b3 c3

Or

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18 QUIZRR

2
Area of triangle =
2 1 2 3

a1 b1 c1
a b a b a b
  a2 b2 c2 , 1  1 1 ,  2  2 2 and 3  3 3
where a2 b2 a3 b3 a1 b1
a3 b3 c3

Formula 4
Area of the triangle formed by the lines of the form y = m1x + c 1, y = m2x + c2 and y
= m3x + c3 is

1  c2  c3   c3  c1   c1  c2 
2 2 2
  
2  m2  m3   m3  m1   m1  m2 

Note :
1. If area of a triangle is given then use  sign.
2. The points A (x 1, y1), B (x 2, y2) and C (x 3, y3) are collinear then area of (ABC) = 0.
3. Four given points will be collinear, if area of the quadrilateral is zero.
4. Area of the triangle formed by the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is

1 x1  x3 x2  x3
 | |
2 y1  y3 y2  y3

5. If one vertex (x3, y3) is at (0, 0) then

1
 x1 y2  x2 y1
2

Illustration 1 4
Find the area of the pentagon whose vertices are A (1, 1), B (7, 21), C (7, ă 3), D (12, 2) and
E (0, ă 3).
Solution :
The required area

1 1 1 7 21 12 2 0 3
= |    |
2 7 21 7  3 0 3 1 1

1
=  21  7     21  147   14  36     36  0    0  3 
2

1
=  137
2

137
= sq. units
2
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 QUIZRR 19

Illustration 1 5
The area of a triangle is 5. Two of its vertices are (2, 1) and (3, ă 2). The third vertex is
(x, y) where y = x + 3. Find the co-ordinates of the third vertex. [I.I.T. 78]
Solution :
Let A = (x, y), B = (2, 1) and C = (3, ă 2). Given area of ABC = 5

1
 [ x 1  2   2   2  y  3  y  1 ]  5
2

1
or 3 x  y  7  5 or 3x  y  7  10
2
or 3x + y ă 7 =  10
or 3x + y = 17 or ă 3
Case I : When 3x + y = 17 ...(i)
Also it is given that
y = x + 3 or x ă y = ă 3 ...(ii)

7 13
Solving (i) and (ii), we get x  , y
2 2
Case II : When 3x + y = ă 3 ...(iii)
According to question x ă y = ă 3 ...(iv)

3 3
Solving (iii) and (iv), we get x   , y
2 2
Hence co-ordinates of the third vertex are

 7 13   3 3
 2 , 2  or   2 , 2 
   

Illustration 1 6
The co-ordinates of two points A and B are (3, 4) and (5, ă 2) respectively. Find the co-
ordinates of any point P if PA = PB and area of  APB is 10.
Solution :
Let co-ordinates of P be (h, k)
 PA = PB  (PA)2 = (PB)2
 (h ă 3)2 + (k ă 4)2 = (h ă 5)2 + (k + 2)2
 (h ă 3)2 ă (h ă 5)2 + (k ă 4)2 ă (k + 2)2 = 0
 (2h ă 8) (2) + (2k ă 2) (ă 6) = 0
 (h ă 4) ă 3 (k ă 1) = 0
 hă 3k ă 1 = 0 ...(1)

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 20 QUIZRR

h k 1
1
| 3 4 1 |  10
Now, area of PAB = 2
5 2 1

or 6h + 2k ă 26 =  20
 6h + 2k ă 46 = 0 or 6h + 2k ă 6 = 0
 3h + k ă 23 = 0 or 3h + kă 3 = 0
Solving h ă 3k ă 1 = 0 and 3h + k ă 23 = 0, we get h = 8, k = 2
Solving h ă 3k ă 1 = 0 and 3h + k ă 3 = 0, we get h = 1, k = 0
Hence the co-ordinates of P are (7, 2) or (1, 0).

Illustration 1 7
Find whether the points (ă a, ă b), [ă (s + 1) a, ă (s + 1)b] and [(t ă 1) a, (t ă 1)b] are collinear ?
Solution :
Let A = (ă a ă b), B = [ă (s + 1) a, ă (s + 1) b] and C = ((t ă 1) a, (t ă 1)b)

  s  1 b  b b
Then slope of AB = 
  s  1 a  a a

(t  1) b  (s  1)b b
and slope of BC = (t  1) a  (s  1) a  a

Hence given points are collinear.

Tip : For three points to be collinear, the slope of line segments formed by these points
should be equal.

Illustration 1 8
For what value of k the points (k, 2 ă 2k), (ă k + 1, 2k) and (ă 4 ă k, 6 ă 2k) are collinear ?
Solution :
Let A = (k, 2 ă 2k), B = (ă k + 1, 2k) and C = (ă 4 ă k, 6 ă 2k) are collinear then
Slope of AB = Slope of AC

2 k   2  2 k 6  2 k   2  2 k
 
 k1 k 4  k k

4k  2 4  1 
   k  2 ( Denominator  0) 
 2k  1  4  2k  
 (4k ă 2) (ă 4 ă 2k) = 4 (ă 2k + 1)
 (2k ă 1) (ă 2 ă k) ă (ă 2k + 1) = 0
 (2k ă 1) (ă 2 ă k + 1) = 0

1
 k  k= ă 1
2
STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 21

So m e I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s
(1) In order to make the calculations simple make suitable choice of the origin and the axes. But
this can be done only when co-ordinates of no point or equation of no curve is given in the
question.
(2) Use the following geometrical facts which ever is needed.
(a) a triangle is equilateral iff its all sides are equal.
(b) a triangle is isosceles iff its two sides are equal.
(c) A quadrilateral is a parallelogram
(i) iff opposite sides are equal.
(ii) iff diagonals bisect each other.
(d) A quadrilateral is a rectangle
(i) iff opposite sides are equal and one angle is a right angle.
(ii) iff opposite sides are equal and the diagonals are equal.
(e) a quadrilateral is a rhombus
(i) iff all the four sides are equal.
(ii) iff the diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
(iii) iff the diagonals bisect each other and two adjacent sides are equal.
(f) a quadrilateral is a square
(i) iff all the four sides are equal and the diagonals are equal.
(ii) iff all the four sides are equal and one angle is a right angle.
(g) (i) a rectangfle is a parallelogram whose diagonals are equal.
(ii) a square is a rhombus whose diagonals are equal.
(iii) a rhombus is a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are equal.

Illustration 1 9
Prove that the points (ă 4, ă 1), (ă 2, ă 4) and (2, 3) are the vertices of a rectangle.
Solution :
Let A = (ă 4, ă 1), B = (ă 2, ă 4), C = (4, 0) and D = (2, 3)
Now AB2 = (ă 4 + 2)2 + (ă 1 + 4)2 = 13  AB = 13

CD2 = (4 ă 2)2 + (0 ă 3)2 = 13  CD = 13

AD2 = (ă 4 ă 2)2 + (ă 1 ă 3)2 = 52  AD = 52  2 13

BC2 = (ă 2 ă 4)2 + (ă 4 ă 0)2 = 52  BC = 52  2 13

Ce n t ro i d o f a T ri a n g l e
Definition : The point of intersection of the medians of a triangle is called the centroid of the
triangle and it divides the median internally in the ratio 2 : 1.

STRAIGHT LINE
 22 QUIZRR

Or
The co-ordinates of the centroid of the triangle whose vertices sasre (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3)
are

 x1  x 2  x3 y1  y2  y3 
 , 
 3 3 
The medians of a triangle are concurrent.

K ey point s :
1. Centroid of the triangle obtained by joining the middle points of the sides of a triangle is
the same as the centroid of the original triangle.
Or
If (a1, b1), (a2, b2) and (a3, b3) are the mid points of the sides of a triangle, then its centroid
is given by

 a1  a2  a3 b1  b2  b3 
 , 
 3 3 
2. If two vertices of a triangle are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) and the co-ordinates of centroid are (,
) then co-ordinates of the third vertex are
(3 ă x1 ă x2, 3 ă y1 ă y2)
3. Accordiong to important theorem s ABC and DEF are similar

Area of  ABC  BC 2

 =
Area of  DEF  EF 2


4  a2  a3    b2  b3 
2
4
2

=
 a2  a3    b2
2
b  
3
2

Illustration 20
The vertices of a triangle are (ă 1, 4) and (5,2). If its centroid is (0, ă 3), find the third vertex.
Solution :
Let the third vertex be (x, y) then the co-ordinates of the centroid of triangle are

  1  5 x 4  2  y  4  x 6  y
 ,  i.e.,  3 , 3 
 3 3   

 4  x 6  y
Now,  3 , 3    0,  3 
 

4x 6 y
 = 0 and 3
3 3
STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 23

 4+ x = 0 and y+ 6 = ă 9
or x = ă 4 and y = ă 15
Hence the third vertex is (ă 4, ă 15).
Short Cut Method :
(x, y) = (3 ï 0 ă (ă 1) ă 5, 3 ï (ă 3) ă 4 ă 2) = (ă 4, ă 15)

Illustration 21
The vertices of a triangle are (1, a ), (2, b) and (c 2, ă 3)
(i) Prove that its centroid can not lie on the y-axis.
(ii) Find the condition that the centroid may lie on the x-axis.
Solution :
Centroid of the triangle is

 1  2  c2 a  b  3   3  c2 a  b  3 
G 
 i.e.,  3 
, ,
 3 3 3
   

(i)  G will lie on y-axis then

3  c2
0   c2 = ă 3
3

or ci 3

Hence G can not lie on y-axis.

a b  3
(ii)  G will lie on x axis then 0
3
 a + b ă 3 = 0
or a + b = 3

Illustration 22
If G be the centroid of ABC, show that
AB2 + BC2 + CA2 = 3(GA2 + GB2 + GC2)
Solution :
We take B as the origin and BC and BY as the x and y axes respectively.
Let BC = a then
B = (0, 0) and C = (a, 0)
and let A = (h, k)

STRAIGHT LINE
 24 QUIZRR

then co-ordinates of G will be Y

A(h,k)
 h  0  a k  0  0  h  a k
 ,  , i.e.,  3 , 3 
 3 3   
G
Take ABC as in Ist quadrant (for the sake of exactness).
Now LHS = (AB)2 + (BC)2 + (CA)2 X´ X
B(0,0) C(a,0)
= (h ă 0)2 + (k ă 0)2 + a2 + (h ă a)2 + (k ă 0)2 Y´
2 2 2
= 2h + 2k ă 2ah + 2a ...(1)
RHS = 3 ((GA)2 + (GB)2 + (GC)2

 a  h 
2
k 
2
a  h 
2
k 
2
a  h 
2
k  
2

=  3
3  h     k     0  +   0     a     0  
  3   3  3   3  3  

=
3
9
( a  2h) 2    2 k   a  h   k2  ( h  2 a)2  k2
2 2

=
1
3
6 a 2  6 h2  6 k2  6 ah 
= 2h2 + 2k2 ă 2ah + 2a2 ...(2)
Hence from (1) and (2) we get
AB2 + BC2 + CA2 = 3 (GA2 + GB2 + GC2)

Inc en t re
Definition : The point of intersection of internal angle bisectors of triangle is called the incentre
of the triangle.
The co-ordinates of the incentre of a triangle whose vertices are A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2), C (x3, y3)
are

 a x1  bx 2  cx 3 a y1  by2  cy3 
 , 
 a b  c a  b c 

where a, b, c are the lengths of sides BC, CA and AB respectively.

1. If ABC is equilateral then
a= b= c

 x1  x2  x3 y1  y2  y3 
then incentre =  ,  = centroid
 3 3 

i.e., incentreand centroid coincide in equilateral triangle.

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 25

Illustration 23
Find the co-ordinates of incentre of the triangle whose vertices are (4, ă 2), (ă 2, 4) and
(5, 5).
Solution :
Let A (4, ă 2), B (ă 2, 4) and C (5, 5) be the vertices of the given triangle. Then

a = BC = ( 2  5)2  (4  5) 2 = 50 = 5 2

b = CA = (5  4)2  (5  2)2 = 50 = 5 2

a C
and c = AB = (4  2)2  ( 2  4)2 = 72 = 6 2 (5, 5)
B
Let (x, y) be the co-ordinates of incentre of ABC. (ă2, 4)
Then b
c
ax1  bx2  cx3
x =
abc
A(4, ă2)
5 2  4  5 2    2  6 2  5
=
5 25 26 2

20 2  10 2  30 2 40 5
=  
16 2 16 2

ay1  by2  cy3

and y =
a b  c

5 2    2  5 2  4  6 2  5 40 5
=  
5 25 26 2 16 2

5 5
 The co-ordinates of the incentre are  , 
2 2

Illustration 24

3  3 
If  , 0  ,  , 6  and (ă 1, 6) are mid points of the sides of a triangle, then find (i) centroidof
2  2 
the triangle, (ii) incentre of the triangle.
Solution :
Let A = (, ), then co-ordinates of B = (ă 2 ă , 12 ă ) and co-ordinates of C = (3 ă , 12 ă
3 
). But mid point of BC is  , 0 
2 
STRAIGHT LINE
 26 QUIZRR

then 3 = ă 2 ă  + 3 ă    = ă 1 A (ă1, 12)

and 0 = 12 ă  + 12 ă       = 12
 Co-ordinates of vertices are
A = (ă 1, 12), B = (ă 1, 0) and C = (4, 0) F E 3
2
,6
(i) Centroid : The centroid of ABC is (ă1, 6)

 x1  x2  x3 y1  y2  y3 
 , 
 3 3 
B D C
(ă1, 0) 3, 0 (4, 0)
  1  1  4 12  0  0  2
or  , 
 3 3 

2 
i.e.,  3, 4
 
(ii) Incentre : We have

a = BC = ( 1  4) 2  (0  0)2 = 5

b = CA = (4  1)2  (0  12)2 = 13

and C = AB = ( 1  1) 2  (12  0)2  12

 ax1  bx2  cx3 ay1  by2  cy3 

 The incentre of ABC is  , 
 abc abc 

 5  ( 1)  13  ( 1)  12  4 5  12  13  0  12  0 
or  , 
 5  13  12 5  13  12 
i.e., (1, 2)

So m e St a n d a r d Re s u l t s
(i) Excentres of a triangle : This is the point of intersection of the
1)
(x1 , y

external bisectors of the angles of a triangle.

The circle opposite to the vertex A is called the escribed circle opposite A
l3 l2
A or the circle escribed to the side BC. If I1 is the point of intersection
of internal bisector of BAC and external bisector of ABC and ACB
then (x2 , y2 )B C(x3, y3 )

 ax1  bx2  cx3 ay1  by2  cy3  l1

I1 =  , 
 abc a  b c 

  ax1  bx2  cx3  ay1  by2  cy3 

or I1 =  , 
 abc abc 

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 27

 ax1  bx2  cx3 ay1  by2  cy3 

Similarly, I2 =  , 
 abc abc 

 ax1  bx2  cx3 ay1  by2  cy3 

and I3 =  , 
 abc abc 

when BC  a, CA  b and AB  c
(ii) Circumcentre of a triangle : The circumcentre of a triangle is the point of intersection of the
perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle (i.e., the lines through the mid point of a side
and perpendicular to it).
A(x1, y1)

F E
O

(x2 , y2 )B D C(x3, y3)

The co-ordinates are

 x1 sin 2A  x2 sin 2B  x3 sin 2C y1 sin 2A  y2 sin 2B  y3 sin 2C 

 , 
 sin 2A  sin 2B  sin 2C sin 2A  sin 2B  sin 2C 
Or

 ax1 cos A  bx2 cosB  cx3 cosC ay1 cos A  by2 cosB  cy3 cosC 
 , 
 a cos A  b cosB  c cos C a cos A  b cosB  c cosC 

where BC  a, CA  b and AB  c
(iii) Orthocentre of a triangle : The orthocentre of a triangle is the point of intersection of altitudes
(i.e., the lines through the vertices and perpendicular to opposite sides). Its co-ordinates are
A(x1,y1)

F E
O

B(x2,y2) D C(x3,y3)

 x1 tan A  x2 tan B  x3 tan C y1 tan A  y2 tan B  y3 tan C 

 , 
 tan A  tan B  tan C tan A  tan B  tan C 

STRAIGHT LINE
 28 QUIZRR

Or

 ax1 sec A  bx2 sec B  cx3 sec C ay1 sec A  by2 sec B  cy3 sec C 
 , 
 a sec A  b sec B  c sec C a sec A  b sec B  c sec C 

where BC  a, CA  b and AB  c
1 : The orthocentre, the centroid and the circumcentre therefore all lie on a straight line.
2 : If O is orthocentre, G is centroid and C is circumcentre then to remember it see OGC G
divides O and C in the ratio 2 : 1 (internally).
Note :
1. The distance between the orthocentre and circumcentre in an equilateral triangle is zero.
2. The orthocentre of a triangle having vertices (, ), (, ) and (, ) is (, ).
3. If the circumcentre and centroid of a triangle are respectively (, ), (, ) then orthocentre
will be (3 ă 2, 3 ă 2).

Illustration 25
If a vertex of a triangle be (1, 1) and the middle points of two sides through it be (ă 2, 3) and
(5, 2) then find the centroid and the incentre of the triangle.
Solution :
Let co-ordinates of A be (1, 1) and mid-points of AB and AC are F and E are
F = (ă 2, 3) and E = (5, 2)
Hence co-ordinates of B and C are
(2 ï (ă 2) ă 1, 2 ï 3 ă 1) B(ă5, 5)
and (2 ï 2 ă (ă 5), 2 ï 4 ă 5)
i.e., B = (ă 5, 5) and C = (9, 3) respectively D(2, 4)

 1  5  9 1 5 3  F
Then centroid is  ,  C(9, 3)
 3 3  (ă2,3)

E(5, 2)
5 
i.e.,  3 , 3 A(1, 1)
 

Also, a = BC = (  5  9) 2  (5  3)2 = 200  10 2

b = CA = (9  1)2  (3  1)2 = 68  2 17

and c = AB = (1 + 5) 2  (1  5)2  52  2 13

 10 2  1  2 17  ( 5)  2 13  9 10 2  1  2 17  5  2 13  3 
Then incentre is  , 
 10 2  2 17  2 13 10 2  2 17  2 13 

 5 2  5 17  9 13 5 2   5 17  3 13 
i.e.,  , 
 5 2  17  13 5 2  17  13 

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 29

Illustration 26
3 3
If a triangle has its orthocentre at (1, 1) and circumcentre at  ,  then find the centroid.
 2 4
Solution :
Since centroid divides the orthocentre and circumcentre in the ratio 2 : 1 (internally) and if
centroiod G (x, y), then

2 1 3 3
O 1, 1 G  x, y C , 
2 4

3
2 11
2 4
x= 
21 3

3
2 11
4 5
and y= 
21 6

4 5
 Centroid is  ,  is the mid point of orthocentre and circumcentre.
 3 6

Illustration 27
 4
In a triangle ABC with vertices A (1, 2), B (2, 3) and C (3, 1) and A = cosă1   , B= C
5
 1 
= cosă1   then find the circumcentre of the triangle ABC.
 10 
Solution :

1  4 
Since A = cos  
5

4 3
 cos A = then sin A =
5 5

3 4 24
 sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = 2. . 
5 5 25

1
and B = C = cosă1
10

1
then cos B = cos C =
10

STRAIGHT LINE
 30 QUIZRR

1 3
then sin B = sin C = 1 
10 10

3 1 3
 sin 2B = 2 sin B cos B = 2. .   sin 2C
10 10 5
let the circumcentre be (x, y) then

x1 sin 2A  x2 sin 2B  x3 sin 2C

x=
sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C

24 3 3
1  2  3 
25 5 5  11
= 24 3 3 6
 
25 5 5

y1 sin 2A  y2 sin 2B  y3 sin 2C

and y=
sin 2A  sin 2B  sin 2C

24 3 3
2  3 1
25 5 5 2
= 24 3 3
 
24 5 5

 11 
Hence co-ordinates of circumcentre are  , 2  .
 6 

Illustration 28
If the co-ordinates of the mid points of the sides of a triangle are (1, 1), (2, ă 3) and (3, 4)
then find the excentre opposite to the vertex A.
Solution :
Let D (1, 1), E (2, ă 3) and F (3, 4) are the mid points of the sides of the triangle BC, CA and
AB respectively. Let A = (, )
then B = (6 ă , 8 ă ) B(2,8)
and C = (4 ă , ă 6 ă )
Also D is the mid point of B and C then
F(3,4)
64
1=   = 4 (1,1)D A(4,0)
2

86 E(2,ă3)
and 1=   = 0
2
 A = (4, 0), B = (2, 8) and C = (0, ă 6) C(0,ă6)

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 31

then a = BC = (2  0)2  (8  6)2 = 200 = 10 2

(0  4)2    6  0 
2
b = CA = = 52 = 2 13

and c = AB =  4 - 2 2  0  8 2 = 68 = 2 17

 The co-ordinates of the excentre opposite to A are

  ax1  bx2  cx3  ay1  by2  cy3 

 , 
 abc abc 

  10 2  4  2 13  2  2 17  0  10 2  0  2 13  8  2 17    6  
i.e.,  , 
  10 2  2 13  2 17  10 2  2 13  2 17 
 

  20 2  2 13 8 13  6 17 
or  , 
  5 2  13  17  5 2  13  17 

Illustration 29
If G be the centroid and I be the incentre of the triangle with vertices a (ă 36, 7), B (20, 7)

25
and C (0, ă 8) and GI =  205   then find the value of .
3

Solution :
Co-ordinates of centroid are

  36  20  0 7  7  8 
G , 
 3 3 

 16 
or G   ,2 
 3 

and a = BC = (20  0)2  (7  8) 2 = 625  25

b = CA = (0  36)2  ( 8  7)2 = 1521  39

and c = AB = (  36  20)2  (7  7) 2 = (56)2  56

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32 QUIZRR

Therefore the co-ordinates of incentre are

 25   (36)  39  20  56  0 25  7  39  7  56    8  
I   , 
 25  39  56 25  39  56 

i.e., I = (ă 1, 0)

2
  16  2 205
 GI =  3  1   (2  0) 
  3

25
but given GI = (205) 
3

1 25
 (205) = (205) 
3 3

1
  =
25

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 QUIZRR 33

T H E ST RA I GH T L I N ES
Definition : A straight line defined as the curve which is such that the line segment joining any
two points on it lies wholly on it.
Note :
1. The number of arbitary constants in the equation of a straight line is two (we observe
three constants a, b and c in the equation ax + by + c = 0 of a straight line. The given
a b a
equation of line can be rewritten as   x    y  1  0 or px + qy + 1 = 0 where p 
c
  c
  c
b
and q  .
c
Thus we have only two arbitary constants p and q in the equation of a straight line).
Hence to completely determine the equation of a straight line, we require two conditions to
deteremine the two unknowns in general.
2. A straight line is briefly written as a Âline.Ê
3. The equation of a straight line is the relation between x and y, which is satisfied by the co-
ordinates of each and every point on the line.
The inclination of a line is defined to be the smallest counter-clockwise angle through which the
positively directed x-axis must turn in order to coincide with the line. This angle is always
measured from the x-axis to the line. In both Fig., angle  is the inclination of the line. The
inclination of any horizontal line is defined to be 0Ĉ. The inclination is always less than 180Ĉ.
Y Y



X O X
O

The tangent of the inclination of a line is called the slope of the line. We shall represent slope
by m. If the line makes an acute angle with the positive x-axis, the slope is positive; if the line
makes an obtuse angle with the positive x-axis, the slope is negative; if the line is parallel to the
Y Y

P2(x2, y2) P2(x2, y2)


O y
X O X

y
R(x2, y2) x P1(x1, y1)
x R(x2, y2)

STRAIGHT LINE
34 QUIZRR

x-axis, the slope is 0; and, if the inclination is 90Ĉ, the slope is not defined. Conversely, if s is
positive, the inclination is an acute angle; if s is negative, the inclination is an obtuse angle; if
m = 0, the inclination is 0Ĉ; if s is undefined, the inclination is 90Ĉ.
 slope = m = tan 

Illustration 30
Find the slope of a line that passes throuogh the points P1 = (ă 3, 4) and P2 = (5, ă 1).
Solution :


We know that P P = (8, ă 5); therefore, s = ă 5/8. The student should notice that, if we had
1 2

 5
taken P2P1  [  8, 5] , we would also have obtained s   .
8
Note :
1. Slope of a line is not the angle but is the tangent of the inclination of the line.
2. If a line is parallel to x-axis then its slope = tan 0Ĉ = 0.
3. Slope of a line parallel to y-axis or perpendicular to x-axis is not defined. Whenever we say
that the slope of a line is not defined.
4. If a line is equally inclined to the axes, then it will make an angle of 45Ĉ or 135Ĉ with the
positive direction of x-axis. Slope in this case will be tan 45Ĉ or tan 135Ĉ i.e.,  1.
Y Y

O 45Ĉ
X´ X
45Ĉ
45Ĉ
45Ĉ 45Ĉ
45Ĉ
X´ X
O

Y´ Y´

Y 135Ĉ Y
O
X´ X
45Ĉ
45Ĉ 45Ĉ

45Ĉ
X´ X
O
Y´
Y´
5. When the two lines are parallel, then their slopes are equal i.e., m1 = m2.
6. If three points A, B, C are collinear, then slope of AB = slope of BC = slope of AC

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 QUIZRR 35

I n t e r c e p t s o f a l in e o n a x e s
If a line cuts x-axis at A (a, 0) and the y-axis at B (0, b) then OA and OB are known as the
intercepts of the line on x-axis and y-axis respectively. a is called the length of intercept of the

line on x-axis. Intercept of a line on x-axis may be positive or negative and b is called the length
of intercept of the line on y-axis. Intercept of a line on y-axis may be positive or negative.
Y
B(0,b)

y intercept

X´ X
x intercept A(a,0)
Y´

Remark : If a line parallel to y-axis, then its itnercept on y-axis is not defined and if a line
parallel to x-axis, then its intercept on x-axis is not defined.

Eq u a t io n o f l in e i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s
1. Slope-Intercept Form
y
In this type you are provided with the intercept line makes
with y-axis and also the slope of the line.
Then the equation is
(0,C)
y = mx + c
where m = slope of the line = tan  

c = y-intercept x

Note : If the line passes through origin i.e. c = 0 then the

equation of line becomes y = mx.
2. Point-Slope Form
When a point on a line P (x1, y1) and slope of the line is given to us, then the equation of the
line becomes
y ă y1 = m (x ă x1)

P
(x1, y1)


m = tan

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 36 QUIZRR

3. Two-Point Form
When two points lying on the line are given to us, then equation of line becomes

 y2  y1 
(y ă y1) =    x  x1  , or (x2, y2)
 x2  x1 

 y2  y1 
(y ă y2) =    x  x2  (x1, y1)
 x2  x1 
(b) Determinant Form
Equation of line passing through points P (x1 y1) & Q (x2 y2) can also be given as

x y 1
x1 y1 1  0
x2 y2 1

Illustration 31
Find the equation of a line which makes an angle of 135Ĉ with the positive direction of x-
axis and passes through the points (3, 5).
Solution :
The slope of the line = m = tan 135Ĉ = ă 1
Here x1 = 3, y1 = 5
 The required equation of the line is
y ă 5 = ă 1 (x ă 3)
or x+ yă 8 = 0

Illustration 32
Find the equation of the straight line bisecting the segment joining the points (5, 3) and
(4, 4) and making an angle of 45Ĉ with the positive direction of x-axis.
Solution :
Here m = slope of the line = tan 45Ĉ = 1
Let A be the mid point of (5, 3) and (4, 4). Then co-ordinates of A are

5  4 3  4 9 7
 2 , 2  i.e.,  2 , 2 
   
Hence the required equation of the line is

7  9
y = 1 x  
2  2

or xă yă 1 = 0

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 37

Illustration 33
Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (1, 2) and makes an
1
angle  with the positive direction of x-axis where cos =  .
3
Solution : R
1
Here cos    (a negative number)
3 3
8

 
2

 tan    8 = slope of the line P 1 Q

We know that the equation of the straight line passing through the point (x1, y1) having slope
m is
y ă y1 = m(x ă x1)

Here x1 = 1, y1 = 2 and m = ă 8.
Therefore, equation of the required line is

y  2   8  x  1 or 8x  y  8  2  0

or 2 2x  y  2 2  2  0 or 2 2x  y  2  
2 1 0

Illustration 34
Find the equation of the line joining the points (ă 1, 3) and (4, ă 2).
Solution :
Equation of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is

y1  y2
y  y1   x  x1 
x1  x2

Here x1 = ă 1, y1 = 3, x2 = 4, y2 = ă 2.
 equation of the required line will be

32
y3  x  1
1 4

or yă 3 = ă xă 1
or x+ yă 2= 0

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 38 QUIZRR

Illustration 35
Find the equation of the internal bisector of angle BAC of the triangle ABC whose vertices
A, B, C are (5, 2), (2, 3) and (6, 5) respectively.
Solution :
Let AD be the internal bisector of BAC which cuts BC at D.

Now AB =  5  22   2  32 = 10

A(5, 2)
and AC =  5  6 2   2  5 2  10

Since AD is the internal bisector of angle BAC 10 10

BD AB 10 1
   
DC AC 10 1 B(2,3) 20 D C(6,5)

2  6 3  5
 D , i.e. D  (4, 4)
 2 2 

24
Now equation of AD is y  2   x  5 or y ă 2 = ă 2(x ă 5)
54

or 2x + y ă 12 = 0

Illustration 36
A rectangle has two opposite vertices at the points (1, 2) and (5, 5). If the other vertices lie
on the line x = 3, find the equation of the sides of the rectangle.
Solution :
Let A  (1, 2)
C  (5, 5)
Since vertices B and D lie on line x = 3, therefore, let B  (3, y1) and D  (3, y2).
Now since AC and BD bisect each other therefore, middle points of AC and BD will be same

y1  y2 2  5
  or y1 + y2 = 7 ...(1)
2 2
Also BD2 = AC2  (y1 ă y2)2 = (1 ă 5)2 + (2 ă 5)2 = 25 D(3,y2)

or y1 ă y2 =  5 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get y1 = 6, y2 = 1 or y1 = 1, y2 = 6
x=3

A
Hence other vertices of the rectangle are (3, 1) and (3, 6). (1,2)
Let B  (3, 1) and D  (3, 6) H C(5,5)

y1  y2
Now by formula y  y1   x  x1  , equation of side AB is
x1  x2 B(3,y1 )

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 QUIZRR 39

21
y2  x  1
13

or ă 2(y ă 2) = x ă 1 or x + 2y ă 5 = 0

15
equation of BC is y  1  3  5  x  3  or y ă 1 = 2(x ă 3)

or 2x ă y ă 5 = 0

26
equation of AD is y  2  1  3  x  1  or y ă 2 = 2 (x ă 1)

or 2x ă y = 0

56 1
equation of CD is y  5   x  5 or yă 5 =   x  5
53 2
y
4 . I N T ERCEPT FORM
L
If a line L cuts intercepts a and b at x-axis and y-axis
respectively, then the equation of lines can be given as : (0,b)
(0,0)

x y
 1
a b x
(a,0)

Note :
If the line cuts the axes in negative part then the negative of a & b are taken accordingly
like

(0,b)
(ăa,0)
(ăa,0)
(0, ăb)

x y x y
 1  1
a b a b

STRAIGHT LINE
40 QUIZRR

Illustration 37
Find the equation to the straight line passing through the point (3, ă 4) and cutting off
intercepts, equal but of opposite signs, from the two axes.
Solution :
Let the intercepts cut off from the two axes be of lengths a and ă a.
The equation to the straight line is then

x y
 = 1
a a

i.e. xă y= a ...(1)
Since, in addition, the straight line is to go through the point (3, ă 4), these coordinates must
satisfy (1) so that
3 ă (ă 4) = a
and therefore, a = 7
The required equation is therefore,
xă y= 7

Illustration 38
Find the equation to the straight line which passes through the point (ă 5, 4) and is such
that the portion of it between the axes is divided by the point in the ratio of 1 : 2.
Solution :

x y
Let the required straight line be   1 . This meets the axes in the points whose coordinates
a b
are (a, 0) and (0, b).
The coordinates of the point dividing the line joining these points in the ratio 1 : 2, are (Art. 22)

2.a  1.0 2.0  1.b 2a b

and , i.e., and
21 21 3 3
If this be the point (ă 5, 4) we have

2a b
5 and 4
3 3

15
So that a   and b = 12
2
The required straight line is therefore

x y
 1
15 12

2
i.e. 5y ă 8x = 60

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 41

5 . N ORM A L FORM Y

The equation to a straight line in terms of the perpendicular let B

fall upon it from the origin and the angle that this perpendicular
makes with the axes of x.
R
Let OR be the perpendicular from O and let its length be p. L
p P
Let  be the angle that OR makes with OY.
Then the equation of line is x cos  + y sin  = p.  N A
X
O M
Not e :
1. If  = 0Ĉ then equation x cos a + y sin  = p becomes
i.e., x = p


2. If   then equation x cos  + y sin  = p
2
i.e., y = p
3. If  = 0Ĉ, p = 0 then equation x cos  + y sin  = p
i.e., x = 0


4. If   , p  0 then equation x cos  + y sin  = p becomes
2
i.e., y = 0

Illustration 39
The length of perpendicular from the origin to a line is 9 and the line makes an angle of
120Ĉ with the positive direction of y-axis. Find the equation of the line.
Solution : Y
Here  = 60Ĉ and p = 9 120Ĉ
 Equation of the required line is
B N
x cos 60Ĉ + y sin 60Ĉ = 9 60Ĉ

1  3
 x    y    9
2  2  60Ĉ A
X´ X
O
or x+ y 3 = 18
Y´
Illustration 40
Find the equation of the straight line on which the perpendicular from origin makes an
 50 
angle of 30Ĉ with x-axis and which forms a triangle of area   sq. units with the co-
 3
ordinates axes.

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42 QUIZRR

Solution :
Let NOA = 30Ĉ
Let ON = p > 0 = a, OB = b

ON p
In ONA, cos 30Ĉ = =
OA a
Y
3 p
 =
2 a B

2p
or a = b
3
N
60Ĉ p
ON p
and in ONB, cos 60Ĉ =  X´ 30Ĉ
X
OB b O a A

1 p Y´
 =
2 b
or b = 2p

1 1  2p  2 p2
 Area of OAB = ab =   (2p) =
2 2  3 3

2 p2 50
 = (given)
3 3
 p2 = 25
or p = 5 ( p > 0)
 Using x cos  + y sin  = p, the equation of the line AB is
x cos 30Ĉ + y sin 30Ĉ = 5

or x 3  y  10

6. PA RA M ET RI C/SY M M ET RIC FORM

When the point P (x1, y1) and slope (m = tan ) of the line is given
to you, then the equation of the line can also be written as Q
(x, y)
x  x1 y  y1
 r r
cos  sin 
where r is the distance PQ P (x , y )
1 1
Also 
x = x1 + r cos 
y = y1 + r sin 

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 43

These equations are known as parametric form of line

Note : The value of r can both be positive or negative.
Ć For point above the given point P (x1, y1) r is +ve & hence new point is (x1 + r cos ,
y1 + r sin )
Ć for points below the given point P (x1, y1) r is ă ve & hence new point is (x1 ă r cos ,
y1 ă r sin )

Q
Q
(x, y) r (x1 , y1 )
r

P
P (x , y ) (x, y)
1 1

(a) r is +ve (b) r is ăve

Illustration 41

3
The slope of a straight line through A (3, 2) is . Find the co-ordinates of the points on the
4
line that are 5 units away from A.
Solution :
Let straight line makes an angle  with positive direction of x-axis,

3
then tan = 5
4
3
3 4 
 sin  = and cos  =
5 5 4
 Equation of the straight line through A (3, 2) in parametric form is

x3 y2
  5
cos  sin 

4
x = 3  5 cos  = 3  5 ï = 3  4 = 7 or ă 1
5

3
and y = 2  5 sin  = 2  5 ï = 2  3 = 5 or ă 1
5

Hence the co-ordinates of the points are (7, 5) and (ă 1, ă 1).

STRAIGHT LINE
44 QUIZRR

Illustration 42


If the straight line drawn through the point P  3, 2  and making an angle
6
with the x-

axis meets the line 3 x  4 y  8  0 at Q. Find the length of PQ.

Solution :
Given line is P( 3,2)

3x  4 y  8  0 ...(1) r

and P   3, 2  Q 3x ă 4y + 8 = 0

Let the line through P making an angle with the x-axis meet the line (1) at Q, let PQ = r
6

    3 r
Then Q   3  r cos , 2  r sin  i.e.,  3  2 r, 2  2 
 6 6  

 3 r
Since Q  3  2 r, 2  2  lies on line (1)
 

 3   r
   3  3  2 r   4  2  2   8  0
   

or 6 + 3r ă 16 ă 4r + 16 = 0 or r= 6
Hence PQ = 6 units
Note :

  
(i) Co-ordinates of Q may also be taken as  3  r cos , 2  r sin 
 6 6

then value of r will come out to be ă 6. But r = PQ

 r cannot be negative. r = ă 6 suggests that formula
(x1 + rcos, y1 + rsin) should have been used.

(ii) If r comes out to be negative then PQ = |r| and Q  3   3 3, 5 

as r = ă 6]
 is taken as positive or negative according as it is measured in anticlockwise or clockwise
direction.

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 45

Illustration 43

3
A line through (2, 3) makes an angle with the negative direction of x-axis. Find the
4
length of the line segment cut off between (2, 3) and the line x + y ă 7 = 0.
Solution :

3
 Line makes an angle with the negative direction of x-axis.
4


 Line makes an angle with the positive direction of x-axis.
4
 The equation of the line through (1, 2) in parametric form is

x2 y3 Y
 r

  
cos   sin  
4 4
/4
r P
x2 y3
 r A(2,3)
i.e., 1 1 ...(1) 3/4
2 2 /4 /
X´ x+ X
O y=
r r 0
 x2 and y  3 
2 2 Y´

Let the line (1) meet the line x + y ă 7 = 0 in P

 r r 
 Co-ordinates of P  2 + ,3  lies on x + y ă 7 = 0
 2 2

r r
then 2   3 70
2 2

2r
or = 2
2

or r = 2

 AP = 2

Illustration 44
The extremities of the diagonal of a square are (1, 1), (ă 2, ă 1). Obtain the other two vertices
and the equation of the other diagonal.
Solution :
Let A  (1, 1) and C  (ă 2, 1)

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46 QUIZRR

D C(ă2ă1)
 1 
Then H    , 0 
 2 
90Ĉ
11 2
slope of line AC = 
12 3 H
(ăó,0)
3
 slope of BD =   tan  (say) A(1,1) B
2
  is an obtuse angle

 cos  =  2
13
P
3
and sin  =
13
3 13
Also AC =
32  22  13


 DH = 13
Q 2 R
2

13
Now B and D lie on BD at distance from H, therefore, their co-ordinates (in some order) will
2
be

 1 13 13 
   cos , 0  sin  
 2 2 2 

 1 3  3 3 1  3
i.e.,   2  1,  2  or   2 , 2  and  2 , 2 
     

 3 3 1 3
Note : If D    ,  , then B   ,  
 2 2 2 2

1 3  3 3
If D   ,   , then B    , 
 2 2   2 2

Illustration 45
Show that if any line through the variable point A (k + 1, 2k) meets the lines 7x + y ă 16 =
0, 5x ă y ă 8 = 0, x ă 5y + 8 = 0 at B, C, D respectively AC, AB and AD are in harmonic
progression. (The three lines lie on the same side of point A).
Solution :
A  (k + 1, 2k)
STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 47

Let the line through A making an angle  with the positive direction of x-axis meet the given
lines.
A(k+1, 2k)
7x + y ă 16 = 0 ...(1)
5x ă y ă 8 = 0 ...(2)
and x ă 5y + 8 = 0 ...(3)
at B, C and D respectively.
Let AB = r1, AC = r2 and AD = r3
B 7x+yă16=0
Now B  (k + 1 + r1cos) + 2k + r1sin)
Since B lies on line (1)
 7(k + 1 + r1cos) 2k + r1sin ă 16 = 0
or r1(7cos + sin) = 9 ă 9k

9 1  k
 r1 
7cos   sin 

Again C  (k + 1 + r2cos, 2k + r2sin)

Since C lies on line (2)
 5(k + 1 + r2cos) ă (2k + r2sin) ă 8 = 0

3 1  k
 r2 
5 cos   sin 

Also D  (k + 1 + r3cos , 2k + r3 sin) and D lies on line (3)

 k + 1 + r3 cos  ă 5 (2k + r3 sin ) + 8 = 0

9 1  k
 r3 
5sin   cos 

1 1 5cos   sin  5sin   cos 

 
Now
r2 r3
= 3  1  k 9  1  k

2  7cos   sin  2
= 
9 1  k r1

Hence, r2, r1, r3 i.e., AC, AB, AD are in H.P.

Illustration 46
The centre of a square is at the origin and one vertex is A (2, 1). Find the co-ordinates of
other vertices of the square.
Solution :
Let ABCD be the square whose centre is O.
Given A  (2, 1), O  (0, 0)
Now AO = 5 and

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 48 QUIZRR
D C(ă2ă1)
10 1
slope of AO    tan  (say)
20 2 90Ĉ

2 1
 cos   and sin   H
5 5 (ăó,0)
 Co-ordinates of the points on AC which are at
A(1,1) B
a distance 5 from O will be

0  5 cos , 0  5 sin  
1 5
i.e.   2,  1
i.e. (2, 1) and (ă 2, ă 1) 
But A  (2, 1)  C  (ă 2, ă 1) 2
Again BD  AC  slope of BD = ă 2 = tan  (say)

 3
     or    2
2 2

1 2
 cos    and sin  
5 5 5
2
1 2
or cos   , sin    
5 5
1
Since B and D are on BD at a distance 5 from O, therefore, their co-ordinates (in some order)
will be

0  5 cos , 0  5 sin   i.e.  0  1, 0  2

i.e. (ă 1, 2) and (1, 2)

Re d u c t i o n o f Ge n e r a l Eq u a t io n t o s t a n d a r d f o r m s
General equation of straight line is given by Ax + By + c = 0. Now we will try & reduce this to
our standard forms
(1) To Âslope-interceptÊ form :
we know that slope intercept form is
y = mx + c
redistributing the standard equation

A C
y =   x   
 
B B

 A C
where m=   &c =  
 B  B

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 49

(2) To ÂInterceptÊ form

Rearranging standard form into into intercept form which is

x y
 1
a b

Ax  By   C

Ax  B 
   y1
 C  C 

x y
 1
  C
/A    C
/B 
C
where a (x-intercept) =
A

C
b (y-intercept) =
B
(3) Reduction to ÂNormalÊ form
Normal form : x cos  + y sin  = p
Standard form : ax + by + c = 0
arranging, ax + by = ă c

dividing by a 2  b2

a b c
x y
2 2 2 2
a b a b a  b2
2

WHY we divided by a 2  b2

See in normal form

(coeff. of x)2 + (coeff. of y)2 = 1
so now if we see

2 2
 a   b  a2 b2
     
 a2  b2   a2  b2  = 1
a 2  b2 a 2  b2
   

 a   
 x  y   b c
 x cos  + y sin  =  2 2   a 2  b2 
 a b   

STRAIGHT LINE
 50 QUIZRR

A n g l e b e t w e e n t w o s t r a i g h t l in e s L1
m2
for two lines l 1 & l2, the angle between them is given by the
m1
formula

m1  m2 
tan  
1  m1m 2

the mod signifies that the angle we are considering is the acute
angle and not the obtuse angle which is also formed when two lines L2
intersect.

Co n d i t i o n f o r t w o l i n e s t o b e p a r a l l e l
 m1 = m2 i.e. the slope of two lines are equal.
Note : Parallel lines never intersect, hence the angle between them is 0.
i.e.  = 0 in this case.

Co n d i t i o n f o r t w o l i n e s t o b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r
 m1 m2 = ă 1
i.e., the product of slopes of perpendicular lines, making an angle 90Ĉ with each other, is ă 1.
Tip : If the lines are given in general form i.e.
l1 : a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
l2 : a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
then these lines are

a1 b1 c1
parallel : when  
a2 b2 c2

or a 1b 2 = b 1 a 2

perpendicular : when a 1a 2 + b 1b 2 = 0
Y
When the lines have been actually plotted tangent of any m1
m2
of the two angles between them can be written by the rule given
below : 
Mark the arrow from one line to the other in anticlockwise 
direction and take the slope of the line from which arrow starts as 1 ă2
m2 and the slope of the line on which arrow goes as m1 as shown
in the figure given alongside. 2 1
X
m  m2 O
tan   tan(1  2 )  1
1  m1 m2
Thus when the lines have been actually plotted and their actual position are as given in the
figure, then

m1  m2 m  m1
tan   , tan   2
1  m1m2 1  m2 m1

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 51

Illustration 47
Find the angle between the lines x ă 2y + 3 = 0 and 3x + y ă 1 = 0.
Solution :
Given lines are
x ă 2y + 3 = 0 ... (1)
and 3x + y ă 1 = 0 ... (2)

coeff. of x 1 1
slope of line (1), m1 = ă coeff. of y    2  2

3
and slope of line (2), m2    3 .
1
If  be the acute angle between the lines, then

1
3
m1  m2 2
tan    7
1  m1 m2 1
1    3
2

 acute angle between the lines = tană1 7 and obtuse angle =  ă tană1 7.

Illustration 48
A line passes through the points A (2, ă 3) and B (6, 3). Find the slopes of the eyes which
are
(i) parallel to AB (ii) perpendicular to AB
Solution :
Let m be the slope of AB. then

3  (3) 6 3
m  
62 4 2

(i) Let m1 be the slope of a line parallel to AB, then

3
m1  m 
2
(ii) The slope of a line perpendicular to AB is

1 1 2
  
m 3 3
2

STRAIGHT LINE
 52 QUIZRR

Illustration 49

 1
The angle between two lines is and the slope of one of them is . Find the slope of the
4 2
other line.
Solution :
If  be the acute angle between the lines with slopes m1 and m2 then

m1  m2
tan  
1  m1m2

 1
Let  and m 1 
4 2

1
 m2

then tan  2
4 1
1  . m2
2

1  2m2 1  2m2
 1  1
2  m2 2  m2

Taking positive sign then, 1 ă 2m2 = 2 + m2

1
 m2  
3
and taking negative sign then,
1 ă 2m2 = ă 2 ă m2
m2 = 3

1
Hence the slope of the other line is either  or 3.
3

Illustration 50
Prove that the line joining the middle points of the two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side.
Solution : A(x1 ,y1 )
Let A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) be the vertices of a
ABC and P and Q be the middle points of sides AB and AC
respectively. P Q

x  x2 y1  y2   x1  x3 y1  y3 
Now P   1 ,  and Q   , 
 2 2   2 2 
B(x2 ,y2 ) C(x3 ,y3 )

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 53

y1  y2 y  y3
 1
2 2 y  y3
 2
 Slope of line PQ, m1 = x1  x2 x1  x3 x2  x3

2 2

y2  y3
Also slope of line BC, m2 =
x2  x3

Since m1 = m2, hence PQ is parallel to BC

Illustration 51
Find the value of k so that the straight line 2x + 3y + 4 + k (6x ă y + 12) = 0 is perpendicular
to the line 7x + 5y ă 4 = 0.
Solution :
Given lines are
(2 + 6k) x + (3 ă k) y + 4 + 12 k = 0 ... (1)
and 7x + 5y ă 4 = 0 ... (2)

2  6k 2  6k
slope of line (1), m1   
3k k3

7
and slope of line (2), m2  
5
Since line (1) is perpendicular to line (2)

 2  6k   7 
       1 or (2 + 6k) 7 = 5 (k ă 3)
 k  3   5

29
or 14 + 42k = 5k ă 15 or 37k = ă 29 or k
37

FA M IL Y OF L IN ES
Family means of a group of lines having a particular characteristic so, we can say
(i) Family of lines parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is of the form ax + by + k = 0
(ii) Family of lines perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is of the form bx ă ay + k = 0
(iii) Family of lines through the point of intersection of the lines
ax + by + c = 0 ...(i)
and a´x + b´y + c´ = 0 ... (ii)
can be written as (a x + by + c ) +  (a ´x + b´y + c ´) = 0
Family of lines parallel to x-axis are of the form y = k, where k is any arbitrary real number.
Family of lines perpendicular to 2x ă y + 4 = 0 is x + 2y + k = 0 since product of slopes has to
be ă 1
STRAIGHT LINE
 54 QUIZRR

Illustration 52
Find the equation of straight line through (2, 3) and
(a) parallel to 4x ă 3y = 10
(b) perpendicular to 4x ă 3y = 10
Solution :
(a) From family of lines we know that any line parallel to 4x ă 3y = 10 can be written as
4x ă 3y = k ...(i)
and now it should pass through (2, 3) so putting this in (i) & finding k
4 (2) ă 3 (3) = k      k = ă 1
 equation of req. line is 4x ă 3y + 1 = 0
(b) family of lines perpendicular to 4x ă 3y = 10
 3x + 4y = k
putting (2, 3) in the equation to find k
 3 (2) + 4 (3) = k      k = 18
 Required equation is 3x + 4y ă 18 = 0

Illustration 53
Find the equations of the straight lines passing through the point of intersection of the
lines x + 3y + 4 = 0 and 3x + y + 4 = 0 and equally inclined to the axes.
Solution :
Given lines are
x + 3y + 4 = 0 ...(1) and 3x + y + 4 = 0 ...(2)
Equation of any line through the point of intersection of lines (1) and (2) is
x + 3y + 4 + k (3x + y + 4) = 0
or (1 + 3k)x + (3 + k)y + 4 (k + 1) = 0 ...(3)

1  3k
Slope of line (3) =
3 k

and slope of line equally inclined to the axes =  1 (tan 45Ĉ or tan 135Ĉ)
If line (3) is equally inclined to the axes, then

1  3k
  1  k = ă1, 1.
3k

From (3), required lines are

ă 2x + 2y = 0 or xă y= 0
and 4x + 4y + 8 = 0 or x+ y+ 2= 0
2nd method : Given lines are
x + 3y + 4 = 0 ...(1) and 3x + y + 4 = 0 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2) we get x = ă 1, y = ă 1.

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 55

 point of intersection of lines (1) and (2) is P (ă 1, ă 1).

Slope of lines equally inclined to the axes are  1
 equation of required lines will be
y + 1 =  1 (x + 1) or x ă y = 0 and x + y + 2 = 0

Fu n c t io n f o r c o n c u r re n c y o f s t r a i g h t l in e s
Two or more lines are concurrent if they pass through one common point.
Let the equation of 3 straight lines be
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
a3x + b3y + c3 = 0
Then the condition for these 3 lines to be concurrent

a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2  0
(1)
a3 b3 c3

(2) If there exists l, m, n (not all zero at a time) such that

l (a1x + b1y + c1) + m (a2x + b2y + c2) + n (a3x + b3y + c3) = 0

Illustration 54
Prove that the straight lines 4x + 7y = 9, 5x ă 8y + 15 = 0 and 9x ă y + 6 = 0 are concurrent.
Solution :
Given lines are
4x + 7y ă 9 = 0 ...(1)
5x ă 8y + 15 = 0 ...(2)
and 9x ă y + 6 = 0 ...(3)
First Method :

4 7 9
5  8 15  4   48  15   7  30  135   9   5  72 
 =
9 1 6

= ă 132 + 735 ă 603 = 0

Hencelines (1), (2) and (3) are concurrent
Second Method :
Solving equations (1) and (2) we get

x y 1
 
105  72  45  60  32  35

33 105
 x , y
67 67

STRAIGHT LINE
56 QUIZRR

 33 105 
Hence point of intersection of lines (1) and (2) is   , 
 67 67 

33 105
Putting x   , y , we have
67 67

297 105  297  105  402

9x  y 6    6 0
67 67 67
Thus point of intersection of lines (1) and (2) lies on line (3) and hence lines (1), (2) and (3) are
concurrent.
Third Method : Inspection Method : by trial we see that there are three non-zero numbers
1, 1 and ă 1 such that
1 (4x + 7y ă 9) + (15x ă 8y + 15) ă 1 (9x ă y + 6) = 0
Hence lines (1), (2) and (3) are concurrent.
Fourth Method :
Let there be three numbers l, m, n such that
l(4x + 7y ă 9) + m(5x ă 8y + 15) + n(9x ă y + 6) = 0 ...(A)
Then (4l + 5m + 9n)x + (7l ă 8m ă n)y + (ă 9l + 15m + 6n) = 0
Equating the coefficients of x, y and constant term, we get
4l + 5m + 9n = 0 ...(4)
7l ă 8m ă n = 0 ...(5)
ă 9l + 15m + 6n = 0 ...(6)

4 5 9
7 8 1
Now
 9 15 6

or 4(ă 48 + 15) ă 5(42 ă 9) + 9(105 ă 72) = 0

Hence system of equations (4, 5) and (6) has non-trivial solution i.e.,
(A) is satisfied by values of l, m, n (not all zero) and hence lines (1), (2) and (3) are concurrent.

Illustration 55
Show that the lines :
(p + q)x + (p + q)y ă (p ă q) = 0
(p ă q)x ă (p ă q)y ă (p + q) = 0
px + qy ă p = 0
and qx + py + q = 0 are concurrent.
Solution :
Given lines are
(p + q)x + (p + q)y ă (p ă q) = 0 ...(1)
(p ă q)x ă (p ă q)y ă (p + q) = 0 ...(2)

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 57

px + qy ă p = 0 ...(3)
qx + py + q = 0 ...(4)
It is sufficient to show that lines (1), (2) and (3) are concurrent and lines (2), (3) and (4) are
concurrent.
By trial we see that
1.[(p + q)x + (p + q)y ă (p ă q)] + 1.[(p ă q)x ă (p ă q)y ă (p + q)] ă 2[(px + qy ă p)] = 0
Hence lines (1), (2) and (3) are concurrent ...(A)
Again we see that
1.[(p ă q)x ă (p ă q)y ă (p + q)] ă 1.[(px + qy ă p] + 1.[(qx + py + q] = 0
Hence lines (2), (3) and (4) are concurrent ...(B)
From (A) and (B) it follows that lines (1), (2), (3) and (4) are concurrent.

Illustration 56
If the lines p 1x + q 1y = 1, p 2x + q 2y = 1 and p 3x + q 3y = 1 be concurrent, show that the points
(p 1, q 1), (p 2, q 2) and (p 3, q 3) are collinear.
Solution :
Given lines are
p1x + q1y ă 1 = 0 ...(1)
p2x + q2y ă 1 = 0 ...(2)
and p3x + q3y ă 1 = 0 ...(3)
Since lines (1), (2) and (3) are concurrent, therefore

p1 q1  1 p1 q1 1
p2 q2  1  0 or p2 q2 1  0
p3 q3  1 p3 q3 1

Hence points (p1, q1), (p2, q2) and (p3, q3) are collinear.

L i n e s m a k i n g a n a n g l e  w it h a g i v e n l in e
In general there can be 2 lines making an angle  with a given line.
L : the given line with slope m
l1l2 the two lines making an angle of  with L with slopes m1 &
L
m2 respectively. 
Then the slopes m1 & m2 can be obtained by the following L2

formula.

m  tan  m  tan 
m1  , m2 
1  m tan  1  m tan  L1

or vice versa.

STRAIGHT LINE
 58 QUIZRR

Illustration 57
Find the lines which make an angle of 45Ĉ with line 3x ă y ă 5 = 0
Solution :
There are 2 set of lines which will make an angle of 45Ĉ with line 3x ă y + 5 = 0
From diagram you can see that there are 2 set of lines which will make an angle of .
(i.e. 45Ĉ here)
 The values of m1 & m2 can be found from

m 3
tan 45 
1  3m  m2

m3  L2
1 
or
1  3m  2nd set of lines

m3
  1 m1
1  3m
 1st set of lines
 (m ă 3) =  (3m + 1) 4
 m ă 3 = 3m + 1 or m ă 3m ă 1
2m = ă 4 or 4m= + 2
 m = ă 2, ó
So either m1 = ă 2 m2 = ó
or m1 = ó m2 = ă 2
for finding the family of lines of such lines we need a point for finding the equation. We will take
a point on the given line i.e., (2, 1)
now we know the slopes of two lines making angle of 45Ĉ with given line
 one of the equations is

y1 y1 1
  2 & other is  
x2 x2 2

(2,1)
 2x + y ă 5 = 0 & x ă 2y = 0
3xăy+5=0
& set of lines parallel to these equations is
2x + y + k1 = 0 & x ă 2y + k2 = 0
& this is the answer.

Illustration 58
A vertex on an equilateral triangle is (2, 3) and the equation of the opposite side is
x + y = 2. Find the equation of the other sides of the triangle. [IIT 75]
Solution :
Given line is
x+ yă 2= 0 ...(1)
Its slope, m1 = ă 1

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 59

Let the slope of the line which makes an angle of 60Ĉ with line (1) be m, then
A(2,3)
m1  m 1 m
tan 60  or 3
1  m1 m 1m

1 m 1m
or 3 or  3
m 1 m 1 60Ĉ 60Ĉ
B x+y=2 C
or 1  m   3  m  1

  , 
2 2
3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1
 m = , 
3 1 3 1 2 2

= 2  3, 2  3

 Equation of other two sides of the triangle are

 
y  3  2  3 ( x  2) and y  3  (2  3)( x  2)

or 2 3  x  y  2 
3  1  0 and 2  3 x  y  2 3  1  0
2nd Method : Given line is x + y ă 2 = 0 ...(1)
Its slope, m = ă 1
Now equation of the other two sides of the triangle which make an angle of 60Ĉ with line (1) are
y ă 3= tan (  60Ĉ)(x ă 2), where tan  = m = ă 1

tan   tan60 1 3

or y ă 3 = 1  tan .tan 60 ( x  2) or y3 ( x  2)
1 3

3 1
or yă 3 = ( x  2)
3 1

or 
y ă 3 = 2  3 (x  2) 
 3  1 ( 3  1) 2 3 1 ( 3  1)2 
   2  3 and   2  3
 3  1 2 3 1 2 

or 2  3 x  y  2 3 1 0

and 2  3  x  y  2 3 1 0

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 60 QUIZRR

Po s i t i o n o f p o i n t r e l a t i v e t o a g i v e n l in e
Let a given line be L : ax + by + c = 0
Also assume two points P (x1 y1)
Q (x2 y2)
Ć Then P & Q lie on same side of line L if
(ax1 + by1 + c) & (ax2 + by2 + c)
are of same sign Q

P
or

Line Line
P Q
Ć Points P & Q lie on opposite side of line L if
(ax1 + by2 + c) & (ax2 + by2 + c) are of opposite signs.

P
or Q P

Line Q Line
Ć For origin we just need to check the sign of constant c.
(a) A point P (x1 y1) will lie on the origin side of line L if ax1 + by1 + c & c have same sign.
(b) A point P will lie on non-origin side of line l if a ax1 + by1 + c & c have opposite sign.

Illustration 59
Find the position of the points (1, 1) and (2, ă 1) with respect to the line 3x + 4y ă 6 = 0.
Solution : Let A  (1, 1) and B  (2, 1)
when x = 2, y = 1, 3x + 4y ă 6 = 3 ï 2 + 4(ă 1) ă 6 = ă 4 < 0 and
When x = 1, y = 1, 3x + 4y ă 6 = 3 ï 1 + 4 ï 1 ă 6 = 1 > 0.
Hence points A and B lie on the opposite sides of the line 3x + 4y ă 6 = 0.

Illustration 60
Show that the four points (0, 0), (ă 1, 1), (ă 7, ă 4) and (9, 6) are the four different compartments
made by the two straight lines 2x ă 3y + 1 = 0 and 3x ă 5y + 2 = 0.
Solution : Let the equation of lines AB and CD be
2x ă 3y + 1 = 0 ...(1)
and 3x ă 5y + 2 = 0 ...(2)

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 QUIZRR 61

Let P (0, 0), Q (ă 1, 1), R  (ă 7, ă 4) and S (9, 6). Clearly

III
(0, 0) does not lie on line AB or CD, therefore it will lie in one of C B
the four compartments say AHD. i.e., compartment I. IV II
H
P(0,0)
A D
I

Point Sign of 2x ă 3y + 1 Sign of 3x ă 5y + 2 Position

(for line AB) (for line CD)
P(0, 0) + ve I + ve I I
Q (ă 1, 1) ă ve III or IV ă ve II or III III
R (ă 7, ă 4) ă ve III or IV + ve I or IV IV
S (9, 6) + ve I or II ă ve II or III II
From above table it is clear that points P and Q lie on the
)
opposite side of lines AB and CD. 1,1
Q(ă
Since P lies in compartment AHD, therefore Q will lie in the C B
compartment CHB. R(ă7,ă4)
H S(9,6)
Again points P and S lie on the same side of line AB and on
the opposite side of CD, therefore S will lie in the compartment P(0,0)
A D
DHB. Also P and R lie on opposite side of line AB and on the
same side of line CD therefore R will in the compartment AHC.
Thus location of points will be as shown in the figure. Hence the four points lie in the four
compartments.

Illustration 61
Find the position of the origin with respect to the triangle whose sides are x + 1 = 0, 3x ă
4y ă 5 = 0, 5x + 12y ă 27 = 0
Solution :
Let ABC be the triangle and the equation of its sides BC, CA and AB be respectively
x+ 1 = 0 ...(1)
3x ă 4y ă 5 = 0 ...(2)
and 5x + 12y ă 27 = 0 ...(3)
Solving equations (1), (2) and (3) two by two, we get A(3,1)

 8
A  (3, 1), B    1,  and C  (ă 1, ă 2)
0

 3
7=

3x
ă2

ă4

We have to find the position of point O (0, 0) with respect ă ă

yă
2y

5=
+1

to the triangle i.e. we have to examine whether O (0, 0)

0
5x

lies inside the triangle or outside the triangle or on the

side of the triangle.
+
8 x+1=0 C(ă1,ă2)
B(ă1, 3 )

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 62 QUIZRR

Clearly (0, 0) does not satisfy equations (1), (2) and (3) and hence O (0, 0) does not lie on sides
of triangle ABC. Point O will lie inside ABC only when points A and O lie on the same side of
BC, points B and O lie on the same side of CA and points C and O lie on the same side of AB.
Sign of x + 1 Sign of Sign of
3x ă 4y ă 5 5x + 12y ă 27
For points O (0, 0) + For O (0, 0) ă For O(0, 0) ă

 8
For point A (3, 1) + For B   1,  ă For C (ă 1, ă 2) ă
 3

Thus we see that the signs of the expression x + 1, 3x ă 4y ă 5 and 5x + 12y ă 27 when the co-
ordinates of the origin (0, 0) are put are respectively +, ă, ă and when the co-ordinates of points
A, B, C are put then also they are +, ă, ă respectively. Hence O(0, 0) lies inside ABC.

T h e r a t i o i n w h i c h a g i v e n l in e d i v i d e s t h e l in e s e g m e n t j o i n i n g t w o p o i n t s
Take the given line as L : ax + by + c = 0 and the two points be P (x1 y1) & Q (x2 y2)
Then the line intersects the segment PQ in the ratio m : n, which is given by

m  ax  bxy1  c 
 1  L
n  ax2  by2  c 
Now see the significance of negative sign

m m
As shown in figure 1 L divides PQ internally in the ratio
n P n Q
which should be positive.
Also P & Q lie on opposite sides of line L.
Hence their signs will also be opposite

m
 for internal division  0 , ax + by + c & ax + by + c have opposite sign.
n 1 1 2 2

m
external division  0 ax + by + c & ax + by + c have same sign.
n 1 1 2 2

You can see that in case of external division P & Q lie on the same side of line L.

Q C

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 QUIZRR 63

T h e l e n g t h o f p e r p e n d i c u l a r f r o m a p o i n t o n a l in e
(i) The length of the perpendicular from the point (, ) to the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by

a  b  c
p
a2  b2

(ii) The length of the perpendicular from the origin (0, 0) to the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by

c
p
a  b2
2

(iii) The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is given by

c1  c2
d
a 2  b2

(iv) The distance between two parallel lines can also be obtained by taking a suitable point (take
y = 0 and find x or take x = 0 and find y) on one straight line and then finding the length
of the perpendicular from this point to the second line.
(v) Area of a parallelogram or a rhombus equation of whose sides are given, can be obtained
by using the following formula

p1 p2
Area =
sin 

Illustration 62
Find the distance of the point (4, 5) from the straight line 3x ă 5y + 7 = 0.
Solution :
Given line is 3x ă 5y + 7 = 0 ...(1)
Given point is (4, 5). Let A  (4, 5)
Now length of the perpendicular from A (4, 5) to line (1)

3.4  5.5  7 6
P 
2
3  ( 5) 2 34

Illustration 63
Find the distance of the point (1, 2) from the straight line with slope 5 and passing through
the point of intersection of x + 2y = 5 and x ă 3y = 7.
Solution :
Given lines are x + 2y = 5 ...(1)
and x ă 3y = 7 ...(2)

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64 QUIZRR

29 2
Solving (1) and (2), we get x  and y  
5 5
Thus if H be the point of intersection of lines (1) and (2), then

 29 2
H , 
 5 5

 29 2
Now equation of the line through H  ,   whose slope is 5 is
 5 5 

2  29 
y  5 x 
5 
or 5y + 2 = 5(5x ă 29)
5 
or 25x ă 5y ă 147 = 0 ...(3)
Now length of the perpendicular from point (1, 2) to line (3)

25.1  5.2  147 132

p 
2
25  5 2 650

Illustration 64
If a and b are the intercepts of a straight line on the x and y-axes respectively and p be its
1 1 1
perpendicular distance from the origin, prove that 2  2  2 .
p a b
Solution :
Since a and b are the intercepts of the given line on x and y-axes respectively, therefore its
equation will be

x y
 10 ...(1)
a b
The length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin (0, 0) upon line

0 0
 1
a b 1

p= 1 1 1 1
 
a2 b2 a 2
b2

1 1 1 1 1 1
 =  , or  
p a 2 2
b p 2
a 2
b2

Illustration 65
The equation of the base of an equilateral triangle is x + y = 2 and the vertex is (2, ă 1).
Find the length of side of the triangle. [IIT 73]

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 QUIZRR 65

Solution :
Equation of side BC is
x+ yă 2= 0
A  (2, ă 1) A(2,ă1)

212 1
Now AL = 
2
1 1 2 2

AL
From ABL, sin 60Ĉ = 60Ĉ
AB
B L C
3 1 2 x+yă2=0
  or AB 
2 2 AB 3

Illustration 66
Find the equation of the straight line which cuts off intercepts on x-axis twice that on
y-axis and is at a unit distance from the origin.
Solution :
Let a and b be the intercepts cut off by the line on x and y axes respectively. Given a = 2b.
Now equation of the line will be

x y x y
 1 or  1 or x + 2y ă 2b = 0
a b 2b b
Now according to question the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin upon line (1)
is 1

0  2.0  2b 2b
1 1
 2 2 or
1 2 5

2b 5
or  1;  b
5 2
Hence equation of the required straight lines are

x  2 y  5  0 and x  2 y  5  0

Illustration 67
If p and p´ be the lengths of the perpendiculars from origin to the lines x sec  ă y cosec
 = a and x cos ă ysin = a cos2, respectively, show that 4p 2 + p´2 = a 2.
Solution :
The equations of given lines are
xsec ă ycosec ă a = 0 or xsin ă ycos ă asin cos = 0

a
or xsin ă ycos ă sin2 = 0 . ..(1)
2

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66 QUIZRR

and xcos ă ysin ă acos2 = 0 ...(2)

The length p of the perpendicular drawn from the origin (0, 0) upon line (1)

a
0.sin   0.cos   sin 2
2
p=
sin 2   cos2 

a 2
or p = sin 2 or p2  a sin 2  or 4p2 = a2 sin22 ...(3)
2 4
Again the length p´ of the perpendicular drawn from the origin (0, 0) upon line (2).

0.cos   0.sin   a cos 2

p´ =
cos2   sin 2 

or p´ = a cos2  p´2 = a2cos22 ...(4)

Adding (3) and (4), we get 4p2 + p´2 = a2 (sin22 + cos22) = a2

A N GL E B I SECT ORS
L1
Consider two lines l1 & l2
l1 : a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
angle P
l2 : a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 bisector acute
Then the equation of angle bisectors is given by
obtuse L2
a1 x  b1 y  c1 a2 x  b2 y  c2

a12  b12 a22  b22

The explanation to the equation can be given by taking a point P on the angle bisector.
Since distance of any point on angle bisector from the two lines is equidistant
distance of P from l1 = distance of P from l2 & hence the equation
Now since there are 2 bisectors, which equation will represent the equation of acute/obtuse
bisector. This is decided by the value of a1 a2 + b1 b2
Condition Acute bisector Obtuse bisector
a1 a2 + b1 b2 > 0 ă sign + sign
a1 a2 + b1 b2 < 0 + sign ă sign

Shortcut :
To remember the formula just remember the sign of obtuse angle which is same as the sign of
value of a1 a2 + b1 b2. Acute angle will be opposite of obtuse angle.
Angle bisector containing origin
If (a1 a2 + b1 b2) (c1c2) > 0, then obtuse angle contains origin.
for (a1 a2 + b1 b2) (c1c2) < 0, acute angle contains origin.

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 QUIZRR 67

Illustration 68
For straight lines 4x + 3y ă 6 = 0 and 5x + 12y + 9 = 0 find the equation of the
(i) bisector of acute angle between them
(ii) bisector of obtuse angle between them
(iii) bisector of the angle which contains the origin.
Solution :
Now let us solve this question using the formulas we just studied.
For the given two lines 4x + 3y ă 6 = 0 and 5x + 12y + 9 = 0 we will first calculate a1a2 + b1b2
which is 4(5) + (3)(12) > 0
hence + sign will give obtuse angle bisector

4x  3y  6 5 x  12 y  9

i.e. 2 2
4 3 52  122

4 x  3 y  6 5 x  12 y  0
 
5 13
which reduces to
27x ă 21y ă 123 = 0
or 9x ă 7y ă 41 = 0
now for acute angle, we will go for ă ve sign

4 x  3 y  6  5 x  12 y  9

5 13
or 7x + 9y ă 3 = 0
Hence this is the equation of acute angle bisector.
(c) Now for finding angle bisector which contains origin we will check for the value of
(a1a2 + b1b2) c1c2
i.e. [4(5) + 3(12)] (ă 6) (9) < 0
which implies that acute angle contains the origin.

Illustration 69
Prove that the length of the perpendiculars drawn from any point of the line 7x ă 9y + 10 = 0
to the lines 3x + 4y ă 5 = 0 and 12x + 5y = 7 are equal.
Solution : 3x
+4
yă
Given lines are 5
L =0
12x+5yă7=0

7x ă 9y + 10 = 0 ...(1) P1
12x + 5y ă 7 = 0 ...(2) M P P(,)
7xă9y+10=0

2
and 3x + 4y ă 5 = 0 ...(3)
Let P(, ) be any point on line (1)

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68 QUIZRR

Then 7 ă 9 + 10 = 0

9  10
or  ...(4)
7
The length of the perpendicular drawn from (, ) on line 3x + 4y ă 5 = 0

3  4  5
p1 =
32  4 2

 9  10 
3   4  5
=  7  [from (4)]
5

55  65 11  13
= 
57 7

The length of the perpendicular drawn from (, ) upon line

12x + 5y ă 7 = 0

 9  10 
12  5  7
12    5  7
  7 
p2 = , [from (4)]
122  52 13

143  169 11  13

=  , thus p = p
13  7 7 1 2

Second Method :
The equation of the bisectors of the angles between the lines
3x + 4y ă 5 = 0
and 12x + 5y ă 7 = 0 are

3x  4 y  5 12 x  5 y  7

32  42 122  52

3x  4 y  5 12 x  5 y  7
or 
5 13
or 60x + 25y ă 35 =  (39x + 52y ă 65)
 60x + 25y ă 35 = + (39x + 52y ă 65)
and 60x + 25y ă 35 = ă (39x + 52y ă 65)
or 21x ă 27y + 30 = 0 and 99x + 77y ă 100 = 0
Thus we can see 7x ă 9y + 10 = 0 is one of the bisectors of the angles between given lines. And
perpendiculars drawn from the line 7x ă 9y + 10 to the given lines from a point will be equal.
You can see using bisectors formula how easy this question has become.

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 QUIZRR 69

So m e Sp e c i a l T y p e o f Qu e s t io n s
(I) Foot of perpendicular
P(x,y)
In this type you have to find the foot of perpendicular drawn from
the point (x1y1) to the line ax + by + c = 0
Working Rule
1. Let R be (x2, y2) which we have to fond. R
2. Put R in ax + by + c = 0 to get an equation
3. Since PR  given line, apply m1m2 = ă 1, to get slope of PR
4. Get second equation in terms of x2y2 by using slope relation. ax+by+c=0
From step 2 & 4 get the values of (x2y2)
II. Similar to the previous type is ima ge or reflec tion of a point (x1 y1) about a line mirror.
Our aim is to find Q.
P(x1 y1 )
Working Rule
1. Let Q be (x2 y2)
=0
2. Since Q is the image of P, Q is equidistant from line as P is
by+c
from the given line. ax+
R
Hence R is the mid point of PQ & it lies on the line ax + by
+c= 0
3. Put R in the line to get an equation in (x2y2) Q(x2 y2 )
4. Also PQ is perpendicular to given line ax + by + c = 0. So
equate slopes (m1m2 = ă 1) to get another relation in (x2y2).
Solve step 3 & 4 to get (x2y2).

Illustration 70
Find the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point (2, 3) to the line
y = 3x + 4.
Solution :
P(2,3)
Given line is
3x ă y + 4 = 0 ...(1)
Let P (2, 3). Let L be the foot of the perpendicular drawn
from P to line AB.
Since PL passes through P (2, 3) and is perpendicular to
AB, therefore, equation of line PL will be
A L B
x + 3y ă (2 + 3 ï 3) = 0 or x + 3y ă 11 = 0 ...(2) 3xăy+4=0
Solving equation (1) and (2), we get

1 37  1 37 
x , y  L   . 
10 10  10 10 

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70 QUIZRR

Illustration 71
Find the image of the point (ă 8, 12) with respect to the line mirror 4x + 7y + 13 = 0
Solution : P(ă8,12)
Equation of line mirror AB is
4x + 7y + 13 = 0 ...(1)
Let P  (ă 8, 12). Let Q (, ) be the image of A B
point P with respect to the line mirror .....(1). L 4x+7y+13=0
Then PQ  AB and PL = LQ.
Now since PL is perpendicular to line (1), therefore,
its equation will be Q(,)
7x ă 4y ă [7(ă 8) ă 4 ï 12] = 0 or 7x ă 4y + 104 = 0 ...(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) we get
x = ă 12 and y = 5  L  (ă 12, 5)

PQ 2
Since Q is the image of P, therefore, PL = LQ or  . Thus Q divides PL externally in the
QL 1
ratio 2 : 1.

2( 12)  1.( 8) 2  5  1  12

    16 and   2
21 21

 Q (ă 16, ă 2).
2nd Method :
Equation of line AB is 4x + 7y + 13 = 0 ...(1)

4   12
Slope of AB =  and slope of PQ =   8
7

   12   4 
Since AB  PQ        1
   8  7 
or 4( ă 12) = 7( + 8) or 7 ă 4 + 104 = 0 ...(2)

   8   12 
Also since L is the middle point of PQ  L   ,
 2 2 

  8    12 
Since L lies on line (1),  4    7   13  0 ...(3)
 2   2 
or 4 ă 32 + 7 + 84 + 26 = 0 or 4 + 7 + 78 = 0
Solving equations (2) and (3), we get  = ă 16 and  = ă 2
 Q  (ă 16, ă 2)

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 QUIZRR 71

I I I . Re f l e c t i o n o f l ig h t
This is the normal physics concept. We know that

     i = r incident i reflected
r
line line
The concept is well explained in the following question.
P

Normal

Illustration 72
A ray of light is sent along the line x ă 2y ă 3 = L A 3xă2yă5=0 M
0. Upon reaching the line 3x ă 2y ă 5 = 0, the ray  
is reflected from it. Find the equation of the 0  
ă3=
containing the reflected ray. 2y
xă
[Planning : Solving the equations of LM and PA co-
ordinates of A can be obtained. If slope of AQ is P Q
determined, equation of AQ will be known. If slope of
AQ be m, then equating the two values of tan  N
(considering the angles between AL and AP and between AM and AQ) m can be found.] [IIT 90]
Solution :
Given equation of LM is 3x ă 2y ă 5 = 0 ...(1)
equation of PA is x ă 2y ă 3 = 0 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2) we get x = 1, y = ă 1  A  (1, ă 1)

3 1
Let slope of AQ = m. Slope of LM = , slope of PA =
2 2
Let LAP = , then QAM = 

3 1

2 2 4
Now LAP =   tan  = 3 1 = ...(3)
1 . 7
2 2

3
m
2 2m  3
again QAM =   tan  = 3 = 2  3m ...(4)
1  m.
2

From (3) and (4), we have

2m  3 4 2m  3 4 1 29
= or 2  3   7  m ,
2  3m 7 m 2 2

STRAIGHT LINE
 72 QUIZRR

1 29
But slope of AP =  slope of AQ =
2 2
Now equation of AQ will be

29
y1 ( x  1) or 29x ă 2y ă 31 = 0
2
2nd Method to find m : Marking the direction of arrow in anticlockwise direction in PAL and
QAM and equating the two values of tan , we get

1 3 3
 m
2 2  2 4 3  2m
1 3 3   
1 . 1  .m 7 2  3m
2 2 2

29
 m  equation of AQ will be 29x ă 2y ă 31 = 0
2

I V . Re f r a c t io n o f l i g h t Normal
In this type of question the incident ray is deviated from its in
cid
normal path. We are given the deviated angle & are required en
tl i
to find the refracted line. Let us solve a question to understand in
this. medium 1 e
medium2
r

ref
deviation

rac
ted
lin
e
Illustration 73
A ray of light is sent along the line 2x ă 3y = 5. After refracting across the line x + y = 1 it
enters the opposite side after turning by 15Ĉ away from the line x + y = 1. Find the equation
of the ling along which the refracted ray travels.
Solution :
Equation of line AB is
L 5
x+ y= 1 ...(1) 3 y=
ă P
Equation of line QP is 2x
A  B
2x ă 3y = 5 ...(2)
QR is the refracted ray. According to question SQR = 15Ĉ  Q

Solving (1) and (2), we get
M
8 3 8 3
x and y    Q ,  DS R C
5 5 5 5

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 73

2 2
Slope of QP =  slope of QS =
3 3
Slope of AB = ă 1
Let PQB = , then AQS = 

2
1
3 5
Now tan  = 2
1    1
3

Let slope of QR = m
 SQR = 15Ĉ

2
m
3 2  3m
 tan 15Ĉ = 2 or 2 3
1 m 3  2m
3

2  3m
or   (2  3)
3  2m

or 2  3m   [6  3 3  (4  2 3)m]

 6  3 3  (4  2 3)m
or 2  3m  
  6  3 3  (4  2 3) m

3 3 4 3 3 8
 m ,
72 3 12 3

2nd Method : Since QR makes an angle of 15Ĉ with QS, therefore slope of QR = tan (  15Ĉ)

tan   tan15
=
1  tan .tan15
where tan  = slope of QS

2
3

 2 3 
83 3 3 3 4
 ,
=
1
2
3
2 3  
2 3 1 7 2 3

Let AQR = 

3 3 4
Now when m 
72 3

STRAIGHT LINE
74 QUIZRR

3 3 4
1
72 3 3 3

tan  = 3 34 11  5 3
1
72 3

 3  3 11  5 3   48  26 3
5
=
11  5 3 11  5 3  46

 tan  < tan or  <  (rejceted)

3 3 8
 Slope of line QR =
12 3

Now equation of refracted ray QR is

3 3 3 8  8
y  x  
5 12 3  5

or  
(5x ă 8) 3 3  8 ă (5y + 3) 1  2 3   = 0

or 15   
3  40 x  5  10 3 y  61  18 3  0

L OCU S & I T S EQU A T I ON

Definition :
When a point moves so as always to satisfy a given condition, or conditions, the path it traces out
is called its Locus under these conditions.
For example, suppose O to be a given point in the plane of the paper and that a point P is to
move on the paper so that its distance from O shall be constant and equal to a. It is clear that
all the positions of the moving point must lie on the circumference of this circle whose centre is
O and whose radius is a. The circumference of this circle is therefore the „Locus‰ of P when it
moves subject to the condition that its distance from O shall be equal to the constant distance .
Again, suppose A and B to be two fixed points and that the point P is to move in the plane of
the paper so that the angle APB is always a right angle. If we describe a circle on AB as diameter
then P may be any point on the circumference of this circle, since the angle in a semi-circle is a
right angle; also it could easily be shown that APB is not a right angle except when P lies on this
circumference. The „Locus‰ of P under the assumed condition is therefore a circle on AB as
diameter.

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 75

Illustration 74
If a point P moves in a plane such that whose distance from two fixed points A and B (say)
are always equal i.e., PA = PB.
P
(The point P cannot be at Q because AQ  BQ)
P Q
Obviously all the positions of the moving point P lies on the right
bisector of AB. Thus the locus of the moving point P is the right P
bisector of AB.
P
Equation of a Locus
A relation f (x, y) = 0 between x and y which is satisfied by each
point on the locus and such that each point satisfying the equation A D B
is on the locus is called the equa tion of the locus.
How to find the Locus of a Point
1. Let (x1, y1) be the co-ordinates of the moving point say P.
2. Now apply the geometrical conditions on x1, y1. This gives a relation between x1 and y1.
3. Now replace x1 by x and y1 by y in the eliminant and resulting equation would be the
equation of the locus.
Note :
1. To find the locus of the point of intersection of two straight lines, eliminate the parameter
or parameters from the given lines. If more than one parameter, then additional condition
or conditions will also be given.
2. Simplify the equation by squaring both sides if square roots are there and taking LCM to
remove the denominators.

Illustration 75
A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances from two fixed points A
(a , 0) and B (ă a , 0) is constant and equal to 2c 2, find the locus of the point.
Solution :
Let P (x1, y1) be the moving point whose locus is required.
By hypothesis
(PA)2 + (PB)2 = 2c2 Y
 (x1 ă a)2 + (y1 ă 0)2 + (x1 + a)2 + (y1 ă 0)2 = 2c2 P(x1 , y1 )
2
 2 x12  2 y12  2 a2 = 2c

2 2
or x12  y12 = c ă a
X´ X
B(ăa, 0) O A(a, 0)
Changing (x1, y1) to (x, y) then
x2 + y2 = c2 ă a2
which is required locus of P.
Y´

STRAIGHT LINE
76 QUIZRR

Illustration 76
The ends of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle are (6, 0) and (0, 6). Find the locus
of the third vertex.
Solution :
Let C (x1, y1) be the moving point (third vertex) whose locus is required and A (6, 0) and B
(0, 6) be the given vertices.
By hypothesis
Y
(AC)2 + (BC)2 = (AB)2 ( ACB = 90Ĉ) C(x1, y1)
2 2 2 2
 (x1 ă 6) + (y1 ă 0) + (x1 ă 0) + (y1 ă 6) B
= 62 + 62 (0,6)

 2 x12  2 y12  12 x1  12 y1 = 0

or x12  y12  6 x1  6 y1 = 0 X´ X
O A(6,0)
Changing (x1, y1) by (x, y) then Y´
2 2
x + y ă 6x ă 6y = 0

Illustration 77
Find the locus of a point whose co-ordinate are given by
x = t + t2, y = 2t + 1, where t is variable.
Solution :
Given x = t + t2 ...(1)
and y = 2t + 1 ...(2)

 y  1
From (2), t=   ...(3)
 2 
On eliminating t from (1) and (3), we get required locus as

2
 y  1  y  1
x=   
 2   2 

 y  1  y  1
 x=   1  2 
 2  

 y  1  y  1 
 x=   
 2  2 
or 4x = y2 ă 1
or y2 = 4x + 1

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 77

Illustration 78
Find the locus of the point of intersection of the lines x cos  + y sin  = a and x sin
 ă y cos  = b where  is variable.
Solution :
Given equations are
x cos  + y sin  = a ...(1)
and x sin  ă y cos  = b ...(2)
Here  is a variable, on eliminating a. Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get required locus
as
(x cos  + y sin )2 + (x sin  ă y cos )2 = a2 + b2
or (x2 cos2  + y2 sin2  + 2xy cos  sin ) + (x2 sin2  + y2 cos2  ă 2xy sin  cos )
= a2 + b2
 x2 (cos2  + sin2 ) + y2 (sin2  + cos2 ) = a2 + b2
 x2 + y2 = a2 + b2

SH I FT I N G OF A X ES
y
Translation of Coordinate Axes
Y
When origin is shifted to a new position A (h, k) without changing
P
the direction of the axes, then coordinates of all points in the
plane are obtained by the formulae : X
A (h, k)
x = X + h y=Y +k
where, P (x, y) referred to ox, oy
and P(X, Y) referred to AX, AY x
O
Note :
1. In this case axes are shifted parallel to themselves then it is also called Transformation
by parallel axes.
2. Inverse translation or shifting the origin back : Some times it is required to shift the
new origin back. Then putting x ă h in place of x and y ă k in place of y in any equation
of curve referred to the new origin to get the corresponding equation referred to the old
origin.
3. The above transformation is true whether the axes be rectangular or oblique.

Illustration 79
The equation of a curve referred to the new axes, axes retaining their direction and origin
is (4, 5) is x 2 + y2 = 36. Find the equation referred to the original axes.
Solution :
Here we want to shift the (4, 5) to the origin without changing the direction of axes. Then we
replace x by x ă 4 and y by y ă 5 in the equation of given curve then the required equation is
(x ă 4)2 + (y ă 5)2 = 36
 x2 + y2 ă 8x ă 10y + 5 = 0
STRAIGHT LINE
78 QUIZRR

Illustration 80
Shift the origin to a suitable point so that the equation y2 + 4y + 8x ă 2 = 0 will not contain
term in y and the constant.
Solution :
Let the origin be shifted to the point (h, k) without changing the direction of axes. Then we
replace x by x + h and y by y + k in the equation of the given curve then the transformed equation
is
(y + k)2 + 4 (y + k) + 8 (x + h) ă 2 = 0
 y2 + (2k + 4)y + 8x + (k2 + 4k + 8h ă 2) = 0
Since this equation is required to be free from the term containing y and the constant, we have
2x + 4 = 0 and k2 + 4k + 8h ă 2 = 0

3
 k= ă 2 and h
4

3 
Hence, the point to which the origin be shifted is  ,  2 
4 

ROT A T I ON OF COORDI N A T E A X ES
y X
When coordinate axes are rotated in anti-clockwise direction
through an angle , about the origin, then coordinates of a
point P in the plane are obtained by the formulae.

x  Y cos   Y sin  X = x cos   y sin  Y

and
y  X sin   Y cos  Y  y cos   x sin 

Where P is (x, y) referred to coordinate system oxy and P is 
(X, Y) referred to new coordinates system oXY. O x
For remembrance C S (Civil Services)
 
 
 i.e., C  cos  
cos  sin  
 S  sin  
 
 (cos ) '   sin  
ă sin  cos   
 (sin )'  cos  

Illustration 81


Prove that if the axes be turned through the equation x 2 ă y2 = a 2 is transformed to the
4
form xy = . Find the value of .

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 79

Solution :

Here  so sin   cos   1


4 2
Replacing (x, y) by (x cos  ă y sin , x sin  + y cos )

 x  y x  y
i.e.,  , 
 2 2 
then x2 ă y2 = a2 becomes
2 2
 x  y  x  y
    = a2
 2   2 

 x  y x  y  x  y x  y 
      = a2
 2 2  2 2 

 2 x   2 y 
    = a2
 2  2 

a2
or xy = 
2

a2
Comparing it with xy =  then we get   
2

Illustration 82
Through what angle should the axes be rotated so that the equation `
2 2
9 x 2  2 3 xy  7 y 2  10 may be changed to 3x + 5y = 5 ?
Solution : Let angle be  then (x, y) by (x cos  ă y sin , x sin  + y cos )
then 9 x2  2 3 xy  7 y2  10 becomes

9 (x cos  ă y sin )2 ă 2 3 ( x cos   y sin ) ( x sin   y cos )  7 ( x sin   y cos )2  10

 x2 (9 cos2  ă 2 3 sin  cos  + 7 sin2 )

+ 2xy (ă 9 sin  cos  ă 3 cos 2 + 7 sin  cos )

+ y2 (9 cos2  + 2 3 sin  cos  + 7 cos2 ) = 10
On comparing with 3x2 + 5y2 = 5 (coefficient of xy)
We get ă 9 sin  cos  ă 3 cos 2 + 7 sin  cos  = 0
or sin 2 = ă 3 cos 2
or tan 2 = ă 3 = tan (180Ĉ ă 60Ĉ)
or 2 = 120Ĉ
 = 60Ĉ

STRAIGHT LINE
 QUIZRR 1

Progression & Series

3 . I N T RODU CT I ON
A sequence is a function whose domain is the set N of natural numbers.
For example 4, 1, 3 is a sequence.
whereas Series is an expression achieved by adding or subtracting the terms in sequence.
i.e. if a1, a2, a3, .... an is a sequence, then the expression a1 + a2 + a3 ... + an is a series.
A series is finite or infinite according as the number of terms in the corresponding sequence is finite
or infinite.
It is not necessary that the terms of a sequence always follow a certain pattern or they are described
by some formula or its rth term.
Progression are sequences whose terms follow certain patterns.
We will discuss some of the common progressions now.

3.1 A r it h m e t ic Pro g r e s s io n
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers where each new term after the first is
formed by adding a fixed amount called the common difference to the previous term in the sequence.
For example the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 ... is an arithmetic progression. Note that having chosen the first
term to be 3, each new term is found by adding 2 to the previous term, so the common difference is 2.
The common difference can be negative : for example the sequence 2, ă 1, ă 4, ă 7, ... is an
arithmetic progression with first term 2 and common difference ă 3. In general we can write an arithmetic
progression as follows :
arithmetic progression : a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ...
where the first term is a and the common difference is d. Some important results concerning
arithmetic progressions (A.P.) now follow :

The nth term of an a.p. is given by : a + (n ă 1)d

and in general
an = am + (n ă m)d.
A finite portion of an arithmetic progression is called a finite arithmetic progression and
sometimes just called an arithmetic progression.

tn ă tnă1 is constant for all n  N. This constant d = tn ă tnă1

n th term from the end

If ÂaÊ is the first term of an AP & ÂdÊ is the common difference, then the mth term from end is
(n ă m + 1)th term from the beginning. (where n is the no. of terms in AP).

PROGRESSION & SERIES

2 QUIZRR

Illustration 1
Show that the sequence defined by a n = 2n 2 + 1 is not an A.P.
Solution :
We have an = 2n2 + 1
replacing n by n + 1
an+1 = 2 (n + 1)2 + 1
According to the definition of AP the difference of two consecutive terms is always a constant.
So, if the sequence has to be in AP then the difference an + 1 ă an should be a constant.
Now, an+1 ă an = [2 (n + 1)2 + 1] ă (2n2 + 1)
= (2 (n2 + 2n + 1) + 1) ă (2n2 + 1)
= 4n + 2
 (an + 1 ă an) is not a constant, not independent of n so the given sequence is not an AP.

Illustration 2
Find the number of terms common to the two APs : 3, 7, 11, ... 407 and 2, 9, 16 ..., 709
Solution :
Let the no. of terms in two APÊs be m and n.
Then nth term of Ist AP = 407  m = 3 + (m ă 1)4
nth term of 2nd AP = 709  n = 2 + (n ă 1)7
 m = 102
& n = 102
So each AP consists of 102 terms.
Let pth term of first AP be identical to qth term of second AP.
Then 3 + (p ă 1) = 2 + (q ă 1)7
 4p ă 1 = 7q ă 5
 4p + 4 = 7a
 4 (p + 1) = 7q

p1 q
  K
7 4
 p = 7K ă 1 & q = 4K
and we know that p has to be less than 102 & q also has to be less than 102
Since the total no. of terms are 102
for p = 7K ă 1  102
we get 7K  103

103 5
K  K  14 ... (i)
7 7

PROGRESSION & SERIES

 QUIZRR 3

from q = 4K  102
 K  25ó ... (ii)
from (i) & (ii) we get
K  14  K = 1, 2, 3, ... 14

3 .1 .3 Su m (t h e a r i t h m e t ic s e r ie s )
The sum of the numbers of a finite arithmetic progression is called an arithmetic series.
Express the arithmetic series in two different ways :
Sn = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + ... + (a1 + (n ă 2)d) + (a1 + (n ă 1)d)
Sn = (an ă (n ă 1)d) + (an ă (n ă 2)d) + ... + (an ă 2d) + (an ă d) + an.
Add both sides of the two equations. All terms involving d cancel, and so weÊre left with :
2Sn = n (a1 + an).
Rearranging and remembering that an = a1 + (n ă 1)d, we get

n  a1  a n  n  2a 1   n  1 d 
Sn  
2 2

Guassian Trick
Let us write the sum of the natural numbers upto n in two ways as :
Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + (n ă 2) + (n ă 1) + n
Sn = n + (n ă 1) + (n ă 2) + ... + 3 + 2 + 1
If we add these two series we get :
2Sn = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + ... + (n + 1)
There are n of these (n + 1)Ês, so
2Sn = n (n + 1)
Sn = n (n + 1)/2
The sum of the natural numbers from 1 to n is therefore half the product of the first term plus the
last one multiplied by the number of terms.

M o re Pro p e r t i e s o f A .P. :
(1) If a fixed number is added (subtracted) to each term of a given AP then resulting sequence
is also AP with same common difference as given AP.
tn = a + (n ă 1)d, now let g be subtracted from each term.
tn = (a ă g) + (n ă 1)d. Therefore only the first term of AP has changed.

PROGRESSION & SERIES

4 QUIZRR

(2) If each term of an AP is multiplied (or divided) by fixed constant then resulting sequence is
also an AP with common difference multiplied (or divided) by same constant.

(3) Sum and difference of corresponding terms of two APÊs will form an AP

Let first AP be

a1, a1 + d 1, a1 + 2d 1, ......., a1 + (n ă 1)d 1

And second AP be

a2, a2 + d 2, a2 + 2d 2, ........., a2 + (n ă 1)d 2

So, Tr = t1r + t2r

= (a1 + (r ă 1)d 1 + (a2 + (r ă 1)d 2)
= (a1 + a2) + (r ă 1)(d 1 + d 2)
So, resulting sequence is A.P. with first term a1 + a2 and common difference d 1 + d 2.

(4) If we want to pick terms of an AP then convenient way of doing that is :

For three termÊs in AP we choose a ă d, a , a + d.
For four terms in AP we choose a ă 3d, a ă d, a + d, a + 3d

Note : Ć for odd no. of terms the middle term is a & common difference is d.
Ć for even no. of terms the middle term is a ă d & a + d whereas common difference is 2d.

5. In a finite AP the sum of terms equidistant from the beginning and end is always same &
equal to sum of first & last term i.e.,
ak + an ă (k ă 1)
= a1 + an
for k  1, 2, ... n ă 1

6. tn = Sn ă Snă1

7. If a, b, c are in AP  2b = a + c or b ă a = c ă b.

8. A sequence is in AP.
Ć iff its nth term is a linear expression in n i.e. an = An + B (where A & B are constant)
& A is the common difference and
Ć iff sum of its n terms is of form An2 + Bn, in such cases common difference is 2A.

PROGRESSION & SERIES

 QUIZRR 5

Illustration 3

1 2
Find the number of terms in the series 20, 10 , 18 ....... of which the sum is 300.
2 2
Solution :
2
Here we observe that a = 20, d   , and Sn = 300.
3

n  2 
So,  2  20   n  1     300
2  3 
n2 ă 61n + 900 = 0
 n = 25 or 36.

Illustration 4
Find the sum of first 24 terms of the AP : a 1, a 2, a 3 ... if it is known that
a 1 + a 5 + a 10 + a 15 + a 20 + a 24 = 225.
Solution :
We know that in AP the sum of terms equidistant from beginning & end is equal & same to the
sum of first & last term. i.e. a1 + an = a2 + ană1 = a3 + ană2 & so on.
So here a1 + a24 = a5 + a20 = a10 + a15 ... (i)
Now a1 + a5 + a10 + a15 + a20 + a24 = 225
(a1 + a24) + (a5 + a20) + (a10 + a15) = 225
 3 (a1 + a24) = 225 {from (i)}
 (a1 + a24) = 75 ... (ii)

24
 S 24   a1  a24 
2
from (ii)
S24 = 12 (75)
= 900

Illustration 5
The interior angles of a polygon are in AP. The smallest angle is 120Ĉ and the common
difference is 5Ĉ. Find the number of sides of polygon.
Solution :
Let the polygon be of ÂnÊ sides
So for a polygon of n sides, the sum of all its interior angles is given by
Sn = (n ă 2) ï 180 (i) (try to solve this on your own).

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Hence the interior angles form an AP with a = 120 & d = 5

n
 Sn   2  120   n  1  5 ... (ii)
2 

equating (i) & (ii)

n
2  120   n  1 5   n  2   180
2 

n (5n + 240 ă 5) = (n ă 2) ï 360

n (5n + 235) = (n ă 2) ï 360
5n2 + 235n = 360n ă 720
 5n2 ă 125n + 720 = 0
 n2 ă 25n + 144 = 0
(n = 16) or n = 9
But the question is not over yet.
We have to check whether the values are correct or not for n = 16.
The last angle is
an = a + (n ă 1)d  a16 = 120 + (16 ă 1)5 = 190
Which is not possible (since we are looking for interior angles only)
 The solution is n = 9

3 .1 .1 A r it h m e t ic M e a n (A M )
When three quantities are in AP, then the middle one is a arithmetic mean of other two.
If a and b are two numbers and A is arithmetic mean of a and b, then a, A, b are in AP.
 Aăa =băA

ab
 A
2

So if a, b, c are 3 numbers in AP then b is the arithmetic mean of a & c.

 băa =c ăb

a c
 b
2

3 .1 .1 .1 I n s e r t i n g n a r i t h m e t ic m e a n s b e t w e e n t w o n u m b e r
A1, A2, A3, ........ An are called n arithmetic means between two numbers a and b,
if the series a, A1, A2, A3, A4, ....., An, b is an AP.
For this AP, first term is a, number of terms is (n + 2), & the lastterm = b = Tn+2.

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Let d be the common difference of this AP, then

 Tn+2 = b = a + {(n + 2) ă 1}d
 b = a + (n + 1)d

ba
 d
n 1

ba ba
 A1 = a + d = a + and A2 = a + 2d = a + 2
n1 n1

ba
In general kth arithmetic mean is Ak = a + kd = a + k
n1

Property of AM

a  b
Ć Sum of all AMÊs inserted between two numbers a & b is n  
 2 

n
 a  b
i.e.  A i  n  2 

i 1

b  a
Proof : We know A i  a  i
n 1

n n n
b  a
So  Ai   a   i n 1
i 1 i 1 i 1

n
b a n
= a  1   i
i 1  n  a  i 1

b  a
= a  n    1  2  3...n
 n  1

 b  a   n  n  1 
= a  n    n  1   2

  

b  an
= an 
2

 b a  n  a  b
= n a 
2 
=
 2

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Illustration 6

13
The sum of 2 numbers is . An even number of arithmetic means are inserted between
6
them and their sum exceeds their number by 1. Find the number of means inserted.
Solution :
Let the 2 numbers be a & b.

13
then, a+ b = ... (i)
6
Suppose A1, A2 .... A2N be 2n arithmetic means inserted between a & b.

 a b
Then A1 + A2 + ... A2n = 2n  
 2 
 n
(  We know that sum of AMÊs is  a  b )
2
putting value from (i)

 13 
 A1 + A2 ... A2n = n   ... (ii)
 6 
Also it is given in the question that

A1 + A2 .... A2n = 2n + 1 ... (iii)

equating (ii) & (iii)

 13 
n    2n  1
 6 
 13n = 12n + 6

 n= 6

 12 means are inserted between a & b.

3.2 Ge o m e t ri c Pro g r e s s io n
A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by
multiplying the previous term by a fixed number called the common ratio. The sequence 1, 3, 9, 27,
.... is a geometric progression with first term 1 and common ratio 3. The common ratio could be a fraction
and it might be negative. In general we can write a geometric progression as follows :
geometric progression : a, ar, ar2, ar3
where the first term is a and the common ratio is r.
Some important results concerning geometric progressions (G.P.) now follows :

The n th term of a g.p. is given by a r nă1.

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n th term from the end

The nth term from the end of a finite G.P. consisting of m terms is a r măn , where a is the first term and
r is the common ratio.
n 1
1
Note : If we are given the last term of G.P, say l, then the n th
term from end is given by l  
r 

Illustration 7

a 2  a b  b2 b  a
If a , b, c are in GP, then prove 
bc  ca  a b cb

Solution :
If a, b, c are in GP, then
b = ar
& c = ar2
Now, putting these values in LHS
L.H.S

a 2  a( ar )   ar 
2

=
 ar   ar 2    ar 2   a   a  ar 

a2  a2 r  a 2 r 2
=
a2 r 3  a 2 r 2  a2 r


a2 1  r  r 2 1
a r r  r  1 r
= 2 2

R.H.S.

ba ar  a a  r  1
= c b  2 
ar  ar ar (r  1)

1
=
r

L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence proved

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Illustration 8
In a finite GP the product of terms equidistant from the beginning and the end is always
same and equal to the product of first and last term.

Solution :
Let a1, a2 ... ană1, an be a finite GP with common ratio r.
kth term from beginning = a1 rkă1
kth term from end = an ă k+ 1

k1
1
= an  
r

multiplying both the terms

k1
ak . anăk + 1 
= a1 an r r
 

k1  1 
 a1 an

Hence proved.
Note : This can be taken as a standard result.

Illustration 9
If a x = b y = c z and x, y, z are in GP prove that logb a = logc b.

Solution :
Given that ax = by = c2
taking log x log a = y log b = 2 log c ... (i)
also x, y, z are in GP
then y = xr & z = xr2 (where ÂrÊ is the common ratio)

from (i) y log b = 2 log c

x log a = y log b  xr log b = xr2 log c

log a log b
 r ... (ii)  r ...(iii)
log b log c

from (ii) & (iii)  logb a = logc b

log a log b  log a 

   log b a 
log b log c  log b 

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Su m (Ge o m e t ri c Se r ie s )
The sum of first n terms of a GP :

a r n 1
   if r  1
Sn   r  1

 na if r  1

Case 1 : Suppose r =1

Sn = a + a + a + ...... + a = na

Case 2 : If r  1

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ........... arnă2 + arnă1 + arn ... (i)

rSn = ar + ar2 + ......... + arnă2 + arnă1 + arn ... (ii)

So, now (1) ă (2) gives

Sn ă rSn = arn

Sn (1 ă r) = a(1 ă rn)

 Sn 

a rn 1 
 r  1

Special case when n   (i.e. infinite number of terms)

  a
If |r|< 1 and n   then  nlim Sn  
   1  r

Sn 

a 1  rn 
1r

a ar n
Now lim Sn  lim  lim
n  n 1 r n 1 r

a
=  0  as lim r n  0  = a
1 r  n  1r

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3 .2 .2 Pro p e r t i e s o f G.P. :
(1) If each term of a G.P. is multiplied (or divided) by some non-zero quantity the resulting
progression is G.P. with some common ratio.
Suppose the G.P. is with tn = arnă1
Now this GP is multiplied by some k ( 0)
So G.P. will be
tn = (ak)rnă1
So, only the first term of G.P. has changed and the common ratio remains unaffected.

(2) If a1, a2, .... and b1, b2, ..... be two G.PÊs of common ratio r1 and r2 respectively, then a1b1, a2b2,

a1 a2 r1
... and . ..... will also form G.P. common ratio will be r1r2 and respectively.
b1 b2 r2

Let the series a1, a2 ........... have the nth term as a1r1nă1 and the series b1, b2 ........ have nth
term as b1r2nă1
So the series a1b1, a2b2 ........ will have nth term as
(a1r1nă1)(b1r2nă1)
= (a1b1)(r1r2)nă1
So the common ratio now becomes r1r2.

a
(3) If we have to take three terms in G.P. we take them as , a, ar with common ratio r and four
r

a a
terms as , , ar, ar 3 with common ratio r2.
r3 r

(4) If a, b, c are in G.P then b2 = ac

(5) If a1, a2, a3 ........ an is a G.P. then log a1, log a2 ...... log an is an AP (provided that all terms
are non-zero & non-negative).
Why ?
Now a1, a2, a3 ...... an form a G.P.
So a1 = a1riă1 (Let)
 log ai = log a1 + (i ă 1) logr
This is clearly term of an AP
(1) How does log a1 + (i ă 1) log r represents an AP?
Ans. Let log a1 = A
And log r = D

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So, log a1 + (i ă 1) log r = A + (i ă 1) D

So, A + (i ă 1) D is term of an AP with first term as A and common difference as D.

6. In a finite GP the product of the terms equidistant from the beginning and the end is always
same and is equal to product of first & last terms.
i.e. a k a năk+1 = a1 an for k = 1, 2, 3 ... n ă 1

7. The reciprocals of the terms of a given GP, form a GP with common ratio 1/r.
1 1 1
i.e. if a1, a2, a3 ... an are in GP with common ratio r then , , ... are in GP with
a1 a2 an
1
common ratio .
r

Illustration 1 0
Find the sum of the following series :
5 + 55 + 555 + .... n terms
Solution :
These kind of questions can be solved with a little trick after which we get the result through GP.
We have 5 + 55 + 555 + ....... n terms
= 5 [1 + 11 + 111 + .......] n terms

5
= 9  99  999  ... n terms
9

5
= 10  1  100  1  1000  1 ....
9
5
= [(10 + 100 + 1000 ... n terms) ă n ï 1]
9    
This is in GP now n times
with a = 10 &
r = 10
 sum of series

 
n
5  10 10  1
 n


= 9  10  1  
 

=
5
9 

 10 n
 
 9 10  1  n 


5  n1
= 10  9n  10 
81  

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Illustration 1 1

If Sn is the sum of first n terms of a G.P. : (a n ) and Sn is the sum of another G.P. : (1/a n ), then
show that : Sn = S´n a 1 a n .

Solution :

Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + ......... + an

1 1 1
S´n = a  a  ........  a
1 2 n

For the first GP an = a1 rnă1

Sn =

a1 1  r n 
1r

where r is the common ratio.

 1  1
For the second GP   , common ratio =
a
 n r

 1 
S´n =
1  1 n
r  
rn  1  

rn 1
a1  1 a1  r  1 r n1 an  r  1 
1  
 r

 S´n =
1 a1 r n  1  
a1 an r 1

1
 S´n = Sn
a1 an

1
 S´n = a a S n
1 n

 Sn = S´n a1an

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Illustration 1 2
If S1, S2 ....... Sn are the sums of infinite geometric series whose first terms are 1, 2, 3,... n and
1 1 1 1 1
common ratios are 2 , 3 , 4 ... n  1 resp., then prove S1 + S2 + ... Sn = n  n  3 .
2

Solution :

 a 
We know the formula for an infinite series S     where a is the first term &
1  r 
r is common ratio.

Here let Sk = Sum of infinite series with first term

1
a = k and CR =
k 1

k k

 Sk = 1 
1  k  1  1
k 1 k 1

 Sk = k + 1

 Putting k = 1, 2, ...... n

 S  S1 + S2 + S3 ....... Sn
= (1 + 1) + (2 + 1) + (3 + 1) ... (n + 1)

= (1 + 2 + 3 ...... n) + n ï 1

n  n  1 {1 + 2 + 3 ...... n is in AP with

= n
2 diff. = 1}

n n  3
=
2

n  n  1
You can also learn this, sum of first n natural nos. =
2

We will cover this later though

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3 .2 .1 Ge o m e t ri c M e a n s (G.M .)
If G1, G2, G3, G4 ........ Gn are GMÊs between a and b then a, G1, G2, ........ Gn, b are in G.P.

Now b is tn+2 so b = arn+1

1
 b  n1
Or r =  
a

1
 b  n1
and Thus G1 = a 
a

Pro p e r t y o f GM

(1) The product of n G.M’s between a and b is equal to nth power of one G.M. between a and b.

 
n
i.e. G1, G2, ....... Gn = ab

i
 b  n 1
Gi  a  
a

n i
  b  n1
 G1, G2, ...... Gn = a n i 1  
a

i
 b  n 1
= an  
a

n n 1 
b  2( n1)
n
= a  
a

n
 
n
=  ab 2  ab

(2) If a1, a2, .......... an are n non-zero numbers then their G.M is given by

1
G   a1 , a2 ...... an  n

Note : You can check the analogy of formulas between Arithmetic Progression & Geometric progression.

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Illustration 1 3
If we insert odd number (2n + 1) G.M.Ês between 4 and 2916 then find the value of (n + 1)th
G.M.?
Solution :
Now 4, G1, G2, G3 .......... Gn+1, ....... G2n, G2n+1, 2916 are in G.P. So Gn+1 will be the
middle mean of (2n + 1) odd means and so it will equidistant from 1st and last term.
So, 4, Gn+1, 2916 are also in GP.
And thus,

1
Gn+1 =  4.2916  2

1
=  4  9  324  2
1
=  4  9  4  81 2

= (2 ï 3 ï 2 ï 9)
= 108

A r it h m e t ic M e a n s a n d Ge o m e t ri c M e a n s (i n g e n e r a l )
The arithmetic mean, or less precisely the average, of a list of n numbers x1, x2, ..., xn is the sum
of the numbers divided by n :
x1  x2  .....  xn
n
The geometric mean is similar, except that it is only defined for a list of nonnegative real numbers,
and uses multiplication and a root in place of addition and division.
n x1 . x2 ... xn

If x1, x2, ... xn > 0, this is equal to the exponential of the arithmetic mean of the natural logarithms
of the numbers :
 1n x1  1n x2  ...  1n xn 
exp  
 n 

3 .3 .1 T h e A N -GM I n e q u a l i t y
Restating the inequality using mathematical notation, we have that for any list of n nonnegative
real numbers x1, x2, .... xn,

x1  x 2  ....  x n n
 x1 . x 2 ... x n (known as AM-GM inequality)
n
 AM  GM
and that equality holds if and only if x1 = x2 = ... xn.

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3 .3 .2 Ge n r a l i za t i o n s
There is a similar inequality for the weighted arithmetic mean and weighted geometric mean.
Specially, let the nonnegative numbers x1, x2, ......, xn and the nonnegative weights a1, a2, ....., an be
given. Set  = 1 + 2 + ..... + n. If  > 0, then the inequality

1 x1  2 x2  ...  an xn  1 2
 x1 x2 ... xnan


holds with equality if and only if all the xk with ak > 0 are equal. Here the convention 0Ĉ = 1 is used.
If all ak = 1, this reduces to the above AM-GM inequality.

Example application

Illustration 1 4

Consider the following function :

x y z
f  x , y, z     3
y z x

for x, y and z all positive real numbers. Suppose we wish to find the minimum value of
this function. Rewriting a bit, and applying the AM-GM inequality, we have :

x 1 y 1 y 1 z 13 z 1 z
   3   3
y 2 z 2 z 3 x 3 x 3 x
f  x, y, z  6.
6

x 1 y 1 y 1 z 13 z 1 z
6 6 . . . 3 . . 3
y 2 z 2 z 3 x 3 x 3 x

1 x yz
= 6. 6
2.2.3.3.3 y z x

= 22/3 . 31/2
Further, we know that the two sides are equal exactly when all the terms of the mean are equal :

x 1 y 13 z
f  x, y, z   22 / 3 . 31 / 2 when  
y 2 z 3 x

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Illustration 1 5
If A and G are arithmetic mean (AM) and geometric mean (GM) between two numbers a and
b find the roots of the equation : x 2 ă 2Ax + G2
Solution :
Let  and  be the roots of the equation, then
 +  = 2A &  = G2
Also, A is the AM between a & b and G is GM between a & b
ab
 A & G  ab
2
  +  = a + b and  = ab
 The roots are a & b.

Illustration 1 6
If a , b, c are in A.P., x is the GM of a , b and y is GM of b, c , show that b 2 is the AM of x 2
and y2.
Solution :
a, b, c are in AP  2b = a + c (i)
x is G.M. of a, b  x ab (ii)
y is G.M. of b, c  y  bc (iii)
Squaring (ii) & (iii) and adding, we get
 x2 + y2 = ab + bc = b(a + c)
From (i) a + c = 2b
 x + y2 = 2b2
2

x2  y2
 b2 
2
Hence b2 is arithmetic mean (AM) of x2 and y2.

Illustration 1 7
If 0 < r < 1 and m is a positive integer, show that (2m + 1)r 2m (1 ă r) < 1 ă r 2m +1

Solution :
Using AM > GM, we have
1
1  r  r 2  ....  r 2m
2m  1

 1.r.r 2 ..... r 2m  2m 1

1
1  r 2m 1
or
1  r  2m  1 
 1.r.r 2  2 m1

2m(2m1)
1  r 2m1
or r 2m 1
or 1  r 2m1  1  r   2m  1 r 2 m
1  r   2m  1 
PROGRESSION & SERIES
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3 .4 H a r m o n i c Pro g r e s s io n (H .P.) :

1 1 1 1
The sequence a1, a2, ...... an is said to be a H.P. if , , ....... is an A.P.
a1 a2 a3 an

1 1 1 1
The nth term of a H.P. (tn) is given by tn  a  (n  1) d where a  a and d  a  a
1 2 1

3 .4 .1 H a r m o n i c M e a n s (H .M .) :
If H1, H2, H3 ........ Hn be n H.M.Ês between a and b then a, H1, H2, H3 ........ Hn, b is a H.P.

1 1 1 1 1
This means , , ...... , is a A.P.
a H H2 Hn b

1 1 i  a  b
And hence  
H i a  n  1 ab
Note : If a1, a2, a3 ......... an are n non-zero numbers then H.M. of these number is given by

n
H
1 1 1
  ......... 
a1 a2 an

1 1 1
a, b, c are in H.P. so, , , are in AP
a b c

2 1 1 2ac
And    b
b a c ac

Illustration 1 8
If the (m + 1)th, (n + 1)th and (r + 1)th term of an A.P. are in G.P. m, n, r are in H.P., Show that
ratio of the common difference to the first term in the AP is (ă 2/n).
Solution :
Let ÂaÊ be the first term and ÂdÊ be common difference of the AP. Let x, y, z be the (m + 1)th, (n + 1)th
and (r + 1)th term of the A.P. then x = a + md, y = a + nd, z = a + rd. Since x, y, z are in G.P.
 y2 = xz i.e. (a + nd)2 = (a + rd) (a + md)

d r  m  2n
 
a n2  rm

Now, m, n, r in H.P.

2 1 1
  
n m r

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2 mr
 
n mr

r  m 
2  n
d
  
2
Hence a  rm 
nn  
 n 

 mr 
2  n
 n  2
 rm  = 
n n  n
 n 

Illustration 1 9
If a , b, c are respectively p th, q th, and r th terms of H.P., prove that
(q ă r) + ca (r ă p) + a b (p ă q) = 0
Solution :
A and D be the first term and common difference of the AP formed by the reciprocals of the given
H.P.

1
 A   p  1 D (i)
a

1
 A   q  1 D (ii)
b

1
 A   r  1 D (iii)
c

cb
Subtracting (iii) from (ii) we get  q  r D
bc
 b  c
 bc (q ă r) = 
D

L.H.S. =  bc  q  r 
bc 1
=    b  c
D D

1
= b  c  c  a  a  b  0 = R.H.S.
D
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Illustration 20
1 1 1 1
If     0 , prove that a , b, c are in H.P., unless b = a + c
a c a b cb
Solution :
1 1 1 1
   0
a c ab cb

ac a  c  2b
  0
ac ac  b(a  c)  b2

Let a + c = t

t t  2b
  0
ac ac  bt  b2

 act ă bt2 + b2t + act ă 2abc = 0

 bt2 ă b2t ă 2act + 2bac = 0
 bt (t ă b) ă 2ac (t ă b) = 0
 (t ă b) (bt ă 2ac) = 0
 t =b or bt = 2ac
 a+ c =b or b (a + c) 2ac

2ac
 a+ c =b or b
ac

 a, b, c are in H.P. or a + c = b

3 .4 .2 So m e I m p o r t a n t T h e o r e m s :
Let A, G,H be the AM, GM, HM respectively between two positive unequal quantities.
First of all let us prove A>G
x y
A and G = xy
2
x y
So to prove  xy
2

 
2
Now x y  0 ( x, y are positive)

 x+ yă2 xy  0

x y
  xy
2
Hence A >G ........ (i)

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Now let us prove G>H

2 xy
Again H
x y

 
2
Also x y 0

 x + y > 2 xy

2 xy
 1
x y
 G >H .......... (2)
Combining (1) and (2) we get A >G>H
Now we can prove :
G2 = AH
Let x, y be two numbers.

x y 2 xy
So, A ,G xy, H 
2 x y

 x  y   2 xy 
Hence AH    
 2  x y 
= xy
= G2

Illustration 21
If a , b, c , d be four distinct positive quantities in H.P. then show that a + d > b + c .
Solution :
a, b, c, d are in H.P.
Then AM > H.M.
For first three terms

ac
 b
2
 a + c > 2b ...... (1)
And for last three terms

bd
c
2
 b + d > 2c ........ (2)
From (1) and (2)
a + c + b + d > 2b + 2c
 a+ d >b+ c

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Illustration 22
a b
a b 
Prove that    a b b a , a b N & a  b.
 2 
Solution
By just seeing the question we get the feel that it is kind of AM > GM
So, we get the idea from R.H.S.
a repeated b times
& b repeated a times
Now applying AM > GM

a  a  .... b times    b  b  ....... a times  1

  a.a.a...  b..b..b.  a b
a b
 since no. of terms
are a  b 
1

ab  ab
ab
 a b ba   a b

1

2ab
ab
 a b ba   ab ... (i)

Now, we know that AM > HM

a  b 2ab
i.e.  ... (ii)
2 a b
So from (i) & (ii)
1
ab
2
 a b ba   ab

a b
 a  b
  2   ab ba
 

A r it h m e t ic m e a n o f m t h p o w e r
Let a1, a2 ...... an be n positive real numbers and let m be a real number, then

m
a1m  a2m  ..... anm  a1  a2  .... an 
  if m R ă [0, 1]
n  n 

m
a1m  a2m  ..... anm  a1  a2  .... an 
for m (0, 1), then  
n  n 

m
a1m  a2m  ..... anm  a1  a2  .... an 
and for m = 0 & 1  
n  n 

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Illustration 23

Prove that a 4 + b 4 + c 4  a bc (a + b + c ) [a 1b 1 c > 0]

Solution :
Using mth power inequality

4
a4  b4  c4  a  b  c 
  ... (i)
3  3 

4
 a  b c 
Now we have   in RHS
 3 

using AM > GM

a  b c
  abc 
1/3

3

3
 a b  c 
    abc
 3 

 a b  c
4
 a  b  c
but we require   , so multiplying both sides by
 3  3

 a  b  c  abc  a  b  c 
4
   ... (ii)
 3  3

From (i) & (ii) we get

a4  b4  c4 abc  a  b  c 

3 3

 a4 + b4 + c4  abc (a + b + c)
Hence proved.

Su m m a t i o n o f Se r ie s
To find the summation of a series we follow 2 basic steps.
Step 1 : Find the nth term (Tn)
Step 2 : Find the sum using formula (for summation, using TN)
To find the nth term of a series we try to find out the differences between successive terms. If the
difference is constant then they are in A.P and sum can be calculated by using a formula.

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But many times you will find different differences between successive terms.
For ex. 1 3 6 10 (difference is increasing)
2 3 4
In such cases,
we find second order difference (i.e. we again find difference of differences obtain)
1 3 6 10
2 3 4
1 1

This process of finding the nth order difference continues unless we get a constant difference.

1 3 6 10 We Call this second order difference

2 3 4

Also, we can divide t hem int o levels.

1. S = 1, 3, 5, 7 ... Level 0 (t ypical AP wit h const ant differ ence)

2. S´ = 1, 3, 6, 10 Level 1 (differ ence ar e in AP)

2 3 4

3. S= 1 2 5 11 21 Level 2 (differ ence of differ ences ar e in AP)

1 3 6 10
2 3 4

So now we can gener alize and find t he r esult s.

Type of ser ies Gener al t er m
Level 0 a + br
Level 1 ar2 + br + c
Level 2 ar3 + br2 + cr + d
& this can go on.

for ex. S = 1, 3, 6, 10
We know this is level 1.
& for level 1, Tr = ar2 + br + c
 T1 = a + b + c = 1 ............. (a)
T2 = 4a + 2b + c = 3 .................. (b)
T3 = 9a + 3b + c = 6 ................. (c)

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Using the following [(b) ă (a) & (c) ă (b), we get 3a + b = 2 & 5a + b = 3
Subtracting we get a = ó
Similarly we can find b & c now which comes out to b = ó, c = 0

r2 r r
 Tr =    r  1
2 2 2

We can easily find the sum of this series now using formula for  n2 & n .
Lets take another example, this time of level 2.
We have S = 1, 2, 5, 11, 21
We know it is level 2, so
Tr = ar3 + br2 + cr + d
 T1 = 1 = a + b + c + d
T2 = 2 = 8a + 4b + 2c + d
T3 = 5 = 27a + 9b + 3c + d
T4 = 11 = 64a + 16b + 4c + d
1 ă1
solving eqn. we get a = /6, b = 0, c = /6, d = 1

r3 r
 Tr =  1
6 6
This is how we solve these kind of questions, now we will move to questions where differences are
in G.P.

3 .5 .2 Di f f e r e n c e i n G.P
These are kind of questions in which differences successive terms is in GP instead of AP.
There are 2 methods to solve these kind of problems.
Method 1 : It is the method of finding Tr term with the help of levels (formulas)

Level 0 2 4 8 16
(Simple GP) 2 2 2
(multiplied by 2)
Here the series is clearly in GP,

Level 1 1 3 7 15 31
difference 2 4 8 16
again in simple GP
with factor 2.

Level 2 1 2 5 12
1 3 7
2 4
(now in simple GP
with factor 2)
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So,
Type of series General Term
Simple GP abr
(Level 1)
difference in GP a + bcr
(Level 2)
difference of difference
in GP a + br + cd r

Method 2 :
This method involves the rearrangement of the given series in such a way that we get a simple
GP series in between the given series.
Let us take an example to clear the concept.
We have, Sn = 1 + 3 + 7 + 15 + .... + Tn
now shift the values of Sn & subtract it from SN only.
Sn = 1 + 3 + 7 + 15 + ..... Tn
Sn = 1 + 3 + 7 + ..... Tnă1 + Tn
0 =1+2+4+ 8 ..... (nă1) terms ă Tn
        

now this is a general

GP with r = 2

 Tn = 1   2  4  8  .....  n  1 terms 
  
this becomes a simple GP for n terms.

 Tn 

1 2n  1 2 n
1
21

or Tr = 2r ă 1

n n n n
  Tr   2 r

1   2r  1
r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1

n
2 1  2 
 Sn  n  2n1  2  n
12

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3 .6 A r it h m e t ic Ge o m e t ri c Se r ie s
Consider the series :
Sn = 1 + 2r + 3r2 + 4r3 + ...... + nr(nă1)
This series is neither arithmetic (the differences between the terms isnÊt constant) nor geometric
(the ratio of successive terms isnÊt constant), yet it seems to be something of both.
It looks like something that is familiar yet alien.
If we know :

1  2   n1   ...
 1  r   1  2r  3r 2  4 r 3  ....  nr
1  r 2

then we know the sum to infinity of the series is (1 ă r)ă2, if |r| < 1 so the series converges.
However, this doesnÊt tell us the sum to n terms.
Consider
Sn = 1 + 2r + 3r2 + 4r3 + ..... + nr(nă1) (i)
And using our trick from the geometric series, multiply this by r :
r Sn = r + 2 r2 + 3 r3 + 4 r4 + ...... + n rn (ii)
Subtract Equations (i) & (ii) :
Sn (1 ă r) = 1 + r + r2 + ..... + rnă1 ă nrn
Nothing we know the formula for the geometric series, and using it :

Sn 1  r  
1  r   n r
n
n
1  r 
Bringing it all together under one denominator :

Sn 1  r  
1  r n
 n rn  n r
 n1

1  r 
Rounding up like terms, gives us the formula :

Sn
 1  nr n1 
  n  1 r n 
1  r  2

Therefore :

2
1  2 r  3 r ... n r
 n1   1   n  1  r n
 nr
 n1

1  r  2

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If we multiply throughout by a constant, a we get :

a + 2 a r + 3 a r2 .... n a r (nă1)
=
1   n  1 r n
 nr 
n1

1  r 2
The sum to infinity of this series, when n tends to infinity (and |r| < 1, is :

1
 1  2 r  3 r 2  4 r 3  ....  n r
 n1   ...
1  r  2

3 .6 .1 Ge n e r a l A r it h m e t ic Ge o m e t ri c Se r ie s
In this series, which is neither geometric nor arithmetic, has the form :
r(n ă 1)
a + (a + d) r + (a + 2d)r2 + (a + 3d) r3 + ..... + (a + (n ă 1)d)
The simple arithmetic-geometric series is a special case of this, where a = 1
If we expand this series, we get :
(a + ar + ...... + ar(nă1) + (d r (1 + 2 r + 3r2 ...... + (n ă 1) r(nă2))
Naturally, we note the first bit is a normal geometric series, and the second bit is our simple
arithmetic geometric series.
That is :
a + (a + d) r + (a + 2 d) r2 + (a + 3 d) r3 + .... + (a + (n ă 1) d r(n ă 1) d r(n ă 1)

a
1  r   rd 1  n r 
n n1
  n 1 r n )
=
1  r  1  r 2

Su m o f i n f i n i t e a r i t h m e t ic – Ge o m e t ri c s e q u e n c e
for |r|<| & n   , rn approaches O
putting these values in general term obtained above.

a dr
S 
1  r (1  r )2

3 .8 So m e Sp e c i a l Se r ie s

n  n  1
(1)  n  1  2  3  .....  n  2
(i.e. sum of first n natural numbers)

This is an AP with a = 1 and d = 1

n
So,  n  2  2.1   n  1 1
n  n  1
n  2

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n  n  1  2 n  1
(2)  n 2  12  22  32  ....  n 2 
6
Proof :
 (x + 1)3 ă x3 = 3x2 + 3x + 1
Putting x = 1, 2, 3, 4, ... n then
23 ă 13 = 3.12 + 3.1 + 1
33 ă 23 = 3.22 + 3.2 + 1
43 ă 33 = 3.32 + 3.3 + 1
53 ă 43 = 3.42 + 3.4 + 1
(n + 1)3 ă n3 = 3.n2 + 3n + 1
Adding all we get,
(n + 1)3 ă 13 = 3(12 + 22 + ..... + n2) + 3(1 + 2 + ....... + n) + (1 + 1 .... n times)
 n3 + 3n2 = 3n = 3 n2 = 3 n + n
n  n  1
 3 n2  n3  3n2  3n  3 n
2

n  n  1  2n  1
  n2  6

 n  n  1 
2

(3)  n  1  2  3 ....  n  
3 3 3 3 3

 2 
Proof :
 (x + 1)4 ă x4 = 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 1
Putting x = 1, 2, 3, 4 ....... n then,
24 ă 14 = 4.13 +6.12 + 4.1 + 1
34 ă 24 = 4.23 + 6.22 + 4.2 + 1
44 ă 34 = 4.33 + 6.32 + 4.3 + 1
(n + 1)4 ă n4 = 4.n3 + 6.n2 + 4.n + 1
Adding all we get,
(n + 1)4 ă 14 = 4(13 + 23 + ..... + n3) + 6 (12 + 22 + ....... + n2) + 4 (1 + 2 + .... + n) +
(1 + 1 + ....... + n times)

 n4  4 n3  6 n2  4 n  4  n3  6 n2  4  n  n
6.n  n  1  2n  1  4.n  n  1
 4  n3   n
6 2

 4  n3  n4  4n3  6 n2  4 n  n(n  1)  2n  1  2n  n  1  n

= n2 (n + 1)2
2
 n  n  1 
  n3   2 
 

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3 .9 Gra p h o f A r it h m e t ic , Ge o m e t ri c a n d A r it h m e t ic -Ge o m e t ri c Pro g r e s s io n

4 Arithmetic-Geometric Progression

3 Geometric Progression

Arithmetic Progression
1

-0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0

Su m m a t i o n o f Se r ie s (M e t h o d -2 )
The following method works in the case when the nth term of a series can be expressed as the
difference of two quantities.
i.e Tr = f(r) ă f (r ă 1)
or Tr = f (r) ă f (r + 1)
Steps to be followed in such a case
Ć find the general term (Tr)
Ć Express the general term as the difference of two consecutive terms
Ć In summation part (from 0/1 to n) (n) goes to the greater term & (1) goes to termwise smaller term
Let us solve some questions to understand the rule.

Illustration 26

1 1 1
Find Sn , where S n    ...( n terms)
1.2 2.3 3.4
Solution :
Step 1 : find general term
1
Tr 
r  r  1
Step 2 : expressing Tr as difference of 2 terms here methods of partial fraction can be used
1 1
Tr  
r r 1

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 QUIZRR 33

n n
1 1 
Step 3 : S n   Tr    r  r  1 
r 1 r 1  

now the rule says that place n in greater term (termwise not by value) which is r + 1 here.

n n
1 1  1 
  Tr   r
  1 
r 1 

n  1
r 1 r 1

n

n 1

n
 Sn 
n1

Illustration 27

1 1
Find Sn where Sn =  ...( n terms)
1.2.3 2.3.4
Solution : finding general term first

1
Tr 
r  r  1  r  2 

this can be rewritten as

1   r  2  r 
Tr   
2  r  r  1  r  2  

1  1 1 
=   
2  r  r  1  r  1  r  2  

Note here that though in numerator we could have many options like [(r + 1) ă r] etc. but we use
the above one (i.e. ((r + 2) ă r)) because after that we get terms which contains consecutive
termwise terms (like r (r + 1) & (r + 1) (r + 2). The rule is valid for consecutive terms only.

1 1
here r  1 r  2 is obtained by replacing r by r + 1 in r r  1 , which is what we require for
    
rule to be valid.

n n
1 1 1 
Now, S n   Tr   2  r  r  1   r  1 r  2 
r 1 r 1  

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34 QUIZRR

Now applying step 3

1 n 1 1
Sn   
2 r 1 r  r  1   r  1   r  2 

1 1 1 
 Sn    
2  2  n  1 n  2  

Illustration 1 9

1 1
Find Sn , where   ...(n terms)
1.3.5 3.5.7

1
Solution : Tr  2r  1 2r  1 2r  3
   
again we will try to divide the term in 2 parts
1   2r  3   2r  1 
Tr   
4   2r  1  2r  1  2r  3  

1  1 1 
Tr    
4   2r  1  2r  1  2r  1   2r  3  

Now, we know that the second term can be achieved by replacing r by r + 1 in first term.

n n  
1 1 1
 Sn   Tr  4    2r  1 2r  1   2r  1  2r  3 
r 1 r 1  

according to step 3

1 1 1 
Sn    
4  3  2n  3   2n  3  

Illustration 29

1 1 1
Find Sn , where   ...(n terms)
1.3 2.4 3.5

1
Solution : Tr 
r  r  2

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1  r  2  r
=
2 r  r  2

1 1 1 
=    .... (i)
2  r r  2

now still we donÊt have termwise consecutive terms, so we will try to achieve that adding &

1
subtracting in (i)
r 1

1  1 1   1 1 
Tr      
2  r r  1   r  1 r  2  

now the 2 block above are termwise consecutive respectively.

n n
1  1 1   1 1 
Sn   Tr   2  r  r  1    r  1  r  2 
r 1 r 1    

1  n 1 1  n
 1 1 
=      r  1  r  2 
2  r 1  r r  1  r 1   

1  1  1 1 
= 2  1  n  1    2  n  2  
   

(applying step 3)

Illustration 30
Find Sn, where Sn = 1.3.5 + 3.5.7 + 5.7.9 + ... (n terms)
Solution : Here, Tr = (2r ă 1) (2r + 1) (2r + 3)
Now here too we have to divide Tr into 2 terms.
Trick : Let a be the term before (2r ă 1) i.e. (2r ă 3) & b be the term after (2r + 3) i.e. (2r + 5)
multiply and divide by (b ă a)

1
 Tr   2r  5    2r  3    2r  1   2r  1  2r  3 
8

1  2r  5   2r  1  2r  1  2r  3   2r  3   2r  1  2r  2  2r  3  
= 8   
  1st
block   2nd block
  
Here the 2nd block can be achieved by replacing r by (r ă 1) in the first block
 Ist block is termwise greater than 2nd block

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36 QUIZRR

 We can now apply step 3

n
Sn   Tr
r1

n
1
=  8  2r  5   2r  3  2r  1  2r  1   2r  3  2r  1  2r  1  2r  3
r 1

1
=  2n  5   2n  3   2n  1  2n  1   5   3  1   1 
8

1
=   2n  5   2n  3   2n  1  2n  1   15 
8

Illustration 31

1 1 1
Find Sn , where Sn =   ...(n terms)
1.3 1.3.5 1.3.5.7

r
Solution : firstly, Tr  1.3.5...  2r  1 

now we will try to break Tr into 2 termwise consecutive terms

1 2r 
Tr =  
2  1.3.5...  2r  1  

1  (2r  1)  1 
=  
2  1.3.5...  2r  1  

1 1 1 
=   
2  1.3.5...  2r  1 1.3.5...  2r  1 
(... Previous term of (2r + 1) is (2r ă 1)
Now we have termwise consecutive terms
Applying step 3

n n
1  1 1 
Sn   Tr   2  1.3.5...  2r  1  1.3.5... 2r  1 
r 1 r 1  

( The second term is termwise greater)

1  1 
 Sn  1  
2  1.3.5...  2n  1  

PROGRESSION & SERIES

 QUIZRR 1

BINOMIAL THEOREM

2 .1 B I N OM I A L EX PRESSION :
An algebraic expression consisting of two terms with a positive or negative sign between them is
called a binomial expression.
Example : (a + b), (P / x2) ă (Q / x4) etc.

2 .1 .1 B i n o m i a l T h e o r e m :
When a binomial expression is raised to a power ÂnÊ we would like to be able to expand it. The
binomial theorem assists us in doing this. It converts such an expression into a series.
Binomial Theorem for positive integral index :
(x + y)n = xn + nC1xnă1y+nC2xnă2y2 + ......... nCr xnăryr + ......... + ......... + nCnă1xynă1 + ncnyn.

2 .1 .2 Pro o f o f B i n o m i a l T h e o r e m :
The Binomial theorem can be proved by mathematical induction
Let P(n) stands for the mathematical statement
(x + a)n = xn + nC1 xnă1 a + nC2 xnă2 a2 + ... nCr xnăr ar + ... + ar ..... (i)
Note that there are (n + 1) terms in R.H.S. and all the terms are of the same degree in x and a
together
 P (1) is verified to be true
Assume P (m) to be true
i.e., (x + a)m = xm + m
C1 xmă1 a + m
C2 xmă2 a2 + ... m
Cr xmăr ar + ... + am ...... (ii)
Multiplying equation (ii) by (x + a), we have
(x + a)m (x + a) = (x + a) {xm + mC1 xmă1 a + m
C2 xmă2 a2 + ... + m
Cr xmăr ar + ... + am}
i.e. (x + a)m+1= xm+1 + (mC1 + 1) xma + (mC2 + mC1) xmă1 a2 + ... + (mCr + mCră1) xmăr+1 ar + ... am+1
= xm+1 + (m+1)
C1 xm a + (m+1)
C2 xmă1 a2 + ...
m+1
Cr xm+1ăr ar + am+1 ........... (iii)
(using the formula nCr + nCră1 = (n+1)
Cr)
Equation (iii) implies that P (m + 1) is true and hence by induction P (n) is true.

2 .2 .3 Pa r t i c u l a r – Ca s e s :
(i) Replacing ÂyÊ by Âă yÊ, we have :
(x ă y)n = n
C 0 xy0 ă n C 1 xnă1 y+ n C 2 xnă2 y2 ....... + (ă 1) rn
Crxnăryr + .......... (ă 1)n nCnx0yn.
It can be represented as :

n
 x  yn     1r n Cr xn r yr
r 0

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 2 QUIZRR

(ii) Replacing ÂxÊ by Â1Ê and ÂyÊ by ÂxÊ, we have :

(1 + x)n = nC0x0 + nC1x + nC2x2 + .......... + nCrxr + ............. + nCnă1xnă1 + nCnxn.

n
or 1  xn   n Cr xr
r 0

(ii) Replacing ÂxÊ by ÂăxÊ, we have :

(1 ă x)n = nC0x0 ă nC1x1 + nC2x2 ă .............. + (ă 1)r nCrxr + .......... nCnă1(ă 1) nă1
+ (ă 1)n nCnxn

n
or (1 ă x)n =  (1)r n
Cr xr
r 0

2 .2 PROPERT I ES OF B I N OM I A L – EX PA N SI ON (x + y ) n :
(i) There are (n + 1) terms in the expansion.
(ii) In each term, sum of the indices of ÂxÊ and ÂyÊ is equal to ÂnÊ.
(iii) In any term, the lower suffix of ÂCÊ is equal to the index of ÂyÊ, and the index of x = n ă (lower
suffix of C).
(iv) Because nCr = nCnăr,
so we have :
n
C0 = nCn
n
C1 = nCnă1
n
C2 = nCnă2 etc.
It follows that the coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and the ends are equal.

Ex a m p le s 1

x    x  
6 6
(1) Simplify x2  1 x2  1

Solution : Let x 2
1  = a, so we have :

(x + a)6 + (x ă a)6
= [x6 + 6C1x5.a + 6C2.x4.a2 + 6C3x3a3 + 6C4x2a4 + 6C5x2a4 + 6C5xa5 + 6C6a6]
= [x6 ă 6C1x5a + 6C2.x4.a2 ă 6C3x3a3 + 6C4x2a4 ă 6C5xa5 + 6C5xa5 + 6C6a6]
= 2 [x6 + 6C2x4a2 + 6C4x2a4 + 6Ca6]
= 2 [x6 + 15x4 (x2 ă 1) + 15x2 (x2 ă 1) + (x2 ă 1)3]
= 2 [x6 + 15x6 ă 15x4 (x2 ă 1) + 15x2 (x2 ă 1) + (x2 ă 1)3]
= 2 [x6 + 15x6 ă 15x4 + 15x6 + 15x2 ă 30x4 + x6 ă 1 ă 3x4 + 3x3]
= 2 [32x6 ă 48x4 + 18x2 ă 1]

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 3

Ex a m p l e 2
In this expansion of (x + a )n , if the sum of odd-terms be ÂPÊ and sum of even be ÂQÊ Prove
that :
(i) P2 ă Q2 = (x 2 ă a 2)n
(ii) 4PQ = (x + a )2n ă (x ă a )2n
Solution :
(x + a)n = xn + nC1xnă1 a + nC2xnă2a2 + nC3nă3a3 + .......... + nCnan
= (xn + nC2xnă2a2 + .........) + (nC1xnă1a+nC3xnă3a3 + ..........)
(x + a)n = P + Q ...................... (1)
and (x ă a)n = xn ă nC1xnă1 a + nC2xnă2a2 ă nC3xnă3a3 + ....... + (ă 1)n nCnan
= (xn + nC2xnă2a2 + .........) ă (nC1xnă1 a + nC3xnă3a3 + .........)
(x ă a)n = P ă Q ................. (2)
Now we have :
(1) P2ăQ2 = (P + Q) (P ă Q)
= (x + a)n (x ă a)n
= P2 ă Q2 = (x2 ă a2)n
(2) 4PQ = (P + Q)2 ă (P ă Q)2
= (x + a)2n ă (x ă a)2n

Ex a m p l e 3
Prove that (101)50 > (100)50 + (99)50
Solution :
(101) 50 = (100 + 1)50
= (100)50 + 50
C1(100)49 + 50
C2(100)48 + ............ + 1 ................. (i)
(99) 50 = (100 ă 1)50
= (100)50 ă 50
c1(100)49 + 50
c2(100)48 ă ............. + 1 ....................(ii)
eq. (i) ă eq. (ii) :
(101)50 ă (99)50 = 2[50C1(100)49 + 50
C3(100)47 + ............]
= 2 ï (50!/ 1! ï 49!) (100)49 + 2. 50
C3(100)47 + ..............
= 100 ï (100)49 + (A positive number)
= (100)50 + (A positive number)
(101)50 ă (99)50 > (100)50
or (101)50 > (101)50 + (99)50

2 .2 .1 Ge n e r a l t e r m s :
(r + 1)th term from beginning in (x + y)n is called general ă term, and it is denoted by

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 4 QUIZRR
Tr+1 = nCr xnăryr
Explanation : We know
(x ï y)n = nC0xny0 + nC1 xnă1y1 + nC2xnă2y2 + ......... nCnx0y0
Here :
First term T1 = nC0xny0
T2 = nC1xnă1y1
T3 = nC2xnă2y2
.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
Tr = nCră1 xnă(ră1)yră1
Putting r = r + 1 in this expression, we get;
General term : Tr+1 = nCrxnăryr
Note : ÂTrÊ can be used as general terms also.

PROB L EM S B A SED ON GEN ERA L T ERM S

Ex a m p l e 4
Type : 1

 
13
Find the 7th term in expansion of  4 x  1 / 2 x 
 
Solution : We know the general term is Tr +1
& we want to find the 7th term.  r + 1 = 7  r = 6

 
6
T7 = T6+1 = 13
C6(4x)13 ă 6
ă 1/2 x

= 13 6 3
C6.47x7. 1 / 2 .x  
13 8 4
= C6.2 .x
= 13!/ (6! ï 7!) . 28 . x4
= T7 = 439296x4

Ex a m p l e 5
Type II. Find the coefficient of Xă 7 in the expansion of (a x ă 1/bx 2)11
Solution
r
11 11 ă r  1
General term, Tr = Cr(ax) ă  2
+ 1  bx 
 a11 r  x11r
Tr = (ă 1)r 11
Cr  r  2 r
+ 1
 b  x
 a11r  113 r
 Tr+1 = 11
Cr  r  x ................ (i)
 b 
Since we want to find the coefficient of xă7
Putting 11 ă 3r = ă 7
 r= 6
BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE
 QUIZRR 5

From (i) to T7 = (ă 1)6 11

C6. (a5 / b6) xă7 .................. (i)
Hence, the coefficient of xă7 is 11
C6a5bă6.

Ex a m p l e 6
Type III : Find the term independent of ÂxÊ in [(3 x 2/2) ă (1/3x)]9
Solution : General term, Tr+1 = 9Cr (3 x2/2)9 ă r ă (1/3x)r
= (ă 1)r 9Cr (3/2) 9ăr
x18ă2r (1/3r.xr)
Tr + 1
= (ă 1)r9 Cr (39ă2r / 29ăr) . x18ă3r .................. (i)
Putting 18 ă 3r = 0
 r= 6
So, from (i), 7th term is independent of ÂxÊ and its value is :
T7 = (ă 1)6 . 9C6 . (3ă3 /23) x0
= 9! /(6! ï 3!) . 1 / (33 ï 23)
= T7 = (7/18)
pth term form end :
ÂpÊth term from end in the expansion of (x + y)n is (n ă p + 2)th term from beginning.

Ex a m p l e 7

Find the 4th term from the end in the expansion of [(x 3/2) ă (2/x 2)]7
Solution :
4th term from end = (7 ă 4 + 2)th or 5th term from beginning.
T5 = T4+1 = 7C4 (x3/2)7ă4 . (ă 2/x4)4
= 7C4 (x3/2)3 (ă 2/x2)4
= 7! / (4! ï 3!) . (x9/8). (16/x8)
= (7.6.5 / 3.2.1) . 2x
T5 = 70x
Hence Â4Ê term, from the end = 70x.

2 .2 .2 M i d d l e t e r m s :
It depends upon the value of ÂnÊ
Case 1 : When ÂnÊ is even, then total number of terms in (x + y)n is odd. so there is only one middle
term i.e. [(n/2) + 1]th them in the middle term.
So we find (Tn+1/2). th term is this case, if ÂnÊ is even.
Case II : When ÂnÊ is odd, then the total number of terms in (x + y)n is even. So there are two middle
 n  3  th
terms i.e. (n + 1) 1/2 th and   are true middle terms.
 2 
So we find T(n+1)/2 th and T(n+3)/2 th in this case if ÂnÊ is odd.

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 6 QUIZRR

Ex a m p l e 8

Find the middle term in the expansion of [3x ă (x 3 / 6)]9

Solution :
Here total no. of terms are 10 (even). So there re true middle terms.
i.e. (9 + 1) /2 th and (9 + 3) /2 th. So we have to find out ÂT5Ê and ÂT6Ê.
T5 = T4+1 = 9C4(3x)9ă4 (ă x3 / 6)4
= 9! / (4! ï 5!) . 35 x5 (x12 / 64)
= (9.8.7.6 / 4.3.2.1.) 35 (24 ï 34) x17
T5 = (189 / 8) x17
T6 = T5+1 = 9C5(3x)9ă5 (ăx3 /6)5
= 9! / (5! ï 4!) . 34 x4 (x15 / 65)
= ă (9.8.7.6 / 4.3.2.1) 34(25 ï 35) x19
T6 = ă (21 / 16)x19

2 .2 .3 Gre a t e s t t e rm i n (1 + x ) n
If ÂTr Ê and ÂTr+1Ê be the ÂrÊ th and (r + 1) the terms in the expansion of (1 + x)n , then :
Tr+1 = nCr(1)năr xr = nCrxr
And Tr = nCră1 . xră1
So Tr+1 / Tr = (nCr xr / nCră1 xră1) = (n ă r + 1)/r |x|
If ÂTr+1 be the greatest term, then Tr+1 / Tr
Or Tr+1/Tr = 1
Since (n ă r + 1) / r . |x| > 1, where ÂrÊ is a Â+Ê ve integer.
This inequality, changes either to the form r < m + f pr r < m, where ÂmÊ is a Â+Ê ve integer and
ÂfÊ is a fraction. So we get :
r < m + f ....................... (i)
or r < m .......................... (ii)
In case (i), ÂTÊ m+1
is the greatest term, and in case (i) ÂTÊ m
and ÂTÊ m+1
are the greatest terms, and
both re equal.
Short-cut : First calculate m = |x (n + 1) / (x + 1)|
Case (1) if ÂmÊ is an integer, then ÂTÊ m
and ÂTÊ m+1
are the greatest terms and both are equal.
Case (2) if ÂmÊ is not an integer, then T[m]+1 will be the greatest term, where [.] denotes greatest
integer function.

Ex a m p l e 9
Find numerically the greatest term in the expansion of (2 + 3x), when x = (3/2)
Solution : I. Method
(2 + 3x)9 = 29 [1 + 3x / 2]9

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 7

In the expansion of [(1 + 3x) / 2]9, we have :

Tr+1/Tr = [(9 ă r + 1)/r] |3x / 2
= ((10 ă r)/r) |(3/2) x(3/2)|3
= (10 ă r) / r x 9/4
Tr+1/Tr = (90 ă 9r) / 4r
Putting Tr+1/Tr > 1
 (90 ă 9r) / 4r > 1
or 90  13 r
or r  90 / 13
or r  6 + 12 / 13
 T6+1 or ÂT7Ê is the greatest term.
ÂT7Ê in [1 + (3x/2)]9
T7 = T6+1 = 9C6 (3x/6)6
= 9! / (3! ï 6!) . [(3/2) × (3/2)]6
= (9.8.7 / 3.2.1) × (96 / 46)
= (3 × 7 × 96) / 45 = (3 × 7 × 312) / 210
= 7 . (313 / 210)
So greatest term in (2 + 3x)9 is :
= 29 . 7 . (313 / 210)
= (7 × 313)/2
II. Method :
(2 + 3x)9 = 29 [(1 + 3x) / 2]9
= 29 [1 + 9 / 4]9
since x = 3 /2
Here m = |x (n + 1) / (x + 1)| = (9/4 (9 + 1) / 9/4 + 1|
= 90/13
So greatest term in the expansion is T[m]+1 = T3+1 = T7
Now the method is same as in method (1)
Greatest Coefficient : In any binomial expansion middle-term has the greatest Coefficient. So
(i) If ÂnÊ is even, then greatest coefficient = nCn/2
(ii) If ÂnÊ is odd, then greatest coefficients are nC(n+1)/2 and nC (nă1)/2

FORM S OF B I N OM I A L T H EOREM
(1) (1 + x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2x2 + C3x3 + ....... Cnxn

n
=  n Cr xr
r 0

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

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(2) (x + 1)n = C0xn + C1xn–1 + C2xnă2 + Cnxnăn

n
=  n Cr xnr
r 0

(3) (1 ă x)n = C0 ă C1x + C2x2 ă C3x3 + C4x4 ........ + (ă 1)n cnxn

1  x n  1  x n
(4)  C0  C2 x2  C4 x4  ....... 
2

1  x n  1  x n
(5)  C1 x  C3 x3  C5 x5
2

1  xi n  1  xi n
(6)  C0  C2 x2  C4 x4  C6 x6  ......
2

1  xi n  1  xi n
(7)  C1  C3 x3  C5 x5  C7 x7
2i

(8) n (1 + x)nă1 = C1 + 2C2x + 3C3 x2 + ...........

2 .3 .1 Fo r m u l a e –I Su m o f f i rs t n t e rm s

n n n
(a) (i)  Cr  2n (ii)  rCr  n2 n1
(iii)  r 2 Cr  n(n  1)2n 2
r 0 r 1 r 1

n n n
(b) (i)  C  0r Cr  0 (ii)  (1)r Cr  0 (iii)  (1)r r 2 Cr  0
r 0 r 0 r 0

( B a s e d o f f o r m u l a s e t -I ) [ R e m e m b e r t h e s e f o r m u l a e c a r e f u l l y ]

Ex a m p l e 1 0
Find Sn
Sn = 1C1 + 3C2 + 5C3 + ... (n terms)
Solution : Tr = [1 + (r ă 1)2] Cr = (2r ă 1) Cr
n n
 Tr   (2r  1) Cr
r 1 r 1

n n
= 2  rCr   Cr
r 1 r 1
nă1
= 2n2 ă 2n + 1
= n2n ă 2n + 1 = 2n (n ă 1) + 1

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 9

Proofs of formule (1)

(1)  r  1n1 Cr 1   n  1 nCr
n
 n
Cr  2 n n  1!
Proof :  r  1 Cr 1   r  1 
n 1
r 0
r  1! n  r !
Proof (1 + x)n = nC0 + nC1 x + nC2 x2 + ....... + nCn xn
put x = 1  n  1  n!
=  r  1 
2n = nC0 + nC1 ă 1 ........ nCn  r  1 r ! n  r !
n
n!
n
2 =  n Cr =  n  1
r 0 r! n  r!

n  r  1  n 1 C r 1   n  1  n C r
(2) r n
Cr  n2 n 1

r 0  We always try to produce this form so that

we could convert (r + 1) into (n + 1).
Proof L.H.S. = r nCr
Cr 1
 
n 1
= n
n 1
Cr 1  C r 1
(2) r  1  n  1

n n
 r n Cr n n 1
C r 1 Cr
r 0 r 0
Proof : RHS

= r 1

= n . 2n ă 1
n!
n 
= r! n  r! r  1

Ex. : Find the value of  n2
Cr  2
r 0
 n  1  n!
=
n  n  1 r  1! n  r !
Ans.  n 2
Cr  2  n 2
C2  n 2
C3 ...... n 2Cr 2
r 0
n  1!
Always try to expand the series.     
= r1  1 r  1 ! n  r !

Now in this case we will have to add and

1 n 1
subtract n 2
C0 & n 2
C1 Cr 1

= n1

=  n 2
C0  n 2
C1  ..... n 2
Cn  2   n2
C0  n 2
C1 So whenever you get r term in denominator
always try to convert it in given form.
n2

=  n 2
Cr  1   n  2  In the same fashion we can write
r 0

Cr 1 n 2
= 2n + 2 ă 1 ă (n + 2)  Cr  2
 r  1 r  1  n  1 n  1
Two very important formulas which, we will be
using in questions frequently

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 10 QUIZRR

Ex a m p l e 1 1
Find Sn ?
Sn = 12C0 + 12C1 + 72C2 + 102C3 + .... (n + 1) terms
Solution : (1 + (r ă 1)3)2 Cr + 1
= (3r + 1)2 Cr

n n
Sn =  Tr 1   (3r  1)2 Cr
r 0 r 0

n n n
= 9  r Cr   Cr  6  r Cr
2

r 0 r 0 r 0

= 9 n (n + 1) 2n ă 2 + 2n + 6n ă 1

Ex a m p l e 1 2

Find Sn ?
Sn = 22C2 + 52C3 + 82C4 + ...... (n ă 1) terms)
Solution : [2 + (r ă 1)3]2 Cr + 1
 Tr ă 1
= (2 + (r ă 2) 3)2 Cr
Tr ă 1
= (3r ă 4)2 Cr

n n
Sn =  (3r  4)2 Cr   (3r  4)2 Cr  C1
r2 r =1

n n n
= 9  r Cr  16  Cr  24  r Cr  C1
2

r 1 r 1 r 1

n ă 2
= 9 n (n + 1)2 + 16 (2n ă 1) ă 24 (n)2n ă 1

2 .3 .2 Fo r m u l a e -I I

n n
(i)  C2r  2n
Cn (ii)  r Cr2  n2n1 Cn1
r 0 r 1

n
(iii)  r 2C2r  n2 2n-2
Cn1 (iv)   C0Cr  C1 Cr 1  C2Cr 2 
r 1

2n
...  Cn r Cn  Cn  5

Remember these formulaes.

You can directly use these formulaes in question.

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 11

Qu e s t io n s B a s e d o n Fo r m u l a e Se t -I I

Ex a m p l e 1 3
Find Sn ?
Sn = C1Cr + 2C2 Cr + 1
+ 3C3 Cr+ 2
+ 4 C4 Cr + 3
+ ...
Solution :
n(1 + x)n ă 1
= C1 + 2C2 x + 3C3x2 + 4C4x3 + ....
(n + 1)n = C0xn + C1xn + C2 xn ă 1
+ ... Crxnăr + Cr + 1
x n ă r ă 1

n (1 + x)2n ă 1
Coeffi. of xn ă r

n (2n ă 1
Cn ă r
)

Ex a m p l e 1 4
Find Sn ?
1C12 + 3C22 + 5C32 + .... (n terms)
Solution :

Tr = [1 + (r ă 1)2] ï C2r  (2r  1) C2r

n n n
S =  Tr   (2r  1) C2r  2 rCr2   C2r
r 1 r 1 r 1

2nă1 2n
= 2n Cnă1 ă Cn+1

Ex a m p l e 1 5
Find Sn ?
12 C02 + 42 C12 + 72 C22 + .... (n + 1) terms
Solution :
2
Tr = [1 + (r ă 1)3]2 Cr1

Tr+1 = (3r + 1)2 C2r

n
Sn =  (9r 2  1  6r)C2r
r 0

n n n
= 9  r 2 C2   C2r  6  rCr
r
r 0 r 0 r 0

= 9n2 2nă2
Cnă1 + 2n
Cn + 6n 2n ă 1
Cn ă 1

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 12 QUIZRR

Ex a m p l e 1 6

Find Sn ?
22 C22 + 52C32 + 82C42 + ... (n + 1) terms
Solution :

Tr = [2 + (r ă 1)3]2 C2r1

Tr ă 1
= (2 + 3r ă 6)2 C2r = (3r ă 4)2 C2r

n
  3r  4 
2
Sn  C2r
r=2

n
Sn =  (3r  4)2 C2r  n2
r 1

n n n
= 9  r 2Cr2  16  Cr2  24  r Cr2  n2
r 1 r 1 r 1

Ex a m p l e 1 7
Find Sn ?

C0 C1 C2 C
   ...  n
1 2 3 n
Solution :
(Here in this series there are total (n + 1) forms).
In Tr + 1
th term if we vary value of r from 0 to n we will get summation of all terms.
Cr 1 Cr
Tr =  Tr 1 
r r 1

n n
Cr 1
Sn =  
r 1 n1
 n1 Cr1
r 0 r 0

 2n1  1 
=  n  1 
 

Ex a m p l e 1 8
Find Sn ?
C0 C C
 1  2
1.2 2.3 3.4
Solution :
Cr 1 Cr
Tr = r  r  1  Tr  1  (r  1)  r  2 

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 13

n n
C 1
Sn =  (r  1) (rr  2)  (n  1)(n  2)  n2 Cr2 
r 0 r 0 
 (here we apply the formula (2)


2n  2  1   n  2  
=
(n  1)  n  2 

Ex a m p l e 1 9
Find Sn ?

C0 C1 C2
Sn     ....
2 3 4

Solution :

Cr 1 Cr
Tr = r  1  Tr  1  (r  2)

here we multiplied (r + 1) both in denominator and nominator to convert it into formula 2.

n
1 n2

 n  1 n  2  
=  r  2  1 Cr  2
r 0

1 n n 
 
n 2 n 2
= ( r  2) C  Cr  2 
 n  1 n  2   r 0 r 2
r 0 

=
 n  1
1
 n  2
 
  n  2  2 n 1   n  2   2 n  2  1   n  2  
 

n 2n1  1
=
 n  1 n  2 

2 .4 I MP. RESU L T S
(1) The sum of binomial coefficient in (1 + x)n is 2n.
Proof (1 + x)n = C0 + C1x + C2x2 + ....... + Cnxn ................. (i)
Putting x = 1
2n = C0 + C1 + C2 + ............... + Cn .................................... (ii)

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

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Ex a m p l e 2 0
Prove that the sum of the coefficients in the expression (1 + x ă 3x 2)2163 is Âă 1Ê.
Solution :
Putting x = 1 in (1 + x ă 3x2)2163
Sum of the coefficients
= (1 + 1 ă 3)2163
= (ă 1)2163 = ă 1
(2) The sum of the coefficients of the odd-terms in (1 + x)n is equal to the sum of coefficients of the
even terms and each is equal to 2n ă 1.
Proof : Putting x = ă 1, in eg. (1) :
O = C0 ă C1 + C2 ă C3 + ......... + (ă 1)nCn
and from (ii) : 2n = C0 + C1 + C2 + .............. + Cn
Adding these egn :
2n = 2 (C0 + C2 + C4 + ...............)
or C0 + C2 + C4 + ....................... = 2nă1 ................... (ii)
Subtracting these egn :
2n = 2 (C1 + C3 + C5 + ............. )
or C1 + C3 + C5 + ................. = 2n ă 1
........................ (iv)
From (iii) and (iv) :
C0 + C2 + C4 + ............... = C1 + C3 + C5 + .............. = 2n ă 1

2 .5 SOM E T I PS ON T H E SOL U T I ON OF T H E B I N OM I A L COEFFICI EN T S :

(a) If the difference of the lower suffixes of binomial cofficient in each term is same.
For eg : C1C3 + C2C4 + C3C5 + ..... etc.
Then
Case-1 : If each term is positive, then
(1 + x)n = C0 + C1x + C2x2 + .............. Cnxn ................. (i)
Interchanging Â1Ê and ÂxÊ :
(x + 1)n = C0xn + C1xn ă 1
+ C2 xn ă 2
+ ............... Cn ....... (ii)
Then multiplying (i) and (ii), and equate the coefficient to suitable power of ÂxÊ on both sides.
Case-II : If terms are alternately positive and negative
Then :
(1 ă x)n = C0 ă C1 x + C2 x2 .............. + (ă 1)n Cn xn ................ (1)
and (x + 1)n = C0 xn + C1 xn ă 1
+ C2 xn ă 2
+ .............. + Cn ...............(2)
The multiplying (1) and (2), and equate the coefficient of suitable power of ÂxÊ on both sides.
Note : [(Odd ă number) / 2] = 8

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 15

(2) If the sum of the lower suffixes of binomial ă coefficients in each term is same.
For Ex :
C0 Cn + C1 Cn ă 1
+ C2 Cn ă 2 + ............. + Cn C0
Then :
Case-I : If each term is positive, then
(1 + x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2 x2 ă ................ + Cnxn ............... (1)
and (1 + x)n = C0 xn + C1 x + C2 x2 + ............. + Cn xn ...............(2)
Then multiplying (i) and (ii), and equate the coefficient of suitable power of ÂxÊ on both sides.
Case-II : If terms are alternately positive and negative,
The (1 + x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2 x2 ă ........... + Cn xn ................ (1)
and (1 ă x)n = C0 ă C1 x + C2 x2 + ........... + (ă 1)n Cn xn ................ (2)
Then multiplying (i) and (ii), and equating the coefficient of suitable power of ÂxÊ on both sides.

Ex a m p l e 2 1
Show that the middle term in the expansion of (1 + x)2n is 1.3.5 ...... (2n ă 1) / (n!) . 2n x n , ÂnÊ
being a positive integer.
Solution :
The no. of terms in (1 + x)2n
= 2n + 1 (odd).
ItÊs middle term = (2n + 1) / 2
= (n + 1)th term.
 Tn + 1
= 2nCn xn
= 2n! / (n! x n!). xn
= 2n (2n ă 1) ......... 4.3.2.1 / (n! x n!). xn
= [{(2n ă 1) (2n ă 3) .......... 3.1.} {2n (2n ă 2) ....... 4.2}] / (n! x n!). xn
= [{1.3.5 .......... (2n ă 1)} 2n {1.2 ........ n}] / (n! x n!) . xn
= [{1.3.5 ........... (2n ă 1)} . 2n] / (n! x n!) . xn
= Tn + 1 = 1.3.5 ă (2n ă 1) / (n!). 2n xn

Ex a m p l e 2 2
Find the term independent of ÂxÊ in the expansion of
(i) (1 + x + 2x3) [(3 x 2 / 2) ă (1/3x)]9
(ii) [(x 1/3 ï 2) + x ă1/5]8
Solution :
(i) (1 + x + 2x3) {[(3/2)x2 ă (1/3x)]9
= (1 + x + 2x3) {[(3/2)x2]9 ă 9C1 [(3/2)x2]8 1/3x + .......... + 9C6 [(3/2)x2]3 (1/3x)6 ă 9C7 [(3/2)x2]
2
(1/3x)7 ..........}
= (1 + x + 2x3) {(3/2)x2]9 ă 9C1 (37/28)x15 + ........... + 9C6 (1 × 1/23 × 33) ă

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 16 QUIZRR
9
C7 1/(22 x 35) 1/x3 + ......... }
Term independent of ÂxÊ :
9
C6 × 1/(23 × 33) ă 9C7 2/ (22 × 35)
= 9! / (6! × 3!) . 1/ (8 × 27) ă 9!(7! × 2!) . 1/(2 × 243)
= (9.8.7.6!) / (6!.3.2.1) × 1/(8.27) ă (9.8.7!) / (7! . 2). 1/(2.243)
= 7/18 ă 2/27 = 17/54

(ii) [(1/2) x1/3 + x ă1/5]8

Solution :
General term Tr + 1
= nCr [(1/2) x1/3]năr . (xă1/5)r
n r
1 n  r 
n
Cr   .  3 x  r /5 
=  2  x 

Here n = 8
= 8Cr (1/2)8ăr x (8ăr)/3 ăr/5

40ă8r

Tr+1 = 8Cr(1/2)8ăr x 15 ................. (i)

Putting (40 ă 8r)/15 = 0, we have r = 5
 From (i), Term independent of ÂxÊ :
T6 = 8C5 (1/2)8ă5
= 8! (5! ï 3!). 1/23
= (8.7.6. !5) / (5!. 3.2.1) . 1/8
= T6 = 7

Ex a m p l e 2 3

Find the coefficient of ÂxÊ in the expansion of (1 ă 2x 3 + x 5) [1 + (1/x)]8

Solution :
(1 ă 2x3 + 3x5) [1 + (1/x)]8
= (1 ă 2x3 + 3x5) [1 + 8C1 (1/x) + 8C2 (1/x2) + 8C3 (1/x3) + 8C4 (1/x4) + 8C5 (1/x5) + .....+ 8C8 (1/x8)
coefficient of x = ă 2. 8C2 + 3 8C4
= ă 2. 8! /(2! × 6!) + 3. 8! / (4! × 4!)
= ă 2. (8.7)/2 + 3 (8.7.6.5) / (4.3.2.1)
= ă 56 + 210
= 154

Ex a m p l e 2 4
Prove that the ratio of the coefficient of x 10 in (1 ă x 2)10 and the term independent of ÂxÊ in
[x ă (2/x)]10 is 1 : 32.

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 17

Solution :
In (1 ă x2)10 : Tr+1 = Cr (ă 1)r (x2)r
10

Putting r = 5
10
T6 = ă C5 x10
 Coefficient of x10 = ă 10
C5
In [x ă (2/x)] 10
: Tr + 1
= 10Cr (ă 1)r (x)10ăr (2/x)r
= (ă 1)r 10
Cr.2r.x 10ă2r

Putting 10 ă 2r = 0
 r= 5
So term independent of x : T6 = (ă 1)5 10
C5.25
10 10
Hence their ratio = (ă C5) : (ă 32. C5)
= 1 : 32

Ex a m p l e 2 5
logx 5
If third term in the expansion of (x + x ) is 10,00,000. Find the value of ÂxÊ.
Solution :
Putting log10 = z in the given expression
We have : (x + xz)5
T3 = T2+1 = 5C2(x)5ă2 (xz)2
= 5C2 x3 . x2z
= [5! (2! × 3!)] x2z + 3

= (5 x 4) / 2! x2z+3
= T3 = 10x2z+3
If (log x) = It means we are taking base 10
If (
 10,00,000 = 10.x2z+3
Or x2z+3 = 105
 (10z)2z+3 = 105
or 102z2+3z = 105
 2z2 + 3z = 5
[Log10x = z]
or (z ă 1) (2z + 5) = 0
 z = 1, ă 5/2
or log10x = 1 or log10x = ă 5/2
since x = 10 or 10ă5/2

Ex a m p l e 2 6
If in the expansion of (1 + x)m (1 ă x)n , the coefficients of ÂxÊ and Âx 2Ê are Â3Ê and Âă 6Ê res. Find
the value of ÂmÊ.

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 18 QUIZRR

Solution :
(1 + x)m (1 ă x)n = [mC0 + m
C1x + m
C2x2 + ........... m
Cmxm]
[nC0 ă nC1x + nC2x2 + .......... + (ă 1)n nCnxn]
Coefficient of x = mC1x nC0 ă m
C0. nC1
= [m! / (1! × m ă 1!)] × 1 ă 1 × [n! / (1! × n ă 1!)]
= m ă n = 3 ................ (i)
Coefficient of x2
= ă mC1 × nC1 + nC0 × m
C2 + mC0 × nC2
= ă m!/ (1! × m ă 1!) × n! / (1! × n ă 1!) + 1 × m! / (2! × m ă 2!)
+ 1 × n! / (2! × n ă 2!)
= ă mn + m (m ă 1) / 2 + n(n ă 1)/2 = ă 6
or ă 2mn + m(m ă 1) + n(n ă 1) = ă 12
or ă 2mn + m2 ă m + n2 ă n2 ă n = 12
or (m ă n)2 ă (m + n) = ă 12
From (i), putting the value of (m ă n) :
ă 9 + (m + n) = 12
or m + n = 21 ............ (ii)
egn (i) + egn (ii) = 2m = 24
m = 12

Ex a m p l e 2 7
If the coefficients of (2r + 1)th term is (r + 2)th in the expansion of (1 + x)43 are equal, find
ÂrÊ.
Solution :
In (1 + x)43  T2r + 1
= 43
C2r. x2r
43
Coefficient = C2r
And Tr+2 = 43
Cr+1 xr+1
43
Coefficient = Cr+1
According to the questions :
43 43
C2r = Cr+1
2r + r + 1 = 43
or 3r = 42
r = 14

Ex a m p l e 2 8
If the coefficients of Â4Êth and Â13Ê th terms in the expansion of [x 2 + (1/x)]n be equal, then
find the term which independent of ÂxÊ.
Solution :
T4 = T3+1 = nC3 (x2)nă3. 1/x3

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 19

Coefficient = nC3
T13 = T12+1 = nC12 (x2)nă12 1/x12
Coefficient = nC12
According to the question :
n
C 3 = nC12
 n = 12 + 3
n = 15
 Expansion = [x2 + (1/x)]15
Now Tr+1 = 15Cr. (x2)15ăr. 1/xr
15
Tr+1 = Cr. x30ă3r ................. (i)
Putting
30 ă 3r = 0
 r = 10
15
From (i) T11 = C10 = 15!/(10! × 5!) = (15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11)/ (5 × 4 × 3 × 2 ×)
= 3003.

Ex a m p l e 2 9
In the expansion of (a ă b)n , n  5, if the sum of the 5th and 6th terms is zero. Find (a / b)
in terms of ÂnÊ.
Solution :
T5 = T4+1 = nC4(a)nă4 (ă b)4
T5 = nC4 ană4 b4
T6 = T5+1 = nC5(a)nă5 (ă b)5 = ă nC5 ană5 b5
T5 + T6 = 0
 nC4 ană4 b4 ă nC5 ană5 b5 = 0
or nC4 ană4 b4 = nC5ană5 b5

or   n! / 4!   n  4  ! a n 4

or =  n ! / 5!   n  5   a n5 b

or a n4 /  n  4   n  5    a n5 b / 5  n  5 

or a(n ă 4) / ă ană5 = b (n ă 4)/5
or a[n ă 4) ă (n ă 5)] = b (n ă 4)/5
or a = [(n ă 4)/5].b
or a/b = (n ă 4)/5

Ex a m p l e 3 0
Find the coefficient of x r in the expansion of [x + (1/x)]n , if it occurs.
Solution :
General term : Tp+1 = nCp (x)năp (1/x)p
Tp+1 = nCp xnă2p .............. (i)

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 20 QUIZRR
Putting n ă 2p = r
 p = (n ă r)/2
From (i) T (năr)/2 + 1
= nC(năr)/2 xr
Coefficient of x = nC
r
(năr)/2

Ex a m p l e 3 1
Prove that the coefficient of the term independent of ÂyÊ in the expansion of
[(y + 1)/(y2/3 ă y1/3 + 1) ă (y ă 1) / (y ă y1/2)]10 is 210.
Solution :
We have (y + 1) / (y2/3 ă y1/3 + 1)
Putting y = t3, we have
= (t3 + 13) / (t2 ă t + 1) = (t + 1) (t2 ă t + 1) / (t2 ă t + 1)
= t+ 1
(y + 1) / (y2/3 ă y1/3 + 1) = y1/3 + 1
and putting y = a2 in (y ă 1) / (y ă y1/2) :
= (a2 ă 1) / (a2 ă a) = (a + 1) (a ă 1) / [a (a ă 1)]
= (a + 1) / a = 1 + 1 / a
 (y ă 1) / (y ă y1/2) = 1 + 1 / 4
2/3 1/3
 [(y + 1) / (y ă y + 1) ă (y ă 1) / (y ă y1/2)]10
= (y1/3 ă yă 1/2 10
)
1/3 ă1/2 10
In (y ă y ) ,
Tr+1 = Cr (y1/3)10ăr (ă yă1/2)r
10

 10  r r 
=   1 Cr  y 
r 10
 
 3 2
r10 (20 ă 5r) / 6
Tr+1 = (ă 1) Cr . y
Putting (20 ă 5r) / 6 = 0
or r = 4
Putting this value in (1) T5 = (ă 1)4 10
C4
= 10! / (6! × 4!) = (10 × 9 × 8 × 7) / (4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
T5 = 210

Ex a m p l e 3 2
x 4r occurs in the expansion of [x + (1/x 2)]4n , prove that its coefficients is :
 4 
= 4n ! /  4  n  r  / 3)!   2 n  r  ! 
 3 
Solution :
p
2 4n 4n 4năp  1 
In [x + (1/x )] , Tp+1 = Cp (x)  2
x 
4n
Tp+1 = Cp x4nă 3p
............... (i)
Putting : 4n ă 3p = 4r

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 21

or 4 (n ă r) / 3 = p
4n
From (i) Tp + 1
= C4(n ă r)
x4r
4r 4n
Cofficient of x = C4(năr)/3

 4  n  r   4 
= 4 n ! /   !   2n  r  !
 3  3 

Ex a m p l e 3 3
Find the coefficient of x50 in (1 + x)41 (1 ă x + x 2)40
Solution :
(1 + x)41 (1 ă x + x2)40 = (1 + x) (1 + x)40 (1 ă x + x2)40
= (1 + x) [(1 + x) (1 ă x + x2)]40
= (1 + x) (1 + x3)40
General Term = Tr+1 = (1 + x) [40Cr (x3)r]
40
= Cr (1 + x) x3r
40
= Cr (x3r + x3r + 1
)
Here either 3r = 50 or 3r + 1 = 50
 r = (50 / 3) or (49 / 3)
The value of ÂrÊ is a fraction, so it doesnÊt contain the term x50. So coefficient of x50 is Â0Ê.

Ex a m p l e 3 4
Show that the term independent of ÂxÊ in the expansion of
[x + (1/x)]2n is [1.3.5. ..... (2n ă 1) / (n!)]2n
Solution :
General Term Tr+1 = 2n
Cr(x)2năr (1/x)r
2n
= Cr . x2nă2r ................. (i)
Here 2n ă 2r = 0
or n= r
2n
From (i) Tr + 1
= Cn
= 2n! / (n! × n!)
= [2n (2n ă 1) ........... 3.2.1] / (n! × n!)
= {2n (2n ă 2) ........... 4.2} {(2n ă 1) (2n ă 3) ......... 3.1.} / (n! × n!)
= [2n {n (n ă 1) ........ 2.1.}] {(2n ă 1) ........... 5.3.1.} / (n! × n!)
= 2n. n! {(2n ă 1) ........ 5.3.1.} / (n! × n!)
= {1.3.5. .......... (2n ă 1)} 2n / n!

Ex a m p l e 3 5
The 3rd, 4th and 5th terms in the expansion of (x + a )n are respectively Â84Ê, Â280Ê and Â560Ê,
find the value of ÂxÊ, Âa Ê and ÂnÊ.

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 22 QUIZRR

Solution :
Tr+1 = nCr xnăr . ar
Putting r = 2, 3 and 4 respectively
T3 = nC2 xnă2.a2 = 84 ................. (i)
T4 = nC3 xnă3 a3 = 280 .................(ii)
and T5 = nC4 xnă4 a4 = 560 ................. (iii)
egn (i) egn (iii) : [nC2 xnă2 a2] [ nC4 xnă4 a4] = 84 × 560
= {n!/[2! × (n ă 2)!]} × {n! / [4! × (n ă 4)!]} . x2nă6 a6 = 84 × 560
or [n (n ă 1) / 2] × [n(n ă 1) (n ă 2) (n ă 3) / 4!] x2nă6 a6 = 84 × 560 ............. (iv)
Squaring of egn (ii), we have :
(nC3 xnă3 a3)2 = 2802
n
 C3 nC3 × x2nă6 × a6 = 2802
 = {n! / [3! × (n ă 3)!]} x n! / [3! × (n ă 3!] × x2nă6 a6 = 2802
or [n (n ă 1)(n ă 2) / 6] × [n(n ă 1) (n ă 2) (n ă 3) / 3!] x x2nă6 a6 = 280 × 280 ................ (v)
egn (v)  egn (iv)
or 4 (n ă 2) / 3 (n ă 3) = 5/3
or 4n ă 8 = 5n ă 15
n = 7
Putting this value in (i), (ii) and (iii) :
7
C2 x5 a2 = 84 ................ (vi)
7
C3 x4 a3 = 280 ................ (vii)
7
C4 x3 a4 = 560 ................ (viii)
egn (vii)  egn (vi) :
(7C3 x4 a3) / (7C2 x5 a2) = 280 / 84
a. [7! / (3! × 4!)] / [7! / (2! × 5!)] × = 10 / 3

2! 5! a 10
or 
3! 4! x 3

or (5 / 3) × a / x = 10 /3
or a = 2x
Putting this value in egn (vi) :
7
C2. x5. 4x2 = 84
7! 7
or x  21
2!5!
42 7
 x  21
2
x7 = 1
 x= 1
Putting this value in (ix) = a = 2

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 23

Ex a m p l e 3 6
Let ÂnÊ be a positive integer. If the coefficients of second, third and fourth terms in (1 + x)2
are in arithmetic progression, then find the value of ÂnÊ.
Solution :
General Term : Tr+1 = nCr xr
 2nd Term : T2 = nC1 x
Coefficient = nC1
 3rd Term : T3 = nC2 x2
Coefficient = nC2
Similarly coefficient of 4th term = nC3
These are in A.P., so.
2 nC2 = nC1 + nC3
 2 [n! / {2! × (n ă 2)!}] = n! / {1! × (n ă 1)!} + n! / {3! × (n ă 3)!}
or n! / (n ă 2)! = n! [1 / (n ă 1)! + 1/6 (n ă 3)!]
or 1/ [(n ă 2) × (n ă 3)! = 1 / [n ă 1) × (n ă 2) × (n ă 3)!] + 1/6 (n ă 3)!
or 1/(n ă 2) ă 1 / [(n ă 1) (n ă 2)] = 1/6
or (n ă 1 ă 1) / [(n ă 1) (n ă 2)] = 1/6
or (n ă 2) / [(n ă 1) (n ă 2)] = 1/6
or n ă 1 = 6
 n = 7

Ex a m p l e 3 7
(a) The 6th term in the expansion of [(1 / x 8/3) + x 2 log10x]8 is 5600. Prove that x = 10.
Solution :
T6 = T5+1 = 8C5 (1/x8/3)8ă5 (x2 log10x)5
or C5 × (1/x8) × x10 (log10x)5 = 5600
8

 [8! / (5! × 3!)] × x2 × (log10x)5 = 5600

 [8.7.6. / 6] × x2 × (log10x)5 = 5600
or x2 (log10x)5 = 100 = 102
Clearly x = 10 satisfied as log1010 = 1
if x > 10 or < 10, the result will change in inequality.

 
n
(b) If P Q  l  f where l and n are positive integers, n being odd, and 0  f < 1, then

show that (l + f) f = k n where P ă Q2 = k > 0 and P ă Q < 1.

Proof :
Given P ă Q < 1

 P Q  
P  Q  0 (given)

  
P  Q  0 l and t both are  +ve  no.

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 24 QUIZRR

 
n
 0< P Q 1

 
n
Now let P Q  f'

   
n n
 l + f ă f´ = P Q P Q

 RHS contains even powers of P ( n is odd)

 RHS is an integer
Since RHS and I are integers
 f ă f´ is also integer
  f ă f´ = 0  1 < f ă f´ < 1
or f = f´

   
n n
 (l + f) f = (l + f) f´ = P Q P Q = (P ă Q2)n = kn.

Ex a m p l e 3 8

 
n
If 2 + 3  I  f where I and n are positive integers and 0 < f < 1, show that (i) I is an odd

integer and (ii) (l + f) (1 ă f) = 1.

Solution :

(i) Now 0 < 2 ă 3 < 1, since 2 ă 3 = 0.268 (approx.)

n n
 0 < (2 ă 3 ) < 1; we can take (2 ă 3 ) as f´.
n n
Now (2 + 3 ) + (2 ă 3 ) = l + f + f´

But L.H.S. = 2 {2n + nC2n ă 2

( 3 )2 + nC42nă4 ( 3 )4 + ...} = an integer

(in fact an even integer)

 RHS = I + f + f´ = an even integer
Also f + f´ = 1, since f and f´ are both positive proper fractions.
 I = an even integer ă 1 = an odd integer.
n n
(ii) (l + f) (l ă f) = (l + f) (f´) = (2 + 3 ) . (2 ă 3)
= (4 ă 3)n = 1n = 1

Ex a m p l e 3 9

 
2 n 1
Let R = 5 5  11 and f = R ă [R], where [ ] denotes the greatest integer function. Prove
that Rf = 42n+1.

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 25

Solution :
Greatest integer function is defined as follows :
[ x] = greatest integer  x
In the case of positive number, x
[x] = integral part of x
 f = R ă [R] implies that f is the fractional part of R.
 0< f < 1

Since 144 > 125 > 121, 125 = 5 5 lies between 11 and 12.

 
2 n1
 0 < 5 5 ă 11 < 1 and hence 5 5  11 will also be a proper fraction.

 
2 n1
Let g = 5 5  11

Now [R] + f ă g = R ă g

     
2 n1 2 n 1 2 n 1
= 5 5  11 ă 5 5  11  5 5  11


= 2 (2n  1)C1 5 5  
2n
. 111 
 2n  1
C3 5 5 
2n  2

. 112  ...

= an even integer.
Since [R] is an integer, the above implies f ă g = 0 (i.e.) f = g

   
2 n 1 2 n 1
Hence Rf = Rg = 5 5  11 . 5 5  11

= (125 ă 121)2n + 1
= 42n + 1

2 .6 M U L T IN OM IA L T H EOREM
For any positive integer n,

n!
 x4  x2  ... xr   
n
x11 x2 2 ... xr r
1  2 ... r n  !  2 !  3 ! ...  r !

For example,

10!
in the same expansion of (x + y + z)10 coefficient of x3y2z5 will be 2!3!5! since while multiplying

x + y + z ten times one will get x3y2z5, as many number of times as is the number of ways of arraging
xxxyyzzzzz in a line.
Note : Binomial Theorem follows from multipnomial theorem by putting n = 2.

IITJEE BINOMIAL THEOREM

 26 QUIZRR

Ex a m p l e 4 0
Find the coefficient of x 3 y4 z 2 in the expansion of (2x ă 3y + 4z)9.
Solution :
General Term in (2x ă 3y + 4z)9
= 9! / (n1! ï n2! ï n3!) . (2x)n1 . (ă 3y)n2 . (4z)n3
= 9! / (n1! ï n2! ï n3!). 2n1 (ă 3)n2 (ă 3)n2 . (4)n3 . xn1 . yn2 . zn3
Putting n1 = 3, n2 = 4, n3 = 2
= 9! / (3! ï 4! ï 2!) . 23 (ă 3)4 . (4)2 . x3 y4 z2
= [9.8.7.6.5.4! / (3.2.1. 4!.2)] / (3.2.1. 4!.2)] ï 8 ï 81 ï 16 x3 y4 z2
 Coefficient of x3 y4 z2 = 9 ï 8 ï 7 ï 5 ï 8 ï 81 ï 8
= 13063600
Greatest coefficient in the expansion of (x1 + x2 + ........... + xm)n
= n! / (q!)măr [(q + 1)!]r
where ÂqÊ is the quotient and ÂrÊ is the remainder, when ÂnÊ is divided by ÂmÊ.
Ex : Find the greatest coefficient in the expansion of (a + b + c + d)15
Sol. : Here n = 15, m = 4
15/4 is quotient 3 and remainder 3.
since q = 3 and r = 3
Hence greatest ă coefficient = 15! / [(3!)4ă3 x (3 + 1)!)3
= 15! / [3!) x (4!)3]
= 15! / (3! ï 4! ï 4! ï 4!)

Ex a m p l e 4 1
Find the coefficient of x 7 in the expansion of (1 + 3x ă 2x 3)10.
Solution :
General Term in (1 + 3x ă 2x3)10
= 10! / (n1! ï n2! n3!) (1)n1 (3x)n2 (ă 2x3)n3
= 10! / (n1 ï n2! ï n3!). 3n3n2(ă 2)n3 xn2+3n3
Where n1 + n2 + n3 = 10 ...................... (i)
For coefficient of x7 : n2 + 3n3 = 7 ............. (ii)
From (ii), possible non-negative integral values of Ân2Ê and Ân3Ê are :
n2 = 7, n3 = 0 since from (i) : n1 = 3
n2 = 1, n3 = 2 since from (i) : n1 = 7
or n2 = 4, n3 = 1 since from (i) : n1 = 5
So required coefficient of x7 : (will get it by adding the above 3 cases)
10! / (3! × 7! x 0!) . (3)7 (ă 2)0 + 10! / (7! × 1! × 2!). (3)1 (ă 2)2 + 10!/(5! × 4! × 1!). 34 (ă 2)1

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

 QUIZRR 27

(10. 9. 8 7!) / (7!.3.2.1)37 + (10.9.8. 7!) / (7! . 2) x 3 x 4 ă [(10.9.8.7.6.5!) / (5!. 4.3.2.1.)].3.2

= 10 × 9 × 4 36 + 10 × 9 × 4 × 3 × 4 ă 10 × 9 × 7 × 6 × 33 × 2
= 10 × 9 × 4 (36 + 12 ă 7 × 34)
= 360 × (729 + 12 ă 567)
= 62640

Ex a m p l e 4 2
Find the total number of terms in the expansion of (x + y + z + w)n , n  N
Solution :
The number of terms in the expansion of (x + y + z + w)n is n+4ă1
C4ă1.
n+3
= C3

 n  3   n  2  n  1
=
6

You can learn this

Alternative method
We know that
(x + y + z + w)n = {(x + y) + (z + w)}n
= (x + y)n + nC1((x + y)nă1 (z + w) + nC2 (x + y)nă2 (z + w)2 + ........nCn (z + w)n
 Number of terms in RHS
= (n + 1) + n.2 + (n ă 1).3 + ......... + 1 (n + 1)
n

=   n  r  1  r  1
r 0

=   n  1  nr  r 2 )
r 0
n n n

=  n  1  1  n  r   r 2
r 0 r 0 r 0

n  n  1 n  n  1  2n  1
=  n  1 .  n   n . 
2 6

 n  1  n  2   n  3 
=
6

2 .7 B I N OM I A L T H EOREM FOR FRA CT ION A L I N DEX

For any rational number n,

n  n  1 n  n  1 n  2 
1  xn  1  nx  x2  x3  ...  provided |x| < 1.
1.2 1.2.3

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 28 QUIZRR

The restriction on x is not required when n is a natural number.

Now, we shall see that when n is a natural number, then the above expansion coincides with that
as given earlier.
Let n  N and |x|< 1, then we have

n  n  1 n  n  1 n  2 
1  xn  1  nx  x2  x3  ......
1.2 1.2.3

n  n  1  n  2  ....  n   n  1    n  n 
+ xn1  ......
1.2.3....  n  1 

= nC0 1nx0 + nC1 1nă1 x1 + nC2 1nă3 x3 + ....... + nCn10 xn + 0 + 0 ...

= nC0 1nx0 + nC1 1nă1 x1 + nC2 1nă2 x2 + nC31nă3 x3 + ..... + nCn10xn
This is the same expansion as would have given by the binomial theorem for positive integral
index.

2 .7 .1 So m e Ob s e r va t i o n s
Ć If n  N, then (1 + x)n is defined for all values of x and if n  N Q ă N, then (1 + x)n is defined
only when |x| < 1.
Ć If n N, then (1 + x)n contains only n + 1 terms and if n Q ă N, then (1 + x)n contains infinitely
many terms.
Ć In the expansion of (1 + x)n, the exponent of x goes on increasing through 0.
Ć If n  N, then the coefficient of any term in (1 + x)n is nCk where k is the exponent of x.
Ć If n N, then the exact value of (1 + x)n can be found by adding all terms (equal to n + 1) in the
expansion of (1 + x)n and if n  Q ă N, then only an approximate value of (1 + x)n can be found
by adding certain finite number of terms in the expansion of (1 + x)n.
Working rules for expanding (1 + x)n , n  Q :
Step 1 : (a)
If n  N, then (1 + x)n can be expanded for all values of x and has (n + 1) terms.
(b) If n Q ă N, then (1 + x)n can be expanded only when |x|< 1 and has infinitely many terms.
Step 2 : The first term in (1 + x)n is always 1.
Step 3 : The second terms is the product ÂnxÊ of n and x.

n  n  1
Step 4 : For the third term, take coefficient as increase the power of x by 1. Thus, the
1.2
n  n  1
third term is x2 . Repeat this process repeatedly.
1.2

2 .8 N EGA T I V E B I N OM I A L SERI ES
The series which arises in the binomial theorem for negative integer (ă n.)

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 QUIZRR 29


  n  k  n k
(x + a)ă n
=  x a (1)
k 0  k 

 n  k  1  k  n k
   1
k
=  x a (2)
 k 

for |x| < a.

For a = 1, the negative binomial series simplifies to

1 1
(x + 1)ăn = 1 ă nx + n (n + 1)x2 ă n (n + 1) (n + 2)x3 + ....
2 6

Ex a m p l e 4 3

2 x
r
Expand 1  x   3  x  in ascending powers of x and find x . Also state the range of x for
which this expression is valid.
Solution :

2x
 
Given expression = 1  x 3  x

On expressing RHS in the form of partial fractions, we get

1 1
Given expression = 2 1  x  2 3  x
   

1
x
1  x1   1  
1 1
 Given expression =
2 6 3

Using the expansions of (1 ă x)ă1, we get

Given expression =
1
2

1  x  x2  x3  ......... 

1 x x2 x3 
+ 6  1  3  9  27  .......... 
 

1 1 1 1 
 Given expression =      2  18  x
2 6  

1 1  2 1 1  r
+    x  .......    r  x  ............
 2 54   2 6.3 

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 30 QUIZRR

2 5 14 2 1 1 
 Given expression =  x x  ...........   1  r 1  xr  ..........
3 9 27 2 3 

1  1  r
Coefficient of xr =  1  r 1  x
2  3 

Since (1 ă x)ă1 is valid for x  (ă 1, 1) and 1  x / 3 

1
is valid for x  (ă 3, 3), the given expression
is valid for x  (ă 1, 1) (i.e. take intersection of the two sets)

2x
Hence 1  x 3  x is valid for ă 1 < x < 1.
  

BINOMIAL THEOREM IITJEE

PERMUTATIONS
&
COMBINATIONS
 QUIZRR 3

FACTORIAL
In mathematics, the factorial of a non negative integer n, denoted by n!, is the product of all
positive integers less than or equal to n.
For example :
6! = 6 ï 5 ï 4 ï 3 ï 2 ï 1
also (n + 1)! = (n + 1) ï n!

Special case :
Zero factorial
This is a special case whose value is 1.
 0! = 1

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING :

There are 2 principles which form the basis of fundamental principle of counting.
If one operation / activity can be performed in m ways and a second activity can be performed
in n ways then.
1. the number of ways of performing both the operations will be m ï n, this is also known
as principle of multiplica tion.
2. the number of ways of performing one of the two activities will be m + n. This is also
known as principle of a ddition.

Illustration 1
You have cleared IIT and you are going to a garment shop for purchasing some clothes for
yourself, which you will take to IIT. You select 5 jeans and 10 shirts from which you can
buy. In how many ways can you purchase
1. only 1 shirt and 1 jean ?
2. only one of shirt or jeans ?
Solution :
Though it is sad that you have to buy only one of shirts & jeans.
Lets solve the question now

(i) You have to buy a pair of shirt & jeans. If you take one jeans then you have 10 options
for shirt.
Same is the case for other jeans.
i.e. everytime you select a jeans, there are 10 options for a shirt.
 Total ways = 5 ï 10 = 50 (i.e. fundamental principle of multiplication)

(ii) Now you have to select only one of either shirt or jeans.
You can select 1 jeans out of 5 in 5 ways & 1 shirt out of 10 in 10 ways.

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for selecting only one of them, you can have
(no. of ways of selecting one shirt) + (no. of ways of selecting one jeans)
 Total ways = 10 + 5 = 15 (i.e. fundamental principal of addition)

Illustration 2
Find the total number of ways of answering 5 objective type questions, each having 4
choices.
Solution :
There are 5 questions,

st
2nd 
1 rd
4 th
3 th
5

5 questions

And each question has 4 options i.e. each question can be answered in 4 ways
 4 4 4 4 4

 Total no. of ways = 4 ï 4 ï 4 ï 4 ï 4

= 45
Note : We will solve the questions as if we are filling spaces.

Illustration 3
Five persons entered a lift cabin of a 8 floor building. Suppose each of them can leave the
cabin independently at any floor beginning with first. Find the total no. of ways in which
each of five persons can leave the cabin.
(i) at any of the 7 floors
(ii) at different floors
Solution :
Suppose there are 5 person A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
(i) for this part, any person can leave any floor i.e. all persons have 7 options to choose from.
7 7 7 7 7
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

 Total ways = 7 ï 7 ï 7 ï 7 ï 7 = 75

(ii) Now all persons have to leave at different floors. Suppose we start with A1, he drops at floor
2. Now A2 has (7 ă 1) = 6 options as he cannot leave at floor 2 according to the question.

7 6 5 4 3
So A3 now will (7 ă 2) options & so, on
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

 total ways = 7 ï 6 ï 5 ï 4 ï 3
= 2520
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Illustration 4
In how many ways can six persons be arranged in a row ?
Solution :
Arranging a given set of n different objects is equivalent to filling n places.
Now suppose A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6 to be the six persons which are to be arranged in a row.
For 6 people there are 6 positions to be filled and at one position only one person can stand.
So if we start from A1, he has 6 positions to choose from. For A2, he has 5 as 1 position has already
been occupied by A1 & so on for A3 A4 A5 & A6

6 5 4 3 2 1
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6

 Total ways = 6ï 5ï 4ï 3ï 2ï 1
= 6!
Note : We can start from any person (A2 A3... A6), in this example we started from A1 but the
answer will be same for each case as it is just a representation.

Illustration 5
How many 3 digit numbers can be formed with using digits 0, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6,
(a) without repetition (b) with repetition
Solution :
3 digit can be represented by 3 places

hundreds tenÊs oneÊs digits

for both the cases, 0 cannot be at hundreds place. (Obvious)
(a) With repetition
for this case, we can use the digits only once per number with 0 not at hundreds place.
5 5 4


2, 3, 4, 5, 6 
  {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ă 1 {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ă 2
5 options = 5 options = 4 ways

 No 0 at   removing the one   removing the terms used 

     
 this place   used at hundreds places   in previous 2 places 

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 Total numbers = 5 ï 5 ï 4
= 100

(b) With repetition

5 6 6

{2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

5 options excluding 0 = 6 options = 6 options
 The term used in previous 
 
 place can also be used 
 Total numbers = 5 ï 6 ï 6
= 180
Note : Unless stated in the question itself that repetition is allowed we do not take repetition.

Illustration 6
You have to invite 5 of your friends to your birthday party. In how many ways can you
send invitation cards to them, if you have 3 servants to carry the cards ?
Solution :
You can sent the card to any of your friend through any of your 3 servants.
 Each friend can receive invitation by 3 ways, i.e from 3 servents

3 3 3 3 3
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5

Total ways = 3 ï 3 ï 3 ï 3 ï 3
= 35 ways

Illustration 7
You have 5 digits 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8
(i) find the number of 4 digit even numbers which can be formed by using above digits.
(ii) numbers which are divisible by 5 and are greater than 6000.
Solution :
(i) This part requires to find out even numbers. We know even numbers end with 0, 2, 4, 6
& 8 so our last digit has to be either one of them and from the digits given to us (4, 5, 6,
7, 8) 4, 6 & 8 are the possible options.
5 5 5 3


for the remaining 3 places we can take (4, 6, 8)

any digit from the 5 possible digits.

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 Total numbers = 5 ï 5 ï 5 ï 3
= 375

(ii) For a digit to be a multiple of 5, its ones digit should be either 0 or 5. From the digits given
to us only 5 is the option. Also the should be greater than 6000,
so in thousands digit only 3 options are there i.e. 6, 7 & 8.

3 5 5 1


{6, 7, 8} {4, 5, 6, 7, 8} {5}

 Total numbers = 3 ï 5 ï 5 ï 1
= 75

PERMUTATIONS
Each of the arrangement which can be made by taking some or all things is called a permutation.
Let us understand this with the help of an example.
Suppose, India, Australia & Pakistsan are playing a triseries tournament. In how ways the result
can come out.

Ist position 2nd 3rd

Ist arrangement India Australia Pakistan
nd
2 India Pakistan Australia
3rd Australia India Pakistan
th
4 Australia Pakistan India
th
5 Pakistan India Australia
6th Pakistan Australia India

So there are 6 arrangements possible (though out of which we guys will prefer the first two.)
Note : You can see the order plays an important role in arrangement.
Now, write the number of permutations of letters A, B, C, D taking 3 at a time.
Let us see how many cases can we make I will start with A

 AB C  BA C  CA B  D A B
   
 A B D B A D C A D D A C
  
 AC B  BC A  CB A  D B A
6 with A  6 with B  6 with C  6 with D 
 A C D  B D A  C B D  D B C
 A D B  B C D  C D A  D C A
   
 A D C  B D C  C D B  D C B
So in all there are 24 permutations possible.

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Notation :
The number of permutations of n distinct things taken r at a time is given by nPr or P (n, r) and
its value is

n n!
Pr 
 n  r !
So if we apply this to the previous case we just covered, 4 things taking 3 at a time

4 4!
 P3   24 arrangements
1!
n
Logic : Pr is equivalent to saying, the numbers of ways in which we can fill up r places, when
we have n different things to choose from.

n (n  1) (n  2) (n  3) (n  r  1)
.....
1 2
 3 
4 r 
r places

n!
n
Pr   n  n  1 n  2  ...  n   r  1  
as
 n  r !
Here notice that we have have considered the case when no repetition is allowed. {because then
only 2, 3, 4, ... places are filled by (n ă 1), (n ă 2) ... values}
Now,
Permutations when repetition is allowed
It simple to understand. Here again there are r places but

n n n n n
...
1 2 
 3
4 r

r places

now every place can take any of the n values, hence total permutations = n r

Some properties of nP r
1. P (n, n) = P (n, n ă 1)
2. P (n, r) = n. P (n ă 1, r ă 1)

COMBINATIONS
Each of different selections made by taking all or some numbers out of defined objects,
irrespective of their arrangement is called combination.
In how many ways can be select 2 teams out of 4 to play for the final. Let the teams be India,
Australia, Pakistan & England.

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We know we have to select 2 teams, let us see the possible selection.

India vs Australia ă 1
India vs Pakistan ă 2
India vs England ă 3
Australia vs Pakistan ă 4
Australia vs England ă 5

Australia vs India ï wrong case, this have already been covered in the Ist selection.

Pakistan vs England ă 6
Other already covered cases
Pakistan vs India ă same as 2
Pakistan vs Australia ă same as 4
England vs India ă same as 3
England vs Australia ă same as 5
England vs Pakistan ă same as 6
 Total selections possible = 6
Again note, while selection ORDER is NOT IMPORTANT. So combinations ABC, ACB, CAB,
CBA, BAC & BCA are equal to 1 combination i.e. ABC, whereas they are 6 different permutations.

Notation :
Combinations of n different things taken r at a time.

n n!
= nCr or C (n, r) or   = r ! n  r !
r  

Properties of nCr
n
1. Cn = nC0 = 1
n
2. Cr = nCnăr
n
3. Cr + nCră1 = n+1
Cr

n  n n 1
4. Cr    Cr 1
r

n
Cr 1  n 
5. n1
 
Cr 1  n  r  1 

6. if nCx = nCy, then x = y or x + y = n

n1
Cr 1  n  1
7. n
 
Cr  r 1

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10 QUIZRR
n
8. The greatest value of Cr, when
n is even, is nCn/2
n n
C (n  1) Cn 1
n is odd, is or
2 2

Illustration 8
There are 10 candidates standing from your area in election. You all given the liberty of
giving votes to any 2 of them. In how may ways can you vote ?
Solution :
You have to select any 2 candidates from 10 where the order in which you choose does not matter.
Hence selecting 2 out of 10.

10 10!
= C2   45 selections possible.
2!8!

Illustration 9
Suppose that IIT paper is divided into paper 1 & paper 2 each having 10 questions. You
somehow know that cut off to clear the paper is to rightly attempt 5 questions & 7 questions,
in paper 1 & paper 2 respectively. So in how many ways you can clear IIT ?
Solution :
See here also order does not matter, in fact the number of correct answers is the key. So total ways
of clearing IIT.
= Selecting 5 questions from paper 1 ï selecting 7 questions from paper II

= 10C5  10C7

Illustration 1 0
In how many ways a committee of 6 members can be formed from 6 men and 6 women,
consisting of 4 men and 2 women ?
Solution :
You have to select 4 men from a total of 6 men and 2 women from 6, which could be done in
6
C4 ï 6C2 ways.
 Number of ways in which committee can be formed
= 15 ï 15 = 225 (also note that 6C4 = 6C2)

Illustration 1 1
If you invite 10 of your friends to party and all of you shake hands with each other, then
how many shake hands happen in the party ?
Solution :
Note that when you shake hands it is immaterial that in which order you shake hands. When

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2 person shake hands it is counted as one shake hand only.

 Total number of shake hands
= number of ways of selecting 2 of your friends from 10
10
= C2 = 45

Illustration 1 2
(a) How many lines can be drawn through n points ?
(b) How many diagonals are there in a polygon with n sides ?
Solution :
(a) What is a line ? How it is formed ? Answer to these simple questions can solve this part for
you.
A line is formed by joining 2 points on a plane. So for the formation of line we need 2 points.
 Number of lines possible when n points are there = nC2
(b) Taking of diagonals, they are also lines. Let us understand this by taking a small example
first.

2 diagonals 5 diagonals

Total lines through n points = nC2

lines used in making the polynomial of n sides = n
(you can check this that, quadrilateral = 4 sides, pentagon = 5 etc)
 Remaining lines must be diagonals

n n  n  1 n  n  3
= C2  n  n
2 2

Illustration 1 3
In how many ways can a cricket team be selected from a group of 25 players containing 10
batsmen, 8 bowlers, 5 all rounders and 2 wicket keepers ? Assume that the team of 11
players India will be playing with will have 4 batsmen, 3 all rounders, 3 bowlers and 1
wicket keeper ?
Solution :
This is a very simple problem, we just have to choose from the available options for the different
positions.
1. Selection of batsmen ă 10C4
2. Selection of bowler ă 8C3

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5
3. Selection of all rounders ă C3
4. Selection of wicket keeper ă 2C1
 The team will be formed by combination of all these selections
10 8 5 2
= C4 ï C3 ï C3 ï C1 ways

Illustration 1 4
(a) How many triangles can be formed through n points, given that no 3 points are
collinear.
(b) How many triangles can be formed out of a Hexagon ?
Solution :
(a) Every problem can be understood if we try to break it down to a simpler & easy problem. For
a triangle we need three points which are non-collinear (remember this condition is important).
S
R S
1 R

3
4
2
P
Q P
Q
triangles possible when 4 points are there or 4C3 = 4
 similarly for n points it would be nC3.
Similarly we can extend this for rn-sided polygon.
= nCm (m  n)
(b) Hexagon is formed by six points, and for triangle we need to select any three of them at a
time. Hence number of triangles = 6C3 = 20

Illustration 1 5
If m parallel lines in a plane are intersected by a family of n parallel lines. Find the number
of parallelograms formed.
Solution :
If you are not able to understand the problem, break the problem.
m

4 lines - 1 parallelogram (5 Lines - 3 parallelograms)

(2 points on each parallel line)

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We can see that for parallelogram we need two pair of straight lines.
And from the question we have m ï n parallel lines So for a parallelogram to exist we just need
to select 2 straight lines from each set of parallel lines. This can be done in
m n
= C2 ï C2 ways

m  m  1 n  n  1
= 
2 2

mn  m  1  n  1 
=
4

Illustration 1 6

There are 10 points in a plane, no three of which are in the same straight line, except 4
points which are collinear. Find
(i) number of straight lines obtained from the pairs of these points.
(ii) number of triangles that can be formed with the vertices as these points.
Solution :
This question is different from the earlier ones as there are collinear points here.

(i) for number of lines,

10
total number of lines if all are not collinear = C2 ...(i)
4
So lines from 4 points = C2
& now we need to subtract this from (i), as these 4 points are collinear
10
 Total lines = C2 ă 4C2 + 1 = 40
{Why + 1, we removed all lines made by 4 collinear points but they will form at least &
atmost 1 lines containing all those 4 points. So we have to add that line too}

(ii) Here also we will apply the same procedure as followed in above part
Number of triangles possible joining
10
10 points taken 3 at a time = C3 = 120
But 4 points are collinear,
otherwise if they had not been collinear
then number of triangles = 4C3 = 4
So now we have to remove this from total selections = 120 ă 4 = 116
(We subtracted the value 4C3 as there is no triangle possible through collinear points)

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TIP Though there are formulas for both permutations and combinations for solving a question, we
advise you not to use that many formulas and to further eliminate confusion between which
formula to be used we will solve each question through combinations. In this way you will never
require to learn permutations formula.
For arrangement we will first select the required result and arrange them rather than using
formula.
We will demonstrate this concept by taking on following types :

Type 1 : Always including / excluding

Though for finding arrangements in such cases we have direct formulas of permutations, but we
will focus on following approach which do not requires any cramming of formula.

Formula included excluded

Permutation of n different objects
năp năp
taken r at a time of which p are r Prăp Pr
always

Now let us solve an example to illustrate the use of combinations so that we do not require to use
the above formulas.

Illustration 1 7
How many 3 letter words can be formed by letters of the word SOCIETY when
(a) S is always included
(b) S is always excluded ?
Solution :
See here we need to make 3 letter words from 8 letters. So before finding the arrangements we
need to select 3 letters and we will then arrange those letters.

(a) Now since S always have to be included, we can say that it has already been selected, and
thus we need to select only 2 object/letters from the remaining 7 letters.
This could be done in 7C2 ways
and now after finding such 3 letter words we can just arrange these 3 letters, which we can
do in 3! ways.
 Total words = 7C2 ï 3! ways

(b) S is now not to be taken while selecting the letters. So effectively there are only 7 letters
to choose from. So effectively there are only 7 letters to choose from. So selecting 3 letters
from 7 can be done in 7C3 ways and the 3 letters can be arranged in 3! ways.

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 Total such words = 7C3 ï 3!

So you can see that we required no formula while solving this.

Type 2 : When some objects, always occur together/never occur together.

Illustration 1 8

In how many ways can the letters of the word PENCIL be arranged so that
(i) N is always next to E
(ii) N & E are always together.
Solution :
P E N C I L
6 words

(a) N is always next to E : In these type of questions let EN be one word as they always have
to be together in the same order.
So now we just need to arrange 5 words, which can be done in 5! ways.

(b) N & E are always together

Now this question is almost similar to the previous part with the only difference being that
here order of N & E is not fixed.
So here N can be ahead/next to E i.e. NE/EN are two options.
Then total arrangements become = 5! ï 2!

no. of ways to no. of ways to

arrange 5 words arrange N & E
where EN is considered one word

Illustration 1 9

How many words can be formed from the letters of the words TRIANGLE, where the words
begin with T and end with E
Solution :
Here T & E have to be starting & ending alphabets respectively.

T __ __ __ __ __ __ E
6 places

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 16 QUIZRR
There are 6 places to be filled in, which can be arranged in 6 ! ways.
Ans. = 6!
Now here is a very common error, students leave this question here only, though there are still
many more cases to sowe. Question did not define the no. of alphabets in the word, so the
following cases will also be counted.

Case 2 : 2 Letter Word TE = 1 way

Case 3 : 3 Letter Word T 6 E = 6
(since the middle word can have 6 words to choose from)
Case 4 : 4 Letter Word T 6 5 E = 30
Case 5 : 5 Letter Word T 6 5 4 E = 120
Case 6 : 6 Letter Word T 6 5 4 3 E = 360
Case 7 : 7 Letter Word T 6 5 4 3 2 E = 720
and we have already covered the case 8 for 8 letter word.
Adding up all the cases will give us the right answer
= 1 + 6 + 30 + 120 + 360 + 720 + 720
= 1957

M ixed P r ob lem s

Illustration 20

You are going to join coaching classes for the preparation of IIT-JEE. You have 6 option
in mind. Find the numbers of ways in which
(a) you can choose any two of them.
(b) You can choose any two of them, one for regular program and one for correspondance
program.
Solution :
This question is especially covered so as you can differentiate between selection and arrangements.
(a) This is an easy one, you just need to select any two out of six possible options.
 Total ways = 6C2 = 15 ways

(b) Here also you have to choose only 2 but note the difference here. Order matters here.
Regular Correspondance
1. Vidyamandir Zion
2. Zion Vidyamandir
are 2 different cases here.

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 QUIZRR 17

So the solution becomes

= choose any two ï arrange the two
 
6
C2 ï 2 !

 total ways = 15 ï 2 = 30 ways.

Per mut at ions / Ar r angement s when all ob j ect s ar e not d ist inct

Formula : In a total of n objects if there are p, of one kind, p2 are alike of second kind & so
on, such that p1 + p2 + ... pn = n, the total arrangements possible

 n! 
=  
 p1 ! p2 ! p3 ! ... p n ! 

Note : If two p are alike of one kind & q are alike to second kind & all others are distinct,
then the formula boils down to simply

n!
= {as others which are different will be adding 1! only}
p! q !

Illustration 21

How many words can be formed using the letter A thrice, letter B twice & letter C thrice ?
Solution :
In this question all objects are not distinct
A is repeated 3 times
B 2 times
C 3 times
in all 3 + 2 + 3 = 8 letter word

8!
 Total words = 3! 2! 3!  560

Illustration 22

How many arrangements can be made with the letters of the word ÂMATHEMATICSÊ? In
how many of them vowels are together?
Solution :
There are 11 letters in the word ÂMATHEMATICSÊ of which two are MÊs, two are TÊs, two are AÊs
and all other are distinct. So,

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18 QUIZRR

11!
Required number of arrangements =  4989600
2!  2!  2!
There are 4 vowels viz. A, E, A, I. Considering these four vowels as one letter we have 8 letters
(M, T, H, M, T, C, S and one letter obtained by combining all vowels), out of which M occurs twice,
8!
T occurs twice and the rest all different. These 8 letters can be arranged in 2!  2! ways.

4!
But the four vowels (A, E, A, I) can be put together in ways.
2!
Hence, the total number of arrangements in which vowels are always together
8! 4!
=   120960
2!  2! 2!

Illustration 23
If all the letters of the word ÂAGAINÊ be arranged as in a dictionary, what is the fiftieth
word ?
Solution :
This is the common dictionary problem. Let us sec how to solve it.
1. In dictionary the words at each stage are arranged in alphabetical order. Starting with the
letter A, and arranging the other four letters GAIN, we obtain 4! = 24 words.
2. Thus, there are 24 words which start with A. These are the first 24 words.
Then, starting with G, and arranging the other four letters A, A, I, N in different ways, we
4! 24
obtain   12 words.
2! 2
Thus, there are 12 words, which start with G. So uptil now we have covered 24 + 12 = 36
first words.
4!
3. Now, we start with I. The remaining 4 letters A, G, A, N can be arranged in  12 ways.
2!
So, there are 12 words, which start with I.
Thus, we have so far constructed 48 words.
4. The 49th word will start from N. Then the next alphabet will be A, then A, then G &
then I, hence the word is NAAGI and hence the 50th word is NAAIG.

Illustration 24

The letters of the word ÂRANDOMÊ are written in all possible orders and these words are
written out as in a dictionary. Find the rank of the word ÂRANDOMÊ.
Solution :
In a dictionary the words at each stage are arranged in alphabetical order. In the given problem
we must therefore consider the words beginning with A, D, M, N, O, R in order. A will occur in

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 QUIZRR 19

the first place as often as there are ways of arranging the remaining 5 letters all at a time i.e.
A will occur 5! times. Similarly, D, M, N, O will occur in the first place the same number of times.

 Number of words starting with A = 5!= 120

Number of words starting with D = 5!= 120
Number of words starting with M = 5!= 120
Number of words starting with N = 5!= 120
Number of words starting with O = 5!= 120

Number of words beginning with R is 5!, but one of these words is the word RANDOM. So, we
first find the number of words beginning with RAD and RAM.

No. of words starting with RAD = 3! = 6  with the remaining 

 
No. of words starting with RAM= 3! = 6  3 alphabets 

Now, the words beginning with ÂRANÊ. One of these words is the word RANDOM itself.
The first word beginning with RAN is the word RANDMO and the next word is RANDOM.
 Rank of RANDOM = 5 ï 120 + 2 ï 6 + 2 = 614

Illustration 25

How many four letter words can be formed using the word ÂINEFFECTIVEÊ ?
Solution :
There are a total of 11 letters in the word INEFFECTIVE

3 ă EÊs
2 ă FÊs
2 ă IÊs
1 ă C, T, N, V

The 4 letter word can be made in the following manner

Case 1 : 3 alike letter & 1 different

Case 2 : 2 alike letters of one kind & 2 letters alike of other kind.
Case 3 : 2 alike letters & 2 different
Case 4 : all different.

Note : No case like 1 alike, 3 diff. As it makes no sense.

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Case Combination Arrangement

6 4!
Case 1 1
C1 ï 6
C1 C1   24
3!

{choosing from remaining letters, including
repeated letters only once

3 4!
Case 2 3
C2 C2   18
2!2!

options from EF, FF, II we treat them as
groups so there are 3 groups out of which
2 have to selected for making 4 letter word

3 4!
Case 3 3
C1 ï 6
C2 C1  6 C2   540
2!

Selecting a group from EE, FF or II

Selecting 2 different from remaining letters

i.e. (C, T, N, V, F, I) supposing if E is
selected in Ist part. If E is selected then we
can she choose one F or one I

7 7
Case 4 C4 C4 ï 4! = 840
There are 7 distinct letters i.e.
I, N, E, F, C, T, I, V & we have to
choose 4 from it.
 Total number of 4 letter words
= 24 + 18 + 540 + 840
= 1422

SELECTION OF ONE OR MORE ITEMS :

It is divided in 3 parts i.e.

Selection

from

Different items Identical Both Identical &

items different items

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I. Selection from Different Items :

The number of ways of selecting one or more items (Atleast one) from a group of n distinct items
is 2n ă1.
Logic : For atleast one, the selections can be done in the following manner.
n
C1 + nC2 + nC3 ... nCn
n
But we know that C0 + nC1 + nC2 ... nCn = 2n
n
 C1 + nC2 ... nCn = 2n ă 1 {removing the case of no selection}
Hence the answer

Illustration 26

You want to invite 5 of your friends to your party. In how many ways can you invite atleast
one of them.
Solution :
They all can or may be some of them turn up for your party. But atleast one of them turns up.
So every person has 2 options, One to come to party, the other being not turning up for party.
So accordingly to the previous formula the answer is 25 ă 1 = 31 ways. Sub tracting the case when
all of them do not arrive for the party.

II. Selection from Identical Items :

(a) The number of ways of selecting ÂrÊ items out of n identical items is 1.
Logic : There is no meaning of arrangement & selection in identical items.
for ex. take 3 identical black balls &
3 different black balls B1 B2 B3

B B B B1 B2 B3

BB  B1 B2 
 
BB  same case repeated B1 B3  3 selection possible
 
BB  B2 B3 

You can see, selecting 2 out of 3 results in only 1 case, whereas there are 3 ways for
different balls.

(b) The total number of ways of selecting zero or more i.e. atleast one item from a group of n identical
items is n + 1

Logic : From case a, we know that selecting any number of items from n identical can be done
in 1 way only. So

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 22 QUIZRR
Selecting none = 1
1 item = 1
2 items = 1
n items = 1
adding all, total ways = n + 1

(c) The total number of ways of selecting some or all out of p + q + r items where p are alike of one
kind, q are alike of second kind and rest are alike of third kind is [(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1] ă 1

Logic : Again from the previous case, if

we select 0, 1, 2 ... p items  (p + 1) ways

0, 1, 2 ... q items  (q + 1) ways
0, 1, 2 ... r items  (r + 1) ways

Since any of them can be selected, separately or in combination.

 Total ways = (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1)
Subtract 1, so as to remove the case of no selection i.e. 0 items of type p, 0 items of type q & r.
Note this will be just one case not three.

Illustration 27

Find the total number of factors of 7875

(a) including 1
(b) excluding 1 i.e. proper factors
Solution :
We can write 7875 = 32 ï 53 ï 71
Now this question is analogous to previous case as we can consider 3 groups of identical items
as Â3Ê group having 2 identical 3Ês
Â5Ê group having 3 identical 5Ês
Â7Ê group having 1 identical 7Ês
Now solving the parts
(a) including 1
for 1 to be one of the factors, it should be 3Ĉ ï 5Ĉ ï 7Ĉ
i.e. selecting 0 from each group.
And hence answer is
(2 + 1) (3 + 1) (1 + 1) = 24 factors
(Note : No Âă 1Ê as we have to take the case when none is selected, which we initially subtracted
from the formula)

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 QUIZRR 23

(b) excluding 1 / proper factors

Now we just have to remove the case when 1 is also the factor which only in 1case
 Total ways = 24 ă 1 = 23 factors

III. Select ion fr om a gr oup cont aining b ot h id ent ical and d iffer ent it ems.

The number of ways of selecting one or more items from p identical of one kind, q identical items
of second kind, similarly for r and n different items is

(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2n ă 1

Logic : We can come to the answer by using the results derived earlier. p, q, r can be selected
in (p + 1), (q + 1) & (r + 1) ways, as done earlier. Now for distinct elements there are only 2 options
for them, i.f. either they are selected or rejected. So for n such distinct terms there will be
2 ï 2 ï 2 ... (n terms) ways of selecting one of them.
Combining both identical & distinct elements
 Total ways = (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2n
Subtract 1 to remove the case of no selection.

Illustration 28

Let a number be represented by a 3b 4c 5 def where a , b, c , d, e, f  prime numbers. Find the

number of factors of such a number.
Solution :
Here in this question there are 3 identical group of aÊs, bÊs & cÊs. Whereas d, e & f are distinct
elements.

Group of a having 3 aÊs

b 4 bÊs
c 5 cÊs

 Total factors = (3 + 1) (4 + 1) (5 + 1) 2 ï 2 ï 2
= 960 factors
If we exclude factor 1 then there are 959 factors.

Divisor s of a G iven Nat ur al Numb er

Let n N and n = p11 . p22 . p33 . .... pk k , where p1, p2, p3, ... pn are different prime numbers and

1, 2, 3, ... k are natural numbers then :

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24 QUIZRR
Ć the total numbers of divisors of N including 1 and n is
= (1 + 1) (2 + 1) (3 + 1) ... (k + 1)
Ć the total number of divisors of n excluding 1 and n is
= (1 + 1) (2 + 1) (3 + 1) ... (k + 1) ă 1
Ć the sum of these divisors is

= p 0
1

 p11  p12  ....  p1 1  p
0
2

  
 p21  p22  ....  p1 2 ..... p0k  p1k  pk2  ....  pk1 
(Use sum of G.P. in each bracket)
Ć the number of ways in which n can be resolved as a product of two factors is

1
 1  1  2  1 ....  ak  1  , if n is not a perfect square
2

1
[  1  1    2  1  ....  ak  1], if n is a perfect square
2

Ć the number of ways in which a composite number n can be resolved into two factors which
are relatively prime (or coprime) to each other is equal to 2kă1 where k is the number of
different factors (or different primes) in n.

Illustration 29

If n = 10800, then find the

(a) total number of divisors of n
(b) the number of even divisors
(c) the number of divisors of the form 4m + 2
(d) the number of divisors which are multiples of 15
Solution :
n = 10800 = 24 ï 33 ï 52
Any divisor of n will be of the form 2a ï 3b ï 5c where 0  a < 4, 0  b 3, 0  c  2
For any distinct choices of a, b and c, we get a divisor of n

(a) total number of divisors = (4 + 1) (3 + 1) (2 + 1) = 60

(b) for a divisor to be even, a should be at least one. So total number of even divisors

= 4(3 + 1) (2 + 1) = 48 [no (4 + 1)]

(c) 4m + 2 = 2(2m + 1). In any divisor of the form 4m + 2, a should be exactly 1. So number
of divisors of the form 4m + 2 = 1 (3 + 1) (2 + 1) = 12

(d) A divisor of n will be a multiple of 15 if b is at least one and c is at least one. So number
of such divisors = (4 + 1) ï 3 ï 2 = 30
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 QUIZRR 25

Illustration 30

Find the number of divisors of 428652000 excluding the number and unity. Find also the
sum of the divisors.
428652000 = 25 . 37 . 53 . 72
Solution :
Any divisor of the given number has to be a combination of the 2Ês (five); 3Ês (seven); 5Ês (three)
and 7Ês (two).
There are 5 + 1 = 6 ways of selecting none or one or two etc., or all the 2Ês. Similar argument
repeats for the other numbers.
 The number of divisors = 6 ï 8 ï 4 ï 3 = 576
This includes 1 and the given number also.
Excluding these two, the number of divisors 574

With regard to the sum of the divisors

Any divisor is of the form 2p3q5s7t where 0  p  5; 0  q  7; 0  s  3 and 0  t  2
Thus the sum of the divisors is
(1 + 2 + ... + 25) (1 + 3 + ... + 37) (1 + 5 + ... + 53) (1 ă 7 + 72)
= (26 ă 1) (38 ă 1) (54 ă 1) (73 ă 1)/48

C ir cular p er mut at ions

Until now we have read about arranging objects in a row. Now we will consider the cases in which
things are to be arranged along a circle.

C B A D

D B C A B D A C

A D C B
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

D A B C C D A B B C D A A B C D

Let us consider that persons A, B, C, D are sitting around a round table. If all of A, B, C, D are
shifted one place in anticlockwise order, then we will get fig. (ii) from fig. (i). Again if we shift
A, B, C, D in anticlockwise order, then we will get fig. (iii). If we shift again we will get fig. (iv).
If we again shift, then we will get fig. (i).

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26 QUIZRR
Thus we see that if 4 persons are sitting at a round table, then they can be shifted four times
and four arrangements thus obtained will be same because anticlockwise order of A, B, C, D does
not change.
But if A, B, C, D are sitting in a row and they are shifted such that last occupies the place of
first, then the four arrangements will be different.
Thus if there are 4 things, then for each circular arrangement number of linear arrangements
= 4.
Similarly if n different things are arranged along a circle, then for each circular arrangement,
number of linear arrangements = n
 number of linear arrangements of n different things
= n.(number of circular arrangements of n different things).
 number of circular arrangements of n different things.

1
= (number of linear arrangements of n different things)
4

1
= . n n 1
n

C lockwise and ant iclockwise ar r angement s :

C C Y Y

D B B D B G G B

A A R R
Let the four persons A, B, C, D sit at a round table in anticlockwise direction and clockwise
directions. These two arrangements are two different arrangements. But if four flowers R (red),
G (green), Y (yellow) and B (blue) be arranged to form a garland in anticlockwise and in clockwise
order, then the two arrangements are same because if we see the garland from one side the four
flowers R, G, Y, B will appear in anticlockwise direction and if seen from the other side the four
flowers will appear in the clockwise direction. Here the two arrangements will be considered as
one arrangement because the order of flowers is not changing rather only side of observation is
changing. Here two permutations will be counted as one.
Therefore, when clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are not different i.e. when observation
can be made from both sides, then number of circular arrangements of n different things

n 1
=
2

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Illustration 31

In how many ways 5 Indians and 4 Englishmen can be seated at a round table if
(i) there is no restriction ?
(ii) all the four Englishmen sit together ?
(iii) all the four Englishmen do not sit together ?
(iv) no two Englishmen sit together ?
Solution :
(i) Total numbers of persons = 5 + 4 = 9. These 9 persons can be seated at the round table in
8 ways.

 Required number = 8

(ii) Regarding 4 Englishmen as one person we have only 5 + 1 i.e. 6 persons.

These 6 persons can be seated at the round table in 5 ways. But 4 Englishmen can be

arranged among themselves in 4 ways. I

I

I I
EE
EE I
 Required number = 5 4

(iii) Total number of arrangements when there is no restriction = 8 ;

number of arrangements when all the four Englishmen sit together = 5 4

 number of arrangements when all the four Englishmen do not sit together = 8  5 4

(iv) Since there is no restriction on Indians therefore, first of all we arrange the 5 Indians.

Now 5 Indians can be seated around a table in 4 ways.

If the Englishmen sit at the places indicated by ÂXÊ, then no two Englishmen will sit together.
Now there are 5 places for 4 Englishmen therefore, 4 Englishmen can be seated in, 5P4
ways. (or 5C4 ï 4! ways)
I
 Required number = 4  5 P4  4  5
I I

I I

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Illustration 32
In how many ways can 5 Indians and 5 Englishmen be seated along a circle so that they
are alternate ?
Solution :
5 Indians can be seated along a circle in 4 ways.
If the Englishmen sit at the places indicated by cross ÂXÊ then Indians and Englishmen will be
alternate. E
I I
I I

I I

I I E E
I I
(i) (ii)
Now there are 5 places for 5 Englishmen.
 5 Englishmen can be seated in 5 ways.

 Required number = 4 5

Illustration 33

A round table conference is to be held between 20 delegates of 20 countries. In how many

ways can they be seated if two particular delegates are always to sit together ? [I.I.T.70]
Solution :
Regarding two particular delegates who are to sit together as one person, we have only 18 + 1
= 19 persons. These 19 persons can be seated at the round table in 18 ways.

But two particular persons can be arranged among themselves in 2 ways.

 Required number = 18  2

Illustration 34

Find the number of ways in which n different beads can be arranged to form a necklace.
Solution :
Since in forming a necklace clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements of beads are not different,
n 1
therefore, n beads can be arranged to form a necklace in ways.
2

1
 Required number = n1
2

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DIVISION AND DISTRIBUTION

Before going to formula and questions on division and distribution, let us understand the difference
between the two.
Let us take an example to get hold of the point

F1 F2 F3

This part is division E1 E2 E3



 E2 E1 E3

All such cases are part of distribution  E3 E2 E1

 E2 E3 E1

(where F1, F2 & F3 are three group & E1, E2 & E3 are items put in these groups)
 We can say that,
In division, the order of selection (division) does not matter.
Generally we say
Division among group
Distribution among people
because groupÊs order does not matter where as order of people do matter as they can not
be identical.

You can say that division  selection

distribution  arrangement

Division & Distribution

among/into

groups of groups of groups of equal as

unequal sizes equal sizes well as unequal size

So, we have divided division & distribution into 3 cases and we will now do them in detail
individually.

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 30 QUIZRR
I. Groups of Unequal Size

Number of ways to divide (m + n) items into 2 unequal groups containing m & n items respectively
is

 m  n !
m ! n!

Logic : It is simple. Just select m elements first from (m + n) things & then n out of n remaining

m n m n  m  n!
i.e. Cm  nCn  Cm 
m! n!

we will call this as basic result

m  n!
 Basic result =
m! n!

Now, distribution
 The number of ways to distribute (m + n) items into 3 person in the groups containing m
& n items respectively is

= (no. of ways to divide) ï (no. of groups)

= Basic result ï (no. of groups)!

 m  n!
=  2!
m ! n!

 For case 1 :

No. of ways to divide Basic result

No. of ways to distribute (No. of ways to divide) ï (no. of groups)!

Illustration 35

(a) Divide 6 balls in 3 boxes of different sizes such that one box contains 1 ball, another
contains 2 and remaining contains 3.
(b) Divide 6 balls in 3 boxes of different sizes such that box 1 contain 1 ball, box 2
contains 2 balls & box 3 contains 3 balls.
(c) Divide 6 balls in 3 identical boxes where one box contains 1 ball, another contains 2
balls & rest contains 3.

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 QUIZRR 31

Solution :
This is to illustrate you, how to figure out the difference between division and distribution, and
then apply the formula.
First let us find out the basic result
6

1 2 3

6!
 Basic Result =  60
1! 2! 3!

Now we will see the difference,

(a) 6 balls in 3 boxes, no other constraint except that 1 box contains 1, other 2 & remaining 3.

Let G1 be group of balls containing 1 ball

G2 be group of balls containing 2 balls
G3 be group of balls containing 3 balls

Box 1 Box 2 Box 3

G1 G2 G3 

G1 G3 G2 

G2 G3 G1 
 there all are possible cases
G2 G1 G3 

G3 G1 G2 
G3 G2 G1 


Now here there will be more cases where we can shift groups also i.e.

G1   ball 1 or G1   B2
G2   B2, B3 G2   B1, B6
G3   B4, B5, B6 G3   B3, B4, B5
and so on
But this is not division, infact this is distribution now using formula
for distribution = Basic Result ï (no. of groups)!
= 60 ï 3!
= 360

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 32 QUIZRR
(b) Now here it is fixed that box 1, contains 1 ball
Box 2 contains 2 & Box 3 contains 3 balls

 Box 1 Box 2 Box 3

B1 B2 ă B3 B4 ă B6 3 is valid

B2 ă B3 B1 B4 ă B6 ï not valid

 This means that this is only division, no distribution possible

 Total ways = Basic Result
= 60

(c) Now it is given that boxes are identical i.e. all boxes are same & they cannot be differentiated.
No such box 1, box 2, box3 now.
So it becomes a case of division only.
 Total ways = Basic Result
= 60

C ase 2 : Groups of Equal Sizes

This case is the division/distribution of items into different or number or groups, where groups
contain equal no. of items.

Basic Result
No. of ways to divide =
 No. of groups  !
No. of ways to distribute = Basic Result

Let us understand the concept with the following illustration.

Illustration 36

Divide/distribute
(a) 9 different balls in 3 different boxes, equally.
(b) 9 different balls in 3 identical boxes, equally.
(c) divide 52 cards equally in 4 parts
(d) 52 cards equally among 4 players.

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Solution :
(a) 9

3 3 3

Box 1 Box 2 Box 3

B1 ă B3 B4 ă B6 B7 ă B9
B4 ă B6 B7 ă B9 B1 ă B3 3 valid shift
 case of distribution
 Total no. of ways (using the formula) = Basic Result

9!
=
3! 3! 3!

(b) Now here boxes are identical

 There is no distribution between Box 1, Box 2 & Box 3. So the shift which was valid
in case (a) above is not valued here as there is no Box 1, Box 2 or Box 3.
 Its a case of division only.

Basic Result
 Total ways =
 of groups !
no.

(c) Welcome to cards question (I)

52

13 13 13 13

(This is analogous to game of sweep)

The question says dividing in 4 parts. Here parts are indistinguishable or we can say parts
are identical.
 Clearly its a case of division only.

52! 1 52!
Total ways =  
13! 13! 13! 13! 4! 13!4  4!

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(d) Now we have to divide in 4 players

P1 P2 P3 P4

C1ă13 C4ă26 C27ă39 C40ă52

C14ă26 C27ă39 C1ă13 C40ă52 3 shift valid

Now here these cases matter

Hence it is case of distribution
 Total ways = Basic Result

52!
= 13! 4
 

C ase 3 : Groups of Both Equal & Unequal Sizes

In this case we find out the total ways in which we can divide/distribute items into groups
containing equal as well as unequal groups. For ex.
10

3 3 2 2
This is an example of case 3 as we have 2 kinds of groups here.
Ist group has 3 elements &
2nd group has 2 elements
& hence both have unequal sizes.
Here also there will be case of division and distribution but distribution is divided in 2 parts.

Basic Result
No. of ways to divide =  no. of equal groups !
No. of ways to distribute completely = (no. of ways to divide) ï (no. of groups) !
No. of ways to distribute = Basic Result
among equal groups (DAEG)

Illustration 37

Five balls of different colours are to be placed in 3 boxes of different sizes. Each box can
hold all five balls. In how many different ways can we place the balls so that no box
remains empty. [IIT 81]

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Solution :
Since there is no distinction between boxes this becomes a case of distribution as we have seen
in previous cases also.

Box 1 Box 2 Box 3 Case No. of ways

1 2 2 III Ways to distribute

equal & completely
unequal
 5!  1
groups =     3!
 2!2!  2!
both
= 90

1 3 1 III ways

 5!  1
=     3!
 3! 1! 1!  2!

= 60

There are only two cases possible.

Hence total ways = 90 + 60
= 150

Illustration 38
7 departments are to be divided among 3 ministers such that every minister should get
atleast 1 & atmost 4 departments. In how many ways can this be done ?
Solution :
This is a very practical problem which we encounter at the time of elections. Though it is clear
from the question only that this is a case of distribution only, as any minister can have any
number of departments.
Making the table to see the no. of possible cases
M1 M2 M3 case formula Basic Result No. of ways

7!
1 2 4 I distribution  105 105 ï 31 = 630
1! 2! 4!

7! 140
1 3 3 III distribution  140  3! = 420
1! 3! 3! 2!

7! 210
2 2 3 III distribution  210  3! = 630
2!2!3! 2!

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We can not make more cases as there is a maximum limit of 4 departments per minister.
Also note that here case 1 falls into the category of (case-I) i.e. distribution among unequal
groups, so you have to be careful while deciding cases.
 Total ways = 630 + 420 + 630
= 1680
We will conside an example of DAEG case later on.

DIVISION OF IDENTICAL OBJ ECTS

Number of ways to divide n identical things in r groups.

n+ră1
Result 1 : Such that each group gets zero or more items = Cră1
(empty groups are allowed)
nă1
Result 2 : such that each group gets atleast one item = Cră1
(empty groups are not allowed)
Result 3 : such that groups contain atleast p items & atmost q items  follow „PROCEDURE‰
let us see how to solve questions of these types.

Illustration 39

How can we divide 8 identical balls among three boys that each get atleast two balls ?
Solution :
Let us solve this question by Integral equation method {PROCEDURE}
let

x1 be the number of balls given to Boy 1

x2 be the number of balls given to Boy 2
x3 be the number of balls given to Boy 3

So assuming this equation becomes

x1 + x2 + x3 = 8 ...(i)
as there are a total of 8 balls.
also condition defined by question (CDQ)
x1  2, x2  2, x3  2 i.e. atleast 2 balls to be given to each child.
now we will find the logical constraint (L.C.), i.e. the maximum balls each boy can get
 Max. [x1] = 8 ă Min [x2] ă Min [x3]
= 8 ă 2 ă 2 = 4
Since there are same constraints on x2 & x3
 i.e.  Max [xi] = 4, i = 1, 2, 3

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So a boy can have a minimum of 2 balls and a maximum of 4 balls.

 Number of solutions of the equation.
= coefficient of x8 in the expansion


x  x  x  x  x  x  x  x  x 
2 3 4
  
2 3 4 2 3 4

boy 1 boy 2 boy 3

= coeff. of x8 in (x2 + x3 + x4)3

= coeff. of x8 in x6 (1 + x + x2)3
= coeff. of x2 in (1 + x + x2)3

3
 1  x3 
= coeff. of x in 
2 
 1  x 

= coeff. of x2 in [1 ă x3]3 (1 ă x)ă 3

3
= coeff.of x2 in 
3
C0  3C1 x3  3C2 x6  3C3 x9  1  x 


only this term will be able to give x2 term from (1 ă x)ă3 as other terms are of greater power
than x2
 Solution = coefficient of x2 in 3C0 ï (1 ă x)ă3
3+2ă1
= C2 = 4C2 = 6

Tip : in the expression of (1 ă x)ăn = a0 + a1 x + a2x2 + ... 

coefficient of xr = ar = n+ră1
Cr

(take n positive in the formula)

T r ick

To get rid of 1 expansion and reducing our calculation use this method.
If CDQ LC

< 
< <
i.e. CDQ < LC i.e. CDQ  LC
then max value = CDQ i.e. expansion take max value =  i.e. expansion will become
will be (1 + x + x2 + ... xn) where n is 1
(1 + x + x2 ... ) = 1  x forget CDQ here
defined by CDQ

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for ex. take the previous illustration only
condition defined by question :
xi   2 i = 1, 2, 3
& no mention of maximum value so we can take that to 

Logical constraint

xi  4 i = 1, 2, 3
Now you an see
CDQ > 4 as ( > 4)

 we can take the expansion (x2 + x3 + x4) as (x2 + x3 + x4 + ... )

so now questions becomes
= coeff. of x8 in (x2 + x3 + x4 + ... )3
= of x8 in x6 (1 + x2 + x2 ... )

x6
=
1  x 
= coeff. of x2 in (1 ă x)ă3
exactly what we have done earlier, but saves us from the trouble of solving (1 ă x)3.

Illustration 40

Find the number of integral solution for the equation x 1 + x 2 + x 3 = 10 where 2  x i  4 ?

Solution :
Constraint defined by question
Min [xi] = 2
Max [xi] = 4
Now we will find logical constraint
Max [x1] = 10 ă Min [x2] ă Min [x3]
= 10 ă 2 ă 2
= 6
Now CDQ < LC
 we cannot expand the series to .

( x2  x3  x4 )3
 Solution = coeff. of x10 in   
because 2  xi  4

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or coeff. of x10 in x6 (1 + x + x2)3

or coeff. of x4 in (1 + x + x2)3
coeff. of x4 in (1 ă x3)3 (1 ă x)ă3

coeff. of x4 in ( 3C0 ă 3C1 x3 + 3

C2 x6 ă 3C3 x9) (1 ă x)ă3

only these 2 terms will be able to give the term x4 as (1 ă x)ă 3

= 1 + x + x2 + ... 

 Answer = 3C0 ï coeff. of x4 in (1 ă x)ă3 ă 3C1 ï coeff. of x1 in (1 ă x)ă3

= 3C0 ï 6
C4 ă 3C1 ï 3
C1
= 15 ă 9
= 6

MAPPING METHOD
What if we can somehow remove the part of solving expansion series and can directly use
formulas for dividing things such that zero or more and atleast one items be used.
Yes, we can but only when
There is NO maximum constraint on any of the variable, in the question.
Let us understand with the help of an illustration.

Illustration 41

How many integral solutions are there to x + y + z + w = 29, where x  1, y  2, z  3 and

w  0 ?
Solution :
For applying Mapping Method

STEP 1 : Check if there is any maximum constraint on any variable.

If yes  we can not apply this method
If no  we can go to step 2

STEP 2 : In this step we will try to bring each variable to a position where we can give
zero or more elements to it rather than the min constraint define by question.
We do this step, so that we can use the direct formula (Resultă1)

Now x  1, y  2, z  3, w  0

if we replace

x = X + 1  X can take 0 or more

y = Y + 2  similarly Y can take 0 or more

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z = Z + 3 
 similarly z & w
w = W + 0  

i.e. Old value = new value + Min. (old value)

putting these values in equation x + y + z + w = 29 it becomes

(X + 1) + (Y + 2) + (Z + 3) + (W + 0) = 29

 X + Y + Z + W = 23


here each variable can have 0 or more items

23+4ă1
 using result 1, no. of solutions = C4ă1
26
= C3

Illustration 42

Find the number of non-negative integral solutions of x + y + z + 4t = 20

Solution :
First of all note that we have to find non negative solutions i.e. each variable can take 0 or more
values.
Now let us see how to solve these type of questions.
Rewriting the equation as
x + y + z = 20 ă 4t ...(i)
now the sum of x, y, z will vary according to the value of t. Note here that all variable are non-
negative so L.H.S. can not take negative values.

t x+ y+ z No. of ways
20+3ă1 22
1. 0 20 C3ă1 = C2
16+3ă1 18
2. 1 16 C3ă1 = C2
12+3ă1 14
3. 2 12 C3ă1 = C2
8+3ă1 10
4. 3 8 C3ă1 = C2
4+3ă1
5. 4 4 C3ă1 = 6C2
2
6. 5 0 C2 = 1

adding all of them will give us the final result.

 Total number of integral solutions
22 18 14 10
= C2 + C2 + C2 + C2 + 6C2 + 2C2
= 536
Now we will attempt upgraded version of this question.

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Illustration 43

Find the number of non-negative integral solutions of 2x 1 + 3x 2 + x 3 = 20.

Solution :
Now this is different & difficult from the question done above. So how we go about it ?
Rule : Shift highest coefficient to R.H.S. i.e. 3x2 in this question. The logic is simple, you will
subtract bigger term & hence the number of cases will be less. Let us solve it to unders tand it
better.
So equation becomes
2x1 + x3 = 20 ă 3x2

Cases x2 2x1 + x3 S

1. 0 20 Now solve this case as

2x1 + x3 = 20
x3 = 20 ă 2x1
x1 x3
0 20

1 18 

2 16  11 ways

: : 

10 0
 Total ways = 11

2. 1 17 doing similarly as above = 9

3. 2 14 8

4. 3 11 6

5. 4 8 5

6. 5 5 3

7. 6 2 2

 Total ways = 11 + 9 + 8 + 6 + 5 + 3 + 2
= 44

Solving I nt egr al I neq uat ions :

We will explain the procedure of this type by taking an example.

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Illustration 44

Find the positive integral solutions of the inequality x + y + z  10

Solution :
Again, the first step is to note that we are asked to find positive integral solutions i.e. x, y, z can
takes values  1 but not zero.
Now come to inequality part
x + y + z  10
Then there is no loss in writing
x + y + z + w = 10
where w is a non-negative (i.e. can also take 0) integer.
But now x, y, z are positive integers & w is non negative integer. Making all of them non-negative
integer using mapping method.

x= xă 1
y= yă 1
z= ză 1
w = w

 Equation becomes
(x + 1) + (y + 1) + (z + 1) + w = 10
 x+ y+ z+ w = 7
This is just dividing 7 objects into 4 groups where each group contain zero or more items.
7+4ă1 10
 Total ways = C4ă1 = C3 = 120

Some I mp or t ant R esult s

1. Dearrangement
If n items are arranged in a row, then the number of ways in which they can be rearranged so
that no one of them occupies the place assigned to it, as

 1 1 1 1
n ! 1    ...   1n
 1! 2! 3! n ! 

Illustration 45

There are 5 letters and 5 envelopes. Find the number of ways in which all letters are put
in wrong envelopes.
Solution :
Just apply the formula used above where n = 5
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 1 1 1 1 1
 Total ways = 5!  1      
 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 

5! 5! 5! 5!
= 5!  5!    
2! 3! 4! 5!

= 60 ă 20 + 5 ă 1
= 44

2. Sum of digits
Sum of the numbers formed by n non-zero digits is

 10n  1 
= (sum of the digits  n  1 !  
 10  1 

let us do the logic for this formula through a question.

Illustration 46

Find the sum of all five digit numbers that can be formed using digits 2, 3, 4 & 5.
Solution :
There are 4 digits in all and hence 4 ! numbers can be formed. Therefore we have to find the sum
of these 24 numbers.

4!
Each of the numbers 2, 3, 4 & 5 will repeat times at each position (i.e. unitÊs place, hundredÊs
4
place, thousandÊs etc.)
Now summing up terms at oneÊs place

 (2 + 3 + 4 + 5) ï 3! = 84

and this sum will repeat for 10Ês place also hence by symmetry we can say
sum = 84 (100 + 101 + 102 + 103)
= 93324
& hence the formula

3. Exponent of prime p in n!
Let p be a prime number & n be a positive number then the last integer amongst (2, 3 ... (n ă 1)

n
divisible by p is given by   where [ ] denotes greatest integer function.
 p

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Now if instead of n, it is n!
Then exponent of p in n! is given by

n  n   n 
E p      2  ...  t 
 p   p   p 

where pt  n < pt+1

Illustration 47

Find the exponent of 3 in 100!

Solution :
Let Ep(n) denote the exponent of p in n.

n  n  n
Then, E p  n!      2   ...   s 
 p   p   p 

where s is the largest positive integer such that ps  n < ps+1, here the greatest value for S is 4
i.e 34 = 81 < 100 as 35 > 100

 100   100   100  100 

So, E3 (100!) =     
 3   32   33   34 

= 33 + 11 + 3 + 1 = 48
Hence, the exponent of 3 in 100! is 48.

Illustration 48

Prove that 33! is divisible by 215. What is the largest integer n such that 33! is divisible by
2n ?
Solution :
Let Ep(n) denote the exponent of prime p in n.
Then, we know that

n  n   n  n
E p  n!      2    3   ....   s  , where s is the largest integer such that ps  n < ps+1
 p   p   p   p 

Here n = 33, p = 2  25 < 33 > 26  s = 5

 33   33   33   33   33 
So, E2  33! =     2    3    4    5 
 2  2  2  2  2 

= 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 31
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Hence, the exponent of 2 in 33! is 31 i.e. 33! is divisible by 231. But 231 is divisible by 215 also.
Hence, 33! is divisible by 215 and the largest integer n such that 33! is divisible by 2n is 31.

Illustration 49

Find the exponent of 15 in 100!

Solution :
We have : 15 = 3 ï 5
Now, E3 (100!) = 48

 100   100 
and, E5 (100!) =      20  4  24
 5   52 

 Exponent of 15 in 100! = min (24, 48) = 24

Illustration 50

Find the number of zeroes at the end of 100!

Solution :
In terms of prime factors 100! can be written as 2a, 3b, 5c, 7d...

 100   100   100  100   100   100 

Now, E2 (100) =       
 2   22   23   24   25   26 

= 50 + 25 + 12 + 6 + 3 + 1 = 97

 100   100 
and, E5 (100!) =     20  4  24
 5   52 

Therefore,
100! = 297 ï 3b ï 524 ï 7d ï ... = 273 ï (2 ï 5)24 ï 7d ï ...
= 1024 ï 273 ï 3b ï 7d ï ...
Thus, the number of zeroes at the end of 100! is 24.

n
4. Number of rectangles of any size in a square of size n ï n is r
r 1
3

& number of squares is r

r 1
2

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Ć Number of rectangles of any size in a rectangle of m ï n
= (1 + 2 + 3 ... m) (1 + 2 + 3 ... n)

m  m  1 n  m  1
=
2 2

& no. of squares =   m  r  1  n  r  1

r1

5. If there are m items of one kind, n items of another kind and so on, then the number of ways
of choosing r items out of these items = coeff. of xr in (1 + x + x2 ... xm) (1 + x2 + ... xn)

A little twist
If atleast one item of each kind is included in every selection then
= coefficient of xr in (x + x2 ... xm) (x + x2 + ... xn)

6. The number of ways of selecting r items point a group of n items in which p are identical is
năp năp năp năp
 Cr + Cr–1 + Cr–2 ... C0 if r  p 
 
 năp
Cr + năp
Cr–1... năp
Crăp if r > p 

7. No. of ways to divide n different things in a groups such that each groups gets 0 or more is given
by rn.
whereas, no. of ways to divide such that each group gets atleast one item is given by
rn ă rC1 (r ă 1)n + rC2 (r ă 2)n ... + (ă 1)ră1 rCră1

Tip : to remember rn 1 remember (receiver)

Illustration 51

There are 5 tourists and 3 hotels. In how many ways they can stay ?
Solution :
Here receiver is hotel
 Solution = (hotel)tourists
= (3)5

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Illustration 52

In how many ways can 5 different balls be placed in 3 different boxes such that atleast one
ball should go in each box ?
Solution :
This is case 2 of the rule we just did above.
Applying formula to get the solution
= 35 ă 3C1 (3 ă 1)5 + 3C2 (3 ă 2)5 + 0
= 243 ă 3 (32) + 3
= 150

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SOLVED SUBJ ECTIVE

Illustration 1

m
Evaluate n
Ck  
j 0
n j
Ck 1

Solution :
Value = nCk + (nCkă1 + n + 1
Ckă1 + n + 2
Ckă1 + ... + n + m
Ckă1)
= (nCk + nCkă1) + (n+1Ckă1 + n + 2
Ckă1) + ... + n + m
Ckă1)
n+1 n+1 n+2 n + m–1 n + m
= Ck + ( Ckă1 + C kă1
+ Ckă1 + Ckă1)
n+1
= ( Ck + 11+1
Ckă1) + (n+2Ck–1 + ... + n+m–1
Ckă1 + n+m
Ckă1
n+2
= Ck + (n+2Ckă1 + ... n+m–1
Ck–1 + n+m–1
Ckă1 + n+m
Ckă1)
= .................................................................
n+mă1
= Ck + (n+mă1Ck + n+m
Ckă1)
n+m n+m
= Ck + Ckă1
n+m+1
= Ck.

Illustration 2

A man has 7 relatives 4 of them are ladies and 3 gentlemen; his wife has also 7 relatives 3
of them are ladies and 4 gentlemen. In how many ways can they invite a dinner party of
3 ladies and 3 gentlemen so that there are 3 of the manÊs relatives and 3 of the wifeÊs
relatives ? [I.I.T. 85]
Solution :

ManÊs relatives WifeÊs relatives

No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of ways
ladies men ladies men

4 3 3 4
Case I 0 3 3 0 C0 ï C3 ï C3 ï C0

4 3 3 4
Case II 1 2 2 1 C1 ï C2 ï C2 ï C1

4 3 3 4
Case III 2 1 1 2 C2 ï C1 ï C1 ï C2

4 3 3 4
Case IV 3 0 0 3 C3 ï C0 ï C0 ï C3

 Required number = 1 + 144 + 324 + 16 = 485

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Illustration 3

Six „X‰s have to be placed in the squares of the figure given below, such that each row
contains at least one X, in how many different ways can this be done? [I.I.T. 78]
Solution :

Number of marks in
Ist row 2nd row 3rd row No. of ways (no. of selections of squares)
2 4 2
1 3 2 C1 ï C3 ï C2 = 8
2 4 2
1 4 1 C1 ï C4 ï C1 = 4
2 4 2
2 2 2 C2 ï C2 ï C2 = 6
2 4 2
2 3 1 C2 ï C3 ï C1 = 8
 Required number = 8 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 26

Second Method :
Number of ways of putting six cross marks in 8 squares when there is no restriction
= 8C6 = 28
Number of ways when the six cross marks are put in first and second rows = 6C6 = 1
Similarly one case for second & third row.
Hence subtracting these two cases.
 Required number = 28 ă 2 = 26

Illustration 4

A person writes letters to six friends and addresses the corresponding envelopes. In how
many ways can the letters be placed in the envelopes so that (i) at least two of them are
in the wrong envelopes. (ii) all the letters are in the wrong envelopes.
Solution :
(i) The number of ways in which at least two of them are in the wrong envelopes

6  Here D is dearrangements for r litters. We choose 

 
= 
r=2
n
Cn r D r  letters in which dearrangement has to be done 
 & then apply the dearrangement formula. 
 

= nCnă2D2 + nCnă3D3 + nCnă4D4 + nCnă5D5 + nCnă6D6

Here n = 6

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6  1 1 6  1 1 1  1 1 1 1
= C4 .2!  1     C3 .3!  1      6 C2 .4!  1     
 1! 2!   1! 2! 3!   1! 2! 3! 4! 

 1 1 1 1 1 6  1 1 1 1 1 1
 6 C1 . 5!  1        C0 6!  1       
 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!   1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 

= 15 + 40 + 135 + 264 + 265 = 719

(ii) The number of ways in which all letters be placed in wrong envelopes

 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 6!  1       
 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 

1 1 1 1 1 
= 720      
 2 6 24 120 720 

= 360 ă 120 + 30 ă 6 + 1 = 265.

Illustration 5

From a well-shuffled pack of 52 cards, a player is given 5 cards. If the cards have consecutive
values then it is said that the player has a run and if they are also from the same suit it
is said that the player has a running flash. In how many different ways can a player hold
a (i) run (ii) running flash ?
Solution :
There are 4 suits of cards in a pack of 52 cards, each suit having 13 cards, the values being
1 (= A), 2, 3, ... 10, 11 (= J), 12 (= Q), 13 (= K).
In a game of cards A is also given the next value above K.
 Our problem is to select 5 consecutive cards to have a running flash when the cards of a
suit are arranged as follows :

A J Q K A

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

The number of selections of 5 cards of consecutive values from the pack = 10 ï 45,
because in each place we have 4 choices of suits.
 the total number of running flashes
= 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 40
and the total number of runs = 10 ï 45 = 10240.

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Illustration 6

In how many ways can a committee of 10 be selected with at least 4 women and 4 men from
9 women and 8 men if
(i) Ms X refuses to work with Mr Y
(ii) Ms X and Mr insist to work together?
Solution :
The number of committees of 10 with at least 4 women and 4 men :
Possibilities Combinations

9! 8!
4w, 6m 9
C4 ï 8
C6 = 4! 5!  6! 2!

9.8.7.6 8.7
=   3528
24 2

9.8.7.6 8.7.6
5w, 5m 9
C5 ï 8
C5 =   7056
24 6

9.8.7 8.7.6.5
6w, 4m 9
C6 ï 8
C4 =   5880
6 24

 total number of committees of 10 with at least 4 women and 4 men

= 3528 + 7056 + 5880 = 16464
The number of such committees in which Ms X and Mr Y are present :
In this case we have to find the number of committees of 8 with at least 3 women and 3 men from
8 women and 7 men. As above, the number of committees in which Ms X and Mr Y work together
= 8C3 ï 7
C5 + 8C4 ï 7
C4 + 8C5 ï 7
C3

Illustration 7

In how many ways can 5 identical black balls, 7 identical red balls and 6 identical green
balls be arranged in a row so that at least one ball is separated from balls of the same
colour?
Solution :
The required number of ways
= (the number of ways without restriction)
ă (the number of ways when balls of each colours are consecutive)

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18! 
=  3! there are altogether 18 balls in which 5, 7
5! 7! 6! 
 and 6 are identical; and considering balls of
 the same colour as one thing there are 3

 things, there being no arrangement between
 balls of the same colour

18!
= 5! 6! 7!  6 .

Illustration 8

How many words can be made with letters of the word INTERMEDIATE if
(i) the words neither begin with I nor end with E
(ii) the vowels and consonants alternate in the words
(iii) the vowels are always consecutive
(iv) no vowels is between two consonants
(v) the relative order of vowels and consonants does not change
(vi) the order of vowels does not change?
Solution :
(i) The required number of words
= (the number of words without restriction)
ă (the number of words beginning with I)
ă (the number of words ending with E)
+ (the number of words beginning with I and ending with E)
(because words beginning with I as well as words ending with E contain some words
beginning with I and ending with E).
The number of words without restriction

12 !
= ( there are 12 letters in which there are two Is, three Es and two Ts).
2!3!2!

11!
The number of words beginning with I =
3! 2!

( with I in the extreme left place we are left to arrange remaining 11 letters NTERMEDIATE
in which there are two Ts and three Es).

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11!
The number of words ending with E =
2! 2!2!

( with E in the extreme right place we are left to arrange 11 letters INTERMEDIAT in
which there are two Is, two Es and two Ts).

10 !
The number of words beginning with I and ending with E = 2! 2!

( with I in the extreme left and E in the extreme right places we are left to arrange 10
letters NTERMEDIAT in which there are two Ts and two Es).
 the required number of words

12! 11! 11! 10!

=   
2! 3! 2! 3! 2! 2! 2! 2! 2! 2!

10 ! 83  10!
= 2! 3! 2! 12 . 11  11 . 2  11 . 3  6   24

(ii) There are 6 vowels and 6 consonants. So the number of words in which vowels and consonants
alternate
= (the number of words in which vowels occupy odd places and consonants occupy even
places)
+ (the number of words in which consonants occupy odd places and vowels occupy even
places)

6! 6! 6! 6!
=   
2! 3! 2! 2! 2! 3!

6! 6!
= 2.   43200
2! 3! 2!

(iii) Considering the 6 vowels IEEIAE as one thing, the number of arrangements to this with
6 consonants

7!
= ( there are two Ts in the consonants)
2!

For each of these arrangements, the 6 consecutive vowels can be arranged among themselves

6!
in 2! 3! ways.

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 the required number of words

7! 6!
= 2!  2! 3!  151200

(iv) No vowel will be between two consonants if all the consonants become consecutive
 the required number of words
= the number of arrangements when all the consonants are consecutive

7! 6!
=  (as above)
2! 3! 2!

= 151200

(v) The relative order of vowels and consonants will not change if in the arrangements of letters
the vowels occupy places of vowels, i.e. Ist, 4th, 7th, 9th, 10th, 12th places and consonants
occupy their places, i.e., 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 8th, 11th places.
 the required number of words

6! 6!
= 2! 3!  2!  21600

(vi) The order of vowels will not change if no two vowels interchange places, i.e., in the
arrangement all the vowels are treated as identical.
(For example LATE, ATLE, TLAE, etc. have the same order of vowels A, E. But LETA,
ETLA, TLEA, etc., have changed order of vowels A, E. So LATE is counted but LETA is not.
If A, E, are taken as identical, say V then LVTV does not give a new arrangement by
interchange V, V.)
The required number of words
= the number of arrangements of 12 letters in which 6 vowels are treated as identical

12!
= ( there are two Ts also)
6! 2!

Illustration 9

In how many ways 30 marks can be alloted to 8 questions if each question carries at least
2 marks.
Solution :
Here a question can be of minimum 2 marks & hence
Max = 30 ă (Min sum of remaining 7 question
= 30 ă 7(2) = 16
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 Each question has following options 2, 3, 4... 16

 Required number
= coeff. of x30 in (x2 + x3 + .... + x16)8
= coeff. of x30 in x16 (1 + x + ... + x14)8

8
14
 1  x15 
= coeff. of x in 
 1  x 
 

= coeff. of x14 in (1 ă x)ă8 (as x15 will not give x14 term, obviously)

21 8.7.9....21
= C14   116280 .
14

Second Method :
Let first, second, ...., eighth questions be allotted x1, x2, ..... x8 marks respectively, then
x1 + x2 + ... + x8 = 30, where x1, x2, ..... x8 ...(1)
Let yi = xi ă 2 (mapping method)
Then y1 + y2 + ... + y8 = (x1 + x2 + ... + x8) ă 16
or y1 + y2 + ... + y8 = 14, where y1, y2, ..., y8  0 ...(2)
Required number = number of solutions of equation (1)
= number of solutions of equation (2)
= number of ways of distributing 12 identical things among 8 persons when each person gets
zero or more things
n + r ă 1
= Cr Here n = 8, r = 14
8 + 14 ă 1
= C14
21 21
= C14 = C7 = 116280

Third Method :
Number of ways in which each of the 8 questions can be allotted 2 marks out of 30 marks
(equivalent to 30 identical things)
= 1ï 1ï 1ï 1ï 1ï 1ï 1ï 1= 1
Number of ways in which remaing 14 marks can be allotted to 8 questions when any question
may be allotted zero or more marks.
n+ră1 8 + 14 ă 1 21 21
= Cr = C14 = C14 = C7 = 116280

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Illustration 1 0
Find the number of factors of the number 37800. Also find the sum of the odd proper
divisors of the number.
Solution :
Here 37800 = 378 ï 100 = 3 ï 126 ï 22 ï 52
= 3 ï 3 ï 42 ï 22 ï 52
= 3 ï 3 ï 3 ï 7 ï 23 ï 52
= 23 ï 33 ï 52 ï 7
 the required number of factors
= the total number of selections from
(2, 2, 2), (3, 3, 3), (5, 5), (7)
= (3 + 1)(3 + 1)(2 + 1)(1 + 1) ă 2
{excluding 20 . 30 . 50 . 70, i.e., 1 and 23 . 33 . 52 . 7, i.e., 37800 as factors}
= 4 ï 4 ï 3 ï 2 ă 2 = 96 ă 2 = 94
For second part we need to find odd proper divisors. For that we have to remove any factors of
2 as this will make the factor even.
The required sum
= (30 + 31 + 32 + 33)(50 + 51 + 52)(70 + 71) ă 1
{2n as a factor and 1 as a divisor are to be excluded}

Illustration 1 1
There are 5 mangoes and 4 apples. In how many different ways can a selection of fruits be
made if
(i) fruits of the same kind are different
(ii) fruits of the same kind are identical?
Solution :
(i) The number of ways to select any number of mangoes
= 5C0 + 5C1 + 5C2 + ... + 5C5 = 25.
The number of ways to select any number of apples
= 4C0 + 4C1 + ... + 4C4 = 24.
 the required number of ways to select fruits
= 25 ï 24 ă 1 {excluding the way in which 0 mangoes and 0 apples are selected}
9
= 2 ă 1
(ii) The required number of ways
= (5 + 1)(4 + 1) ă 1 = 6 ï 5 ă 1 = 29

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Illustration 1 2

Two different packs of cards are shuffled together. Cards are dealt equally among 4 players,
each getting 13 cards. In how many ways can a player get his cards if no two cards are from
the same suit with the same denomination?
Solution :
Here, there are 52 distinct cards, each card being 2 in number. As no two cards are to be of the
same suit with the same denomination (i.e., two cards are identical), 13 cards are to be selected
from 52 cards where each card is two in number.
52
The number of selections of 13 cards from 52 distinct cards = C13.
But each of the 13 cards can be selected in 2 ways (belonging to either of the two packs)
 the required number of ways

52 52 !
= C13  213  .213
13 ! 39 !

Illustration 1 3

In an examination the maximum marks for each of the three papers are 50 each. Maximum
marks for the fourth paper are 100. Find the number of ways in which the candidate can
score 60% marks in the aggregate. [Roorkee 89]
Solution :
The candidate must score 150 marks.
 Required number
= coeff. of x150 in (1 + x + ... x50)3(1 + x + ... + x100)

3
 1  x51   1  x101 
= coeff. of x 150
in    
 1 x   1x 

= coeff. of x150 in (1 ă x51)3 (1 ă x101)(1 ă x)ă4

= coeff. of x150 in (1 ă 3x51 + 3x102 ă x153) (1 ă x101)(1 ă x)ă4
= coeff. of x150 in (1 ă 3x51 + 3x102 ă x101)(1 ă x)ă4 {neglecting the powers greater than 150}
[leaving terms containing powers of x greater than 150]
= coeff. of x150 in (1 ă x)ă4 ă 3 coeff. of x99 in (1 ă x)ă4
+ 3 coeff. of x48 in (1 ă x)ă 4
ă coeff. of x49 in (1 ă x)ă4
153 102 51 52
= C150 ă 3 . C99 + 3 . C48 ă C49.

153.152.151 102.101.100 51.50.49 52.51.50

=  3.  3. 
6 6 6 6

= 110556

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Illustration 1 4
How many numbers of five digits can be made with the digits 1, 2, 3 each of which can be
used at most thrice in a number?
Solution :
We have the digits 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3 to make numbers of five digits. The digits will be as
follows (constructionwise) :
(i) three identical, one pair (for example : 1, 1, 1, 2, 2 etc.)
(ii) three identical, two different (for example : 3, 3, 3, 1, 2 etc.)
(iii) two pairs, one different (for example : 2, 2, 1, 1, 3 etc.)
Tip : In order to cover all the possibilities start with all identical digits and go on reducing the
number of identical digits, ultimately reaching all different digits.
Case (i) The number of selections of three identical digits, one pair = 3C1 ï 2
C1.

5!
Corresponding to each selection, the number of numbers that can be made = 3 ! 2 !

 the total number of numbers of three identical digits and one pair

3 5! 54
= C1  2 C1  32  60 ...(1)
3!2! 2

Case (ii) The number of selections of three identical digits and two different digits = 3C1 ï 2
C2
 the total number of numbers of three identical digits and two different digits

3 5! 120
= C1  2C2  3  60 ...(2)
3! 6

Case (iii) The number of selections of two pairs, one different digit = 3C2 ï 1
C1
 the total number of numbers of two pairs and one different digit

3 5!
= C2  1C1   3  30  90
2! 2!

 the required number of numbers

= 60 + 60 + 90 = 210

Illustration 1 5

How many integers between 1 and 1000000 have the sum of the digits 18 ?
Solution :
Any number of between 1 and 1000000 must be of less than seven digits. Therefore, it must be
of the form
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6

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where a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 a6  {0, 1, 2, ..., 9}

According to question sum of the digits = 18
Thus a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 = 18 ...(1)
where 0  ai  9, i = 1, 2, 3, ..., 9
Required number = coefficient of x18 in (1 + x + x2 + ... + x9)6
6
 1  x10 
= coeff. of x 18
in  
 1 x 
= coeff. of x18 in [(1 ă x10)6 (1 ă x)ă6]
= coeff. of x18 in [(1 ă 6C1 x10) (1 ă x)ă6]
[leaving terms containing powers of x greater than 18]
= coeff. of x18 in (1 ă x)ă6 ă 6C1. coeff. of x8 in (1 ă x)ă6
6+18ă1
= C18 ă 6 (6+8ă1C8) = 23
C5 ă 6 (13C5)
= 33649 ă 7722
= 25927

Illustration 1 6

Find the number of non-negative integral solutions to the system of equations x + y + z +

u + t = 20 and x + y + z = 5.
Solution :
Given x + y + z + u + t = 20 ...(1)
x+ y+ z= 5 ...(2)
Given, system of equations is equivalent to x + y + z = 5 ...(3)
and u + t = 15
Number non-negative integral solutions of equation (3)
n+ră1 3 + 5ă1
= Cr = C5 = 7C5,
Number of non-negative integral solutions of equation (4)
n+ră1 2 + 15ă1 16
= Cr = C15 = C15
7 16
Required number = C5. C15 = 336

Illustration 1 7

Find the number of positive integral solutions of the in equality 3x + y + z  30.

Solution :
Let w be a non-negative integer such that
3x + y + z + w = 30

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Let a = x ă 1, b = y ă 1, c = z ă 1, d = w, then
3a + b + c + d = 25, where a, b, c, d  0 ...(1)
Clearly, 0  a  8. If a = k, then b + c + d = 25 ă 3k ...(2)
Number of non-negative integral solution of equation (2)
n+ră1
= Cr
3 + 25 ă 3k 27 ă 3k 27ă3k
= C25 ă 3k
= C25 ă 3k
= C2

 27  3k  26  3k  3
=
2 2
3k
2
 53 k  234 
8

  3k 
3 2
 Required number = 2  53 k  234
k0

3  8  9  17 89 
. 3.  53  234  9   1215
2 
=
6 2 

Illustration 1 8

Find the number of positive unequal integral solution of the equation a + b + c + d = 20.
Solution :
Given a + b + c + d = 20, a, b, c, d  1. ...(1)
For the time being let us assume that a < b < c < d
Let x = a, y = b ă a, z = c ă b, t = d ă c
 a = x, b = y + x, c = x + y + z, d = x + y + z + t
From (1), we have 4x + 3y + 2z + t = 20 ...(2)
Sum of minimum values of 4x, 3y, 2z and t = 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 10
Required number = number of positive unequal integral solutions of equation (1)
= number of positive integral solutions of equation (2)
= coefficient of x20 ă 10
in (1 ă x4)ă1(1 ă x3)ă1 (1 ă x2)ă1 (1 ă x)ă1
= coeff. of x10 in [(1 + x4 + x8)(1 + x3 + x6 + x9) (1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + x8 + x10)
(1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... + x10)
[leaving terms containing powers of x greater than 10]
= coeff. of x10 [{(1 + x4 + x8 + x3 + x7 + x6 + x10 + x9)}
{1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + x8 + x10 + x + x3 + x5 + x7 + x9 + x2 + x4 x6 + x8 + x10 + x3 + x5 + x7
+ x9 + x4 + x6 + x8 + x10 + x5 + x7 + x9 + x6 + x8 + x10 + x7 + x9 + x8 + x10 + x9 + x10}]

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= coeff. of x10 in {(1 + x3 + x4 + x6 + x7 + x8 + x9 + x10)

(1 + x + 2x2 + 2x3 + 3x4 + 3x5 + 4x6 + 4x7 + 5x8 + 4x9 + 6x10)]
= 6 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 23

But a, b, c, d can be arranged in 4 ways

 Required number = 23 ï 4 = 552

Illustration 1 9

Find the total number of selections of 5 letters from five As, four Bs, three Cs and two Ds.
Also find the number of 5-letter words that can be made.
Solution :
There is one letter A to take 5 identical letters, two letters A, B to take 4 identical letters, three
letters A, B, C to take 3 identical letters and four letters A, B, C, D to take pairs. There are only
four different letters.
Possible structures, selections and arrangements are given in a tabular form as below :
Possibilities Combinations Permutations
1 5!
5 identical 1
C1 C1 
5!

4 identical,  2 5!
C1  3C1 
1 different 
2 3
C1 ï C1 4!

3 identical, 
5!
1 pair 
3 3 3
C1 ï C1 C1  3C1 
3!2!

3 identical,  5!
2 different 
3 3 3
C1 ï C2 C1  3 C2 
3!

2 pairs,  5!
1 different 
4 2 4
C2 ï C1 C2  2C1 
2!2!

1 pair,  5!
3 different 
4 3 4
C1 ï C3 C1  3 C3 
2!

 the required number of selections

= 1C1 + 2C1 ï 3
C1 + 3C1 ï 3
C1 + 3C1 ï 3
C2 + 4C2 ï 2
C1 + 4C1 ï 3
C3
= 1+ 2ï 3+ 3ï 3+ 3ï 3+ 6ï 2+ 4ï 1
= 1 + 6 + 9 + 9 + 12 + 4 = 41

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The required number of words (i.e., permutations)

1 5! 2 5! 5! 5! 4 5! 5!
= C1   C1  3 C1   3C1  3C1   3 C1  3 C2   C2  2 C1   4 C1  3 C3 
5! 4! 3! 2! 3! 2! 2! 2!

= 1 + 30 + 90 + 180 + 360 + 240 = 901

Note : The number of selections is also equal to the coefficient of x5 in
(x0 + x1 + x2 + ... + x5)(x0 + x1 + x2 + x3 + x4) ï (x0 + x1 + x2 + x3)(x0 + x + x2)

1  x6 1  x5 1  x4 1  x3
= coefficient of x5 in . . .
1x 1 x 1 x 1 x

= coefficient of x5 in (1 ă x6)(1 ă x5)(1 ă x4)(1 ă x3)(1 ă x)ă4

= coefficient of x5 in (1 ă x5 ă x6 + x11)(1 ă x3 ă x4 + x7)

 4.5 2 4 .5.6 3 4 .5.6.7 4 4 . 5.6.7.8 5 

ï 1  4 x  x  x  x  x  ...
 2! 3! 4! 5! 

= coefficient of x5 in
{1 ă x3 ă x4 ă x5} ï {1 + 4x + 10x2 + 20x3 + 35x4 + 56x5}
neglecting powers higher than x5
= 56 ă 10 ă 4 ă 1 = 41.

Illustration 20

Five balls are to be placed in three boxes. Each can hold all the five balls. In how many
different ways can we place the balls so that no box remains empty, if
(i) balls and boxes are all different
(ii) balls are identical but boxes are different
(iii) balls are different but boxes are identical
(iv) balls as well as boxes are identical
(v) balls as well as boxes are identical but boxes are kept in a row?
Solution :
As no box is to remain empty, boxes can have balls in the following numbers :
Possibilities 1, 1, 3 or 1, 2, 2
(i) The number of ways to distribute the balls in groups of 1, 1, 3
= 5C1 ï 4
C1 ï 3
C3.
But the boxes can interchange their content, no exchange giving a new way when boxes
containing balls in equal numbers interchange.

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 QUIZRR 63

 the total number of ways to distribute 1, 1, 3 balls to the boxes

3!
= 5C1 ï 4
C1 ï 3
C3 ï 2 !

Similarly, the total number of ways to distribute 1, 2, 2 balls to the boxes

3!
= 5C1 ï 4
C2 ï 2
C2 ï
2!

 the required number of ways

3! 3!
= 5C1 ï 4
C1 ï 3
C3 ï + 5C1 ï 4
C2 ï 2
C2 ï
2! 2!

= 5 ï 4 ï 3 + 5 ï 6 ï 3 = 60 + 90 = 150
Note Writing the whole answer in tabular form,
possibilities combinations permutations

3!
5 4 3 5 4 3
1, 1, 3 C1 ï C1 ï C3 C1 ï C1 ï C3 ï
2!

= 5 ï 4 ï 3 = 60

3!
5 4 2 5 4 2
1, 2, 2 C1 ï C2 ï C2 C1 ï C2 ï C2 ï 2 !

= 5 ï 6 ï 3 = 90
 the required number of ways = 60 + 90 = 150
(ii) When balls are identical but boxes are different the number of combinations will be 1 in
each case.
 the required number of ways

3! 3!
= 1 1 336
2! 2!

(iii) When balls are different and boxes are identical, after giving 3 balls to a box, the remaining
2 are to be divided in two equal groups because the boxes are identical. Similarly, after
giving 1 ball to a box, the remaining 4 are to be divided in two equal groups.
 the required number of ways

2
5 C1  1C1 5 4
C2  2C2
= C3   C1   10  15  25
2! 2!

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64 QUIZRR
(iv) When balls as well as boxes are identical, the number of combinations and arrangements
will be 1 each in both cases.
 the required number of ways
= 1ï 1+ 1ï 1= 2
(v) When boxes are kept in a row, they will be treated as different. So, in this case the number
of ways wil be the same as in (ii).

Illustration 21

These are 12 seats in the first row of a theater of which 4 are to be occupied. Find the
number of ways of arranging 4 persons so that :
(i) no two persons sit side by side.
(ii) there should be atleast 2 empty seats between any two persons.
(iii) each person has exactly one neighbour.
Solution :
(i) We have to select 4 seats for 4 persons so that no two persons are together. It means that
there should be atleast one empty seat vacant between any two persons.
To place 4 persons we have to select 4 seats between the remaining 8 empty seats so that
all persons should be separated.
Between 8 empty seats 9 seats are available for 4 person to sit.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 options available

Select 4 seats in 9C4 ways.

But we can arrange 4 persons on these 4 seats in 4! ways. So total number of ways to give
seats to 4 persons so that no two of them are together = 9C4 ï 4! = 9P4

(ii) Let x0 denotes the empty seats to the left of the first person, xi (i = 1, 2, 3) be the number
of empty seats between i th and (i + 1) st person and x4 be the number of empty seats to
the right of 4th person.

x0 1 x1 2 x2 3 x3 4 x4

4 persons

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Total number of seats are 12. So we can make this equation :

x0 + x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 8 ...(1)
Number of ways to give seats to 4 persons so that there should be two empty seats between
any two persons is same as the number of integral solutions of the equation (1) subjected
to the following conditions.
Conditions on x1, x2, x3, x4
According to the given condition, there should be two empty seats between any two persons, i.e.,
Min (xi) = 2 for i = 1, 2, 3
Min (x0) = 0 and Min (x4) = 0 (as Here can be empty seats at starting & at end)
Max (x0) = 8 ă Min (x1 + x2 + x3 + x4)
= 8 ă (2 + 2 + 2 + 0) = 2
Max (x4)= 8 ă Min (x0 + x1 + x2 + x3)
= 8 ă (2 + 2 + 2 ă 0) = 2
Similarly,
Max (xi) = 4 for i = 1, 2, 3
No, of integral solutions of the equation (1) subjected to the above conditions
= coeff of x8 in the expansion of (1 + x + x2)2 (x2 + x3 + x4)3
= coeff of x8 in x6 (1 + x + x2)5
= coeff of x2 in (1 ă x3)5 (1 ă x)ă5
= coeff of x2 in (1 ă x)ă5
5 + 2 ă 1
= C2 = 6C2 = 15
Number of ways to select 4 seats so that there should be atleast two empty seats between
any two persons = 15
But 4 persons can be arranged in 4 seats in 4! ways.
So total number of ways to arrange 4 persons in 12 seats according to the given condition
= 15 ï 4! = 360

(iii) As every person should have exactly one neighbour, divide 4 persons into groups consisting
two persons in each group.
Let G1 and G2 be the two groups in which 4 persons are divided.
According to the given condition G1 and G2 should be separated from each other.
8+1
Number of ways to select seats so that G1 and G2 are separated = C2 = 9C2
But 4 persons can be arranged in 4 seats in 4! ways.
So total number of ways to arrange 4 persons so that every person has exactly one neighbour
= 9C2 ï 4! = 864

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66 QUIZRR

Illustration 22

A man has to take 9 steps. He can move in 4 directions. In how many ways he can move
9 steps such that
(a) he can move any no. of steps in any direction
(b) atleast one step in each direction
(c) he finishes journey one step away from starting position
Solution :
(a) This one is easy. The person has 4 directions to go to for all 9 steps.
So answer becomes 49.
(b) Now he has to move atleast one step in each direction.
So just using the formula for division where each group gets atleast one item
 Total ways 49 ă 4C1 39 + 4C2 29 ă 4C3 19

(c) Now in this part he has to land up only one step away from starting position either in right,
left, north or south direction.
We will consider the case whom he finishes in north direction. For total ways the answer
will be multplied by 4 due to symmetry (covering all the directions)
for one step in north direction

SW = SE
SN = SS + 1

Now making table for such constraints

SN SS SW SE Case formula No. of ways
9!
5 4 0 0 III or I DAEG 5! 4!

9!
4 3 1 1 III DAEG 4! 3!

9!
3 2 2 2 III DAEG 3! 2! 2! 2!

9!
2 1 3 2 III DAEG 2! 1! 3! 3!

9!
1 0 4 4 III DAEG
1! 4! 4!
Total =

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Why DAEG ?
let S1ă9 represent the 9 steps, then

SN SS SW SE
S1ă4 S5ă7 S8 S9  This is DAEG, distribution in equal

 groups. This is allowed.
S1ă4 S5ă7 S9 S8 
S1ă4 S9 S5ă7 S8  Not allowed, because new person will
 not be one step in forward direction

 Complete distribution is not allowed.

PERMUTATIONS & COMBINATIONS

COMPLEX
NUMBERS
 QUIZRR 3

COM PL EX N U M B ERS
In this chapter we will discuss complex numbers and the calculus of associated functions. We will
begin the story in this section with a discussion of what complex numbers are and how we work with
them.
Although complex numbers originate with attempts to solve certain algebraic equations, such as
x2 + 1 = 0
we will give a geometric definition which identifies complex numbers with points in the plane.
This definition not only gives complex numbers a concrete geometrical meaning, but also provides us
with a powerful algebraic tool for working with points in the plane.

Definition :
A complex number, represented by an expression of the form x + iy (x, y are real), is taken to be
an ordered pair (x, y) of two real numbers, combined to form a complex number and algebra is defined
on the set of such numbers.

Iota (i)
Iota stands for the square root of ă 1.

i.e. i 1

This symbol is also the imaginary unit. In complex number x + iy, the coefficient of (i) describes
the imaginary value (i.e. y here).

Powers of iota (i)

i0 = 1

i1 = 1

i2 = ă 1
i3 = ă i
i4 = 1
to find values for in, where n > 4, we first divide n by 4, i.e. let n be a number of the form
n = 4m + r.
Then in = i4m+r = i4m.ir = ir
so i5 = i4.i = i

1 i3
for ă1
i , i ă1
= i   i3
i . i3

 iă1 = i3

We represent any number of the form  a as ai

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 4 QUIZRR

Illustration
Evaluate the following :

 
4n  3
(a) i 27 (b) i 999 (c) i ă999 (d)  1

Solution :
(a) i 27 = i24.i3 = i4(6).i3 = i3 = ă i
(b) i 999 = i996.i3 = i4(249).i3 = i3 = ă i

1 1
(c) i–999 = 999 = = i
i i3

   
4 n 3 4 n3
(d) i = ( 1) 1 = (– 1) (i)4n+3 = i2 ï i3 = i5 = i

Some properties of imaginary numbers

Ć If a & b are positive real numbers, then a b ab

Ć a  b  ab is not valid if both a & b are negative. This is valid only when atleast one
of a or b is positive or zero.
Ć The sum of four consecutive powers of i is zero.
i.e. in + in+1 + in+2 + in+3 = 0, (n  I)

Co m p l e x N u m b e r s
If two numbers a, b are real, then a number a + ib will be a complex number.
here, a is the real part represented by Re (z) & b is the imaginary part Im(z)
where z = a + ib
for ex. z = 5 ă 3i, then Re (z) = 5
Im (z) = ă 3
if for z = a + ib
Ć Im (z) is zero, then the no. is purely real, & if Re (z) is zero, then the no. is purely imaginary.
Ć Like we represent real numbers by the set R, complex numbers are denoted by the set C.
Note : Real numbers are subset of complex numbers.
i.e. every real number is a complex number.

Alzebra of Complex numbers

For two complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 & z2 = a2 + ib2
1. Addition :
for z = z1 + z2
= Re (z1 + z2) + Im (z1 + z2)

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 QUIZRR 5

 z = (a1 + a2) + i (b1 + b2)

2. Subtraction
z = z1 ă z2
= Re (z1 ă z2) + Im (z1 ă z2)
= (a1 ă a2) + i (b1 ă b2)

3. Multiplication
z = z1 z2
= (a1 + b1i) (a2 + ib2)
= (a1a2 ă b1b2) + i (a1b2 + a2b1)
 z = [Re(z1) Re(z2) ă Im(z1) Im(z2)] + i [Re (z1) Im (z2) + Re (z2) Im (z1)]

4. Division

z1
z = z
2

a1  ib1 a  ib1  a2  ib2 

=  1
a2  ib2  a2  ib2   a2  ib2 

 a1  ib1  a2  ib2   a1  ib1  a2  ib2 

=
a22   ib 
2
a22  b22

 a1 a2  b1b2   i  a2b1  a1b2 

=
a22  b22

a a  bb 
 1 2 1 2  i  a2 b1  a1 b2 
 a22  b22   a22  b22


=  Real    
 part 
 Imaginary part
 

Eq u a l i t y
i.e. z1 = z2
this is true, only when Re (z1) = Re (z2) &
Im (z1) = Im (z2)
Note : There is no order relation between complex numbers i.e., (a1 + ib1) > (a2 + ib2) is not a
valid inequality.

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 6 QUIZRR

Illustration 1

2
 1 
25
19
Evaluate :  i    
  i  

Solution :

2 2
 1 
25  1 
25
19 18
Given expression =  i     =  i . i    
  i     i  

= [(i2)9 . i + (ă)25]2 = [(ă 1)9 . i ă i25]2 = [ă i ă i24 . i]2

= [ă i ă (i2)12 . i]2) = [ăi ă (ă 1)12 i]2
= [(ă i ă i)2 = (ă 2i)2 = 4i2 = ă 4

Illustration 2
Simplify : i n + 100
+ in + 50
+ in + 48
+ in + 46

Solution :
Given expression = in + 100
+ in + 50
+ in + 48
+ in + 46

= in ([i100 + i50 + i48 + i46)

= in [(i2)50 + (i2)25 + (i2)24 + (i2)23]
= in [(ă 1)50 + (ă 1)25 + (ă 1)24 + (ă 1)23]
= in [1 ă 1 + 1 ă 1] = in.0 = 0

Illustration 3

 1 3   3  4i 
Express  1  2i  1  i   2  4i  in the form A + i B. [IIT 79]
  
Solution :

 1 3   3  4i   1  i  3 1  2i    3  4i 
      
 1  2i 1  i   2  4i   1  2i  1  i    2  4i 

 4  5i   3  4i  12  i  20i 2 32  i 32  i
=   
1  i  2i2   2  4i  3  i   2  4i  6  14i  4i 2  14i
2

 32  i   2  14i  64  450i  14i2 50  450i 1 9

=       i
 2  14i   2  14i  22  142 200 4 4

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 4

200
 1 i 
Simplify  
1  i 
Solution :

200 200 200

 1 i   (1  i) (1  i)   (1  i)2 
  =    2 
1  i   (1  i) (1  i)   1  i 

200
 1  i 2  2i   1  1  2i 
200
=   =    (i) 200
 2   2 

= (i2)100 = (ă 1)100 = 1 = 1 + 0.i

Illustration 5
Find x and y if (3x ă 2iy) (2 + i)2 = 10 (1 + i)
Solution :
Given, (3x ă 2iy) (2 + i)2 = 10 (1 + i)
 (3x ă 2iy) (4 + 4i + i2) = 10 + 10i
 (3x ă 2iy) (3 + 4i) = 10 + 10i
 (9x ă 6yi) + 12xi ă 8i2y) = 10 + 10i
 9x + 8y + i (12x ă 6y) = 10 + i. 10
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
9x + 8y = 10 ....(i) and 12x ă 6y = 10 ...(ii)

14 1
Solving (i) and (ii), we get x  , y
15 5

Illustration 6

1
Express 1  cos   2i sin  in the form A + i B. [I.I.T. 78]

Solution :

1
1  cos   2i sin 

1 (1  cos  2i sin )
= .
(1  cos   2i sin ) (1  cos   2i sin )

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 8 QUIZRR

1  cos   2i sin 
=
(1  cos )2  4sin2 

    
2sin2  2i.2sin cos 2sin2  1  2i cot 
2 2 2 2 2

=  2 
2
  
2    
2sin2  2sin 2  8 cos2 
 2sin   4  2sin cos  2 2 2
 2  2 2

 
1  2i cot 1  2i cot
2  2
=  2 2  2 2  3 1  cos  
2  sin  cos   6 cos
 2 2 2

 
1  2i cot 2cot
2  1 2
= i
5  3 cos  5  3 cos  5  3cos 

CON J U GA T E o f a c o m p l e x n u m b e r
For complex number z = a + ib, its conjugate is denoted by z = a ă ib
Tip : We can obtain the conjugate by replacing i by ă i in z.

Properties of conjugate

1.  z  z
2. z + z = 2 Re (z)
3. z ă z = 2 Im(z)

4. z1  z2 = z1  z2

5. z1  z2 = z1  z2

6. z1 z2 = z1 z2

 z1  z
7.   = 1
 z2  z2
8. I f z = z  z is purely real
9. If z  z  0  z is purely imaginary.

z z  R e ( z)  I m( z)
2 2
10.

M ODU L U S o f a c o m p l e x n u m b e r
For a complex number z = a + ib, its modulus is given by

z  a 2  b2   R e ( z)2  I m ( z)2

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 QUIZRR 9

Properties of Modulus
Ć |z|  0  |z| = 0 iff z = 0 and |z| > 0 iff z  0
Ć ă |z|  Re (z)  |z| and ă |z|  |z|.

Ć |z| = z  z = |ă z| =  z

Ć zz  z 2

In general |z1z2z3 ...... zn| = |z1| |z2| |z3| ..... |zn|

z1 z
Ć  1 (z2  0)
z2 z2

Ć z1  z2  z1  z2
In particular, if |z1 + z2| = |z1| + |z2|, then origin, z1 and z2 are collinear with origin at
one of the ends.

Ć z1  z2  z1  z2

In particular, if |z1 ă z2| = || z1|ă|z2 ||, then origin, z1 and z2 are collinear with origin at one
of the ends.
Ć | zn| = |z|n
Ć ||z1| ă |z2|| | |z1| + |z2|
Thus |z1| + |z2| is the greatest possible value of |z1 + z2| and ||z1| ă |z2||is the least
possible value of |z1 + z2|

Ć z1  z2
2

  z1  z2  z1  z2  z1  2
 z2
2

 z1 z2  z1 z2  or

2
z1  z2
2

 2Re z1 z2 
Ć z1 z2  z1 z2  2 z1 z2 cos  1  2  where 1 = arg (z1) and 2 = arg (z2).

2 2 2 z1
Ć z1  z2  z1  z2  is purely imaginary.
z2

Ć z1  z2
2
 z1  z2
2
 2 z2  2
 z2
2

Ć az1  bz2
2
 bz1  az2
2
 ( a2  b2 ) z1  2
 z2
2
 where a, b  R.
Ć Unimodular : i.e., unit modulus.
If z is unimodular then |z| = 1. A unimodular complex number can always be expressed as
cos + i sin,   R.

z
Note : z is always a unimodular complex number if z  0.

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 10 QUIZRR

Illustration 7
Find multiplicative inverse of 3 + 2i.
Solution :
Let z be the multiplicative inverse of 3 + 2i, then (3 + 2i).z = 1

1 1 3  2i 3  2i 3 2
 z      i
3  2i 3  2i 3  2i 9  4 13 13

Illustration 8

z z 
If z 1 and z 2 are 1 ă i, ă 2 + 4i respectively, find Im  1 2 
 z1 
Solution :

z1 z2 1  i   2  4i   2  2i  4i  4
= 
z1 1i 1i

 2  6i  1  i  2  6i  2i  6 8  4 i
= 2
   4  2i
1i 2 2

z z 
 I m 1 2   2
 z1 

Illustration 9

1 1
If |z 1| = |z 2| = 1 then prove that z1  z2  
z1 z2

Solution :

1
|z1| = 1  |z1|2 = 1   z1 z1  1   z  z1
1

1
Similarly, |z2| = 1  |z2|2 = 1  z2 z2  1   z2
z2

1 1
Now  = z1  z2  z1  z2  z1  z2  z1  z2 
z1 z2

= z1  z2  z  z 

COMPLEX NUMBERS
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Illustration 1 0
For any two complex numbers z 1 and z 2, prove that
(i) |z 1 + z 2|2 + |z 1 ă z 2|2 = 2 [|z 1|2 + |z 2|2]

(ii) |z 1 + z 2|2 = |z 1|2 + |z 2|2 + 2Re  z1 z2  = |z 1|2 + |z 2|2 + 2Re z1 z2

Solution :
LHS = |z1 + z2|2 + |z1 ă z2|2

=  z1  z2   z1  z2    z1  z2   z1  z2   z 2  zz
 

=  z1  z2   z1 
 z2   z1  z2  z1  z2  
  
= z1 z1  z2 z1  z1 z2  z2 z2  z1 z1  z2 z1  z1 z2  z2 z2 
= 2 ( z1 z1  z2 z2 )  2 z1  z2  2 2

(i) |z1 + z2|2 = (z1 + z2)  z1  z2  = (z1 + z2)  z1  z2 
= z1 z1  z2 z2  z1 z2  z2 z1

2 2  z z  z z  z z 
= z1  z2  z1 z2  z1 z2  1 2 1 2 1 2


= z1
2
 z2
2

 2Re z1 z2 
 z z
 
2 2
= z1  z2  2 Re z1 z2 Re z  
 2 

Re c i p r o c a l /M u l t ip l i c a t iv e I n v e r s e
for complex z = a + ib

1 1

z a  ib

a  ib
& we know this is equal to
a 2  b2

here a ă ib = z & a2 + b2 = |z|2

1 z

 z 2
z

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SQU A RE ROOTS o f a c o m p l e x n u m b e r
Let z = a + ib be the complex number of which we want to find out the root, then

a  ib  x  iy
squaring
a + ib = (x + iy)2 = (x2 ă y2) + 2ixy
equating real & imaginary coefficients on both sides
a = x2 ă y2 ...(i)
b= 2xy ...(ii)

x 
2
2
now x2  y2 =  y2  4 x2 y2

= a 2  b2 ...(iii)

from (i), (ii) & (iii)

x2 =
1
2 
a a2  b2  & y2 =
1
2 a 2
 b2  a 
 x
1
=    a 
 2
 a 2  b2  y = 
1
2 a 2
 b2  a 

 1
a  ib   
 2
 1
 
a2  b2  a  i   a 2  b2  a 
2 

if b > 0, because if b > 0 then xy > 0

 x & y are both +ve or ă ve.

  1  2 2 1 2 2

=    2  a  b  a  i  2 a  b  a
     

if b < 0, xy < 0  x > 0, y < 0

or x < 0, y > 0
we can also write

 1 1 
a  ib    z  a  i  2  z  a 
 2   

Illustration 1 1
Find the square root of ă 7 ă 24i. [Roorkee 79]
Solution :

Let  7  24i  x  iy

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then ă 7 ă 24i = x2 + i2y2 + 2ixy = x2 ă y2 + 2ixy

Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
x2 ă y2 = ă 7 ...(i)
and 2xy = ă 24 ...(ii)
Now (x + y ) = (x ă y ) + 4x y = (ă 7) + (ă 24)2 = 625
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 x2 + y2 =  25
But x2 + y2 cannot be negative
 x2 + y2 = 25 ...(iii)
(i) + (iii)  2x2 = 18  x =  3
From (i), we get y2 = x2 + 7 = 9 + 7 = 16  y =  4
But from (ii), xy is negative, therefore x and y must be of opposite signs.
when x = 3, y = ă 4 and when x = ă 3, y = 4

Now  7  24i = x + iy = 3 ă 4i, ă 3 + 4i = ă (3 ă 4i)

Thus  7  24i =  (3 ă 4i)

Second Method : Rough :

24
ă 7 ă 24i  12  3  4 or 2 ï 6 or 1 ï 12
2
= 32 + (4i)2 ă 2.3.4i 3, 4  3, 4i  32 + 16i2 = 7
= (3 ă 4i)2 2, 6  2, 6i

  7  24i =  (3 ă 4i) 1, 12  1, 12i

real part = ă 7 (ă ve)

 take i with greater factor.

Illustration 1 2

x2 y2 1 x y  31
Find the square root of     
y 2
x 2 2i  y x  16

Solution :

x2 y2 1  x y  31
    
y2
x 2 2i  y x  16

x2 y2 1 31 i  x y 
=       
y2
x2 2i 16 2  y x 

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2 2 2
 x y i  x y i  x y i 
=        2   .     
 y x   
4  y x 4  y x 4

x y i
 Required square root =     
 y x 4

Illustration 1 3

a  ib 2 2 2
a 2  b2
If x + iy = then prove that (x + y ) = 2 [I.I.T. 79]
c  id c  d2

Solution :

a  ib a  ib
Given, x + iy =   x  iy2 
c  id c  id

a  ib | a  ib|  n n z1 | z1 |
|( x  iy)2 | | x  iy|2  | z || z| and  
c  id | c  id |  z2 | z2 |

  a2  b2
2
 x2  y2 
c2  d 2

a 2  b2
 x2  y2 
c2  d 2

a2  b2
  
x2  y2 
c2  d 2

Illustration 1 4

3
It = a + ib, prove that a 2 + b 2 = 4a ă 3 [I.I.T. 78]
2  cos   i sin 

2  cos   i sin  1 a  ib
Solution : Given,   2
3 a  ib a  b2
Equating real & imaginary parts, we get

2  cos  a sin  b
 2 ...(1)  ...(2)
3 a  b2 3 a  b2
2

3a 3b
from (1) cos   2 ...(3) sin   ...(4)
2 2
a b a  b2
2

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squaring (3) & (4) and adding

9a2 12a 9b2

1 = 4 
( a 2  b2 ) a 2  b2 ( a 2  b2 ) 2

9 12a 9 12a
= 2 2
( a2  b2 )  4  2 2 2
 2 2
4
(a  b ) (a  b ) a b a  b2
2

or a 2  b2  9  4 ( a2  b2 )  12a or 3(a 2  b2 )  12a  9

or a 2  b2  4 a  3

Illustration 1 5
Find the complex number z such that z 2 + |z| = 0
Solution :
Let z = x + iy
Now given equation is z2 + |z| = 0 or (x + iy)2 + |x + iy| = 0

or x2 ă y2 + 2ixy + x2  y2 = 0

or, x2 ă y2 + x2  y2 + 2xyi = 0 = 0 + i. 0
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get

x2 ă y2 + x2  y2 = 0 ...(i)

and 2xy= 0 ...(ii)

From (ii), either x = 0 or y= 0
2
when x = 0, from (i) ă y  y = 0

[ y2 = |y|  when y > 0, y2  y and when y < 0, y2   y ]

or y (ă y  1) = 0  y = 0; 1, ă 1
 z = x + iy = 0 + i 0, 0 + i, 0 ă i Thus z = 0,  i ...(iii)

when y = 0; from (i), x2  x2  0 or x2  x = 0

or x (x  1) = 0  x = 0,  1

But when x =  1, x2  x2  2  0
 when y = 0, x = 0; Hence z = 0 + i 0 = 0 ...(iv)
Thus from (iii) and (iv), z = 0,  i
Second Method : z2 = ă |z| = a real number
 z is a real number or a purely imaginary number.
Case I : when z is real let z = x, then
z2 = ă |z|  x2 = ă |x|  |x|2 = ă |x|  |x| (|x| + 1) = 0
 |x| = 0  x = 0  z = x = 0 [ |x|  ă 1]

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Case II : when z is purely imaginary.

Let z = yi, then z2 = ă |z|  ă y2 = ă |y|
 y2 = |y|  |y|2 = |y|  |y| (|y| ă 1) = 0
 |y| = 0 or |y| = 1  y = 0 or y =  1
Now z = iy = 0,  i
Thus z = 0,  i

EU L ER’S FORM U L A
A useful expression is EulerÊs formula which expresses an exponential with imaginary argument
in terms of a sum of real and imaginary parts :
ei = cos + i sin 
Exponential form : Using EulerÊs formula, it is possible to compactly write a complex number
in terms of an exponential function :
z = x + iy  r (cos  + i sin ) = rei
On an Argand diagram, complex numbers with the same modulus r = |z| but different arguments
 make up points on a circle centred on the origin with radius r = |z|. For modulus special points of
interest (for r = 1) are :
= 0  z = ei0 = 1 real
 i/2  
 = /2  z= e = cos /2 + i sin /2 =i Imaginary
i
=  z = e = cos + i sin = ă 1 real
3 i3/2 3 3
 = /2  z= e = cos /2 + i sin /2 = – i Imaginary
 = 2  z = ei2 = cos 2 + i sin 2 = 1 real

i/2
Z=e
or
Z = eă3i/2 unit circle
r =1

Z = ei Z = e0
Or Or
Z = eăi Z = e2i

Z = e ă3i/2
or
Z = eăi/2

GEOM ET RI CA L REPRESEN T A T I ON o f Co m p l e x N u m b e r s
Geometrically, we can represent complex numbers on a plane (known as Argand Plane).
This plane consists of two perpendicular lines known as real axis & imaginary axis. Real axis is
drawn horizontally and imaginary axis is vertical to it. Any complex number can be represented as a
point on this plane.

COMPLEX NUMBERS
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Let z = a + bi be the point to be represented on this plane. This point is represented through the
order pair (a, b) on the plane. Real part (a) is plotted along the real axis and imaginary part (b) is
plotted along the imaginary axis.
a = Re (z) = horizontal component
b = Im (z) = vertical component

The Argand diagram

In two dimensional Cartesian coordinates (x, y), we are used to plotting the function y(x) with y
on the vertical axis and x on the horizontal axis.
In an Argand diagram, the complex number z = x + iy is plotted as a single point with coordinates
(x, y). The horizontal axis is called the real axis (x-axis) and the vertical axis is called the imaginary
axis (y-axis). y
imaginary axis

3 (2,3)
or 2+3i
2

x
2 3 1
real axis
As in usual Cartesian coordinates, the distance from the origin to a point (x, y) is equal to
x  y2 . This is equal to the modulus |z| of the complex number z = x + iy.
2

The Argand diagram may also be called the complex plane. It stresses that complex numbers are
a generalisation of real numbers, that lie on the horizontal axis only.
The expression z = x + iy is known as the Cartesian form or the rectangular form of the complex
number z. Using the Argand diagram, we can see that the addition of complex numbers behaves like
the addition of vectors.
If we express z = x + iy as an ordered pair (x, y), then the addition of two complex numbers may
be defined by (x, y) + (a, b) = (x + a, y + b) in the same way as the addition of two vectors.
y

5
Z + W = 4 + 5i
imaginary axis

3 W = 1 + 3i

1 Z = 3 + 2i
x
1 2 3 4
real axis
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POL A R REPRESEN TA T I ON o f c o m p l e x n u m b e r s
A position vector of a point in two dimensions may be expressed in terms of Cartesian coordinates
(x, y) and plotted with y on the vertical axis and x on the horizontal axis.
It is also possible to express the two dimensional position vector in terms of polar coordinates (r,
) where r is the magnitude of the vector (distance from origin to the point) and  is the angle between
the position vector and the positive x-axis.
The Cartesian and polar coordinates are related by :
x = r cos , y = r sin 

y
r  x 2  y2 , tan  
x
imaginary axis

r
y


0
x
real axis

In the same way, the complex number z = x + iy may be expressed in polar coordinates (r, ) in
its polar form :
z = x + iy  r (cos  + i sin )

y
where r x2  y2 , tan  
x

Illustration 1 6

z 1 3i  x = 1, y  3
y= 3
2 2
r x  y  4 2
imaginary axis

tan   3   = /3 (60Ĉ)

r=2

 = /3
0 real axis x =1

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T HE A RGU MENT o f a c o m p l e x n u m b e r
In polar coordinates (r, ) the angle  is known as the argument of the complex number z, denoted
 = arg(z).

x y
cos   , sin  
x2  y2 x2  y2

There is a complication because a single point on the Argand diagram does not correspond to a
single complex number. The reason is that we can add 2 to the value of the argument  in order to
produce a different complex number, but when plotted on the Argand diagram, the two numbers are
plotted in the same place.
y

0 x
 +2

Principal Value : If we want to uniquely define the value of the argument  we can impose the
condition ă  <    so that  is known as the principal value of the argument.
For the complex number z = x + iy, the argument  is given by the solution of the equations :

x y
cos   , sin  
x2  y2 x2  y2

y
or tan  
x
If the second expression  = y/x is used to determine , it is wise to plot z = x + iy on an Argand
diagram to check that the answer is correct.

To find the Argument/Amplitude of a complex number

For complex number z = a + ib

1 b
Step 1 : Find the value of tan
a

b
let  = tan 1
a

Step 2 : Now find the argument according to the quadrant in which (a, b) lies.

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i.e. y
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
 =  ă =

 
x
 

 =  ă =ă
3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

where  is the argument required.

Properties of Arguments
Ć Arg (z1z2) = Arg (z1) + Arg (z2) + 2k (k = 0 or 1 or ă 1)
In general Arg (z1z2z3..... zn) = Arg (z1) + Arg (z2) + Arg (z3) + ... + Arg (zn) + 2k
(where k  I)

z 
Ć Arg  1   Arg z1  Arg z2  2 k (k = 0 or 1 or ă 1)
 z2 

 z
Ć Arg    2 Arg z  2k (k = 0 or 1 or ă 1)
 z
Ć Arg (zn) = n Arg z + 2k (k = 0 or 1 or ă 1)

 z2   z1 
Ć If Arg  z    , then Arg  z   2 k   where k  I
 1  2

Ć Arg z = ă Arg z
Ć If arg (z) = 0  z is real
Note : Proper value of k must be chosen so, that R.H.S. of (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) lies in (ă , ].
All the above formulae are written on the basic of principal argument.

Illustration 1 6

Find the conjugate, modulus and argument of 2 2i

Solution :

Let z  2  2 i Here x  2, y   2

z 2  2i  2  2 i [By definition of z ]

 2   2
2 2
and z  2  2i   22 2

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y  2  
Argument of z : tan   x   1  tan 45   [between 0 and ]
2 4 2

 x  2  0 and y   2  0 . Hence z lies in the 4th quadrant

 7
 arg z = 2 ă  = 2 ă 
4 4
Note : Here principal value of arg z can also be written

7 
Principal value of arg z =  2  
4 4

Illustration 1 7

2i
Find the conjugate and argument of 4i  1  i 2
 
Solution :

2i 2i 2i

 
Let z = 4 i  1  i 2 6i
  4i  1  i  2i
2

 2  i    6i  6  12i 1 1
=      i
 6i    6i  36 6 3

1 1
 z  i
6 3

1 1 1 1
Now z   i Here x  , y  
6 3 6 3

1

tan  
y
 3   2  2    tan1 2, 0    
x 1 2
6

1 1
 x  0 and y    0 . Hence z lies in the 4th quadrant.
6 3
 arg z = 2 ă  = 2 ă tană1 2.
Note : Principal value of arg z = (2 ă tană1 2) ă 2 = ă tană1 2

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Illustration 1 8

1  7i
Put in the polar form. [Roorkee 81]
 2  i 2
Solution :

1  7i
Let z 
 2  i 2

1  7i 1  7i 1  7i   3  4i   25  25i
Now z      1i
2
4  i  4i 3  4 i  3  4i   3  4i  32  4 2

 r z    i 2  12  2

Again z= ă 1+ i  x = ă 1, y = 1

y 1 
Also tan     1;  
x 1 4

 x = ă 1 < 0 and y = 1 > 0 hence z lies in the 2nd quadrant.

 3
Hence arg z =  ă  =  ă 
4 4

 3 3 
 Polar form of z  2  cos  i sin
 4 4 

DE-M OI V RE’S T H EOREM

It says if z = r (cos  + i sin ), then z n = r n (cosn  + i sin n) for all n  Z (set of integers)

Roots of a Complex Number

Let z = a + ib be written in polar form like z = r (cosn  + i sin ) = rei
Then the nth roots of z are given by

1/
n
1/
n
  2 k     2 k    
z r  cos  i sin 
 n n 
where k can take value from 0, 1, 2, ... (n ă 1). (i.e. one less than the denominator)
for k  n, the roots will repeat
put k = 0 in the above equation

1/
n
1/
n     
 z r cos  n   i sin  n  ...(i)
    

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now put k = n

1/
n
1/
n   2n     2n   
 z r cos    i sin  
  n   n 

1/
n   2n    2n 
= r cos  n  n   i sin  n   
    

 
 / 
1/
n 
= r cos  n   i sin n
  

which is same as (i)

Illustration 1 9

     
If x n  cos  n   i sin  n  prove that x1.x2.x 3... to infinity = ă 1.
2  2 
Solution :
x1.x2.x3... to infinity

         
=  cos  i sin  cos 2  i sin 2  cos 3  i sin 3  ...
 2 2  2 2  2 2 

       
= cos   2  3  ...   i sin   2  3  ... 
 2 2 2   2 2 2 

 /2   /2   2 a 
= cos    i sin    a  ar  ar  ...  
1  1/2  1  1/2   1  r

= cos  + i sin  = ă 1

Illustration 20

n 
Prove that (1 + i)n + (1 ă i)n = 2(n/2)+1 cos  
 4 
Solution :
Let 1 + i = r (cos  + i sin ). Then

1 
r  12  12 = 2 and tan  = 1    4

  
 1+ i = 2  cos  i sin 
 4 4 

COMPLEX NUMBERS
24 QUIZRR

n
   
n
 cos 4  i sin 4 
n
 (1 + i) = 2
 

n/  n n 
(1 + i)n = 2  cos 4  i sin 4 
2

 
Let the polar form of 1 ă i be r (cos  + i sin ). Then

  1 
r  12    1  2 and tan    1     
2
  4

  
 1ăi = 2  cos  i sin 
 4 4

n
 2   
n
 cos 4  i sin 4 
n
 (1 ă i) =
 

n/  n n 
 (1 ă i)n = 2
2
 cos  i sin  ...(ii)
 4 4 

Adding (i) and (ii), we obtain

n/  n n n n
(1 + i)n + (1 ă i)n = 2  cos 4  i sin 4  cos 4  i sin 4 
2
 

n/ n n
 2  cos
2 n / 2 1
= 2 . 2 cos
4 4

Illustration 21

n
   
n n
If n is a positive integer; prove that 3i  3i  2 n 1 cos
6
Solution :

Let r (cos  + i sin ) be the polar form of 3  i.

1 
Then r 3 2  12  2 and tan    
3 6

  
 3  i = 2  cos 6  i sin 6 
 

n
n   
 
n
 3i = 2  cos  i sin 
 6 6 

COMPLEX NUMBERS
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n  n n 
 
n
 3 i = 2  cos  i sin
 6 6 

The polar form of  

3  i is

          
2  cos    i sin     2  cos  i sin 
  6   6   6 6

n
 
n
 3 i = 2n  cos   i sin  
 6 6

 
n n n 
 3 i = 2n  cos  i sin ...(ii)
 6 6 

Adding (i) and (ii), we obtain

    n n
n n   n n 
3i + 3 i = 2n  cos  i sin  + 2n  cos  i sin
 6 6   6 6 

 n  n 1 n
= 2n  2 cos 2 cos
 6  6

Illustration 22
Let (r, ) denote the point r (cos  + i sin ) in the Argand plane. If a  (1, ), b  (1, ),
c  (1, ) and a + b + c = 0, show that a ă1 + b ă1 + c ă1 = 0.
Solution :
Since (r, )  r (cos  + i sin ), therefore a  (1, ) = 1 (cos  + i sin ), b  (1, ) = 1 .
(cos  + i sin ) and c  (1, ) = 1 . (cos  + i sin )
We have, a + b + c = 0  (cos  + i sin ) + (cos  + i sin ) + (cos  + i sin ) = 0
 (cos  + cos  + cos ) + i (sin  + sin  + sin ) = 0 + i 0
 cos  + cos  + cos  = 0 and sin  + sin  + sin  = 0 ...(i)
ă1 ă1 ă1 ă1 ă1 ă1
Now, a + b + c = (cos  + i sin ) + (cos  + i sin ) + (cos  + i sin )
= [cos (ă 1)  + i sin (ă 1) ] + [cos (ă 1)  + i sin (ă 1) ] + [cos (ă 1)  + i sin (ă 1) ]
= (cos  ă i sin ) + (cos  ă i sin ) + (cos  ă i sin )
= (cos  + cos  + cos ) ă i (sin  + sin  + sin )
= 0 ă i 0 = 0 [Using (i)]

Illustration 23
If cos  + cos  + cos  = sin  + sin  + sin  = 0, prove that
(i) cos 3 + cos 3 + cos 3 = 3 cos ( +  + )
(ii) sin 3 + sin 3 + sin 3  = 3 sin ( +  + )

COMPLEX NUMBERS
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 + cos 2 + cos 2 = 0
(iii) cos 2
(iv) sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2  = 0
Solution :
Let a = cos  + i sin , b = cos  + i sin  and c = cos  + i sin . Then
a + b + c = (cos  + cos  + cos ) + i (sin  + sin  + sin ) = 0 + i0 = 0
(i) Since a + b + c = 0, therefore, a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
 (cos  + i sin )3 + (cos  + i sin )3 + (cos  + i sin )3 = 3 (cos  + i sin )
(cos  + i sin ) (cos  + i sin )
 (cos 3  + i sin 3 ) + (cos 3  + i sin 3 ) + (cos 3  + i sin 3 ) = 3 [cos ( +  + )]
cos 3  + cos 3  + cos 3  = 3 cos ( +  + )
sin 3  + sin 3  + sin 3  = 3 sin ( +  + )
(iii) We have,

1 1 1
  = (cos  ă i sin ) + (cos  ă i sin ) + (cos  ă i sin )
  

= (cos  + cos  + cos ) ă i (sin  + sin  + sin )

= 0 ă i0 = 0
 ab + bc + ca = 0
 (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 (ab + bc + ca)
 0 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 0
 (cos  + i sin )2 + (cos  + i sin )2 + (cos  + i sin )2 = 0
 (cos 2  + i sin 2 ) + (cos 2  + i sin 2 ) + (cos 2  + i sin 2 ) = 0
 (cos 2  + cos 2  + cos 2 ) + i (sin 2  + sin 2  + sin 2 ) = 0 + i0
 cos 2  + cos 2  + cos 2  = 0 and
sin 2  + sin 2  + sin 2  = 0

Illustration 24
Find 3 i
Solution :
   
Let z= i. We have |z|= 1 and arg (z) = . So, z in polar form is  cos  i sin 
2  2 2

1/ 1/
3
1/    3      
Now, z 3   cos  i sin    cos  2m     i sin  2 m   2 
 2 2   2  

 
= cos  4 m  1  i sin  4 m  1  , m  0, 1, 2
6 6

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 QUIZRR 27

  1
 
1/
From m = 0, z 3  cos  i sin  3i
6 6 2
For m = 1,

1/ 5 5    
z 3  cos  i sin  cos      i sin    
6 6  6  6

 

=   cos  i sin   
 6 6 
1
2
 3i 
1/ 9 9 3 3
For m = 2, z 3  cos  i sin  cos  i sin i
6 6 2 2

Thus, the values of 3

1
i are 2  3 i ,  1
2
 
3  i and ă i.

Illustration 25

Find 3 1

Solution :
Let z = – 1. Then |z|= 1 and arg (z) . So, the polar of z is (cos  + i sin ).
Now, z1/3 = (cos  + i sin )1/3
= [cos (2 m + ) + i sin (2 m + ]1/3

 
= cos (2m + 1) + i sin (2m + 1) , m = 0, 1, 2
3 3

 
For m = 0, z1/3 = cos
3
+ i sin
3
=
1
2
1  i 3 
For m = 1, z1/3 = cos  + i sin  = ă 1

5 5
For m = 2, z1/3 = cos  i sin
3 3

   
= cos  2    i sin  2  3 
 3  

 
= cos
3
ă i sin
3
=
1
2
1  i 3 

Hence, the values of z1/3 are

1
2

1i 3 ,1 

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 28 QUIZRR

Illustration 26
If (1 + x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2x 2 + C3x 3 + ... + Cn x n , prove that
(i) C0 ă C2 + C4 ă C6 + ... = 2n/2 cos n
/4
(ii) C1 ă C3 + C5 ă C7 + ... = 2n/2 sin n/4
(iii) C0 + C4 + C8 + ... = 2nă2 + 2(n/2)ă 1
cos n/4
nă2 (n/2)ă 1
(iv) C1 + C5 + C9 + ... = (2 + 2 sin n/4)
Solution :
We have :
(1 + x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2x2 + C3x3 + ... + Cnxn
or (1 + x)n = (C0 + C2x2 + C4x4 + ...) + x (C1 + C3x2 + C5x4 + ...) ...(i)
Replacing x by i on both sides, we get
(1 + i)n = (C0 ă C2 + C4 ă C6 + ...) + i (C1 ă C3 + C5...)
 [ 2 (cos /4 + i sin /4)]n = [(C0 ă C2 + C4 ă C6 + ...) + i (C1 ă C3 + C5...)]
 2n/2 (cos n /4 + i sin n /4) = (C0 ă C2 + C4 ă C6 + ...) + i (C1 ă C3 + C5...)
On equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get
C0 ă C2 + C4 ă C6 + ... = 2n/2 cos n /4 ...(ii)
n/2
and C1 ă C3 + C5 + ... = 2 sin n /4 ...(iii)
Now, putting x = 1 and x = ă 1 respectively in (i), we get
(C0 + C2 + C4 + ...) + (C1 + C3 + C5 + ...) = 2n
and (C0 + C2 + C4 + ...) ă (C1 + C3 + C5 + ...) = 0
By adding and sutracting these two, we get
C0 + C2 + C4 + ... = 2nă1 ...(iv)
nă1
C1 + C3 + C5 + ... = 2 ...(v)
Adding (ii) and (iv), we get
2 (C0 + C4 + C6 + ...) = 2n/2 cos n /4 + 2nă1
 C0 + C4 + C6 + ... = 2nă2 + 2(n/2)ă 1
cos n/4
Adding (iii) and (v), we get
2 (C1 + C5 + C9 + ...) = 2n/2 sin n/4 + 2nă1

n
 C1 + C5 + C9 + ... = 2nă2 + 2(n/2)ă1 sin
4

ROOT S OF U N I T Y
For z = (1)1/n i.e. nth roots of unity
z = (cos 0 + isin 0)1/n

  2 k  0    2 k  0  
or 
z=   cos 

 i sin   k  0, 1; ...  n  1 
  n  n 

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 QUIZRR 29

  2 k   2 k 
= cos    i sin  
  n   n 

 2k 
i 
= e n 

 2 
i  k
= e n 

 2 
i 
now let  = e n 
 z = k, where k = 0, 1, 2 ... (n ă 1)
= 1, , 2 ... nă1

Properties of nth roots of unity

1. nth roots of unity form a G.P with common ratio .
2. Sum of nth roots of unit is zero.

 1, if n is even 
3. Product of roots  
 1, if n is odd 
Note : Try & prove the last two properties yourself.
4. nth roots of unity lie on a unit circle and divide the circumference into n equal parts.

Cu b e r o o t s o f u n i t y
The roots of equation x3 ă 1 = 0 are called cube roots of unity.
Solving x3 ă 1 = 0
(x ă 1) (x2 + x + 1) = 0

1  i 3  1  i 3
 x = 1, ,
2 2
or as discussed in previous section.
nth roots of unity = k
 2 
i 
here  = e 3 
 Cube roots are 1, , 2
or we call them 1, w, w 2
 2 
i  1  i 3
w = e 3 
=
2
 4 
i  1i 3
w =2
e 3  =
2

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 30 QUIZRR

geometrically,
ă1 , 3  B
2 2
1A

C
ă1 , ă 3 2
2 2

as you can see from the values of w

w  w2 , w2  w

Properties of cube roots of unity

1. w3 = 1
2. 1 + w + w2 = 0

0, if n is not a multiple of 3 

3. 1 + wn + w2n =  
3, if n is a multiple of 3 
4. cube roots of ă 1 are ă 1, ă w, ă w2
5. z3 ă1 = (z ă 1) (z ă w) (z ă w2)
6. z3 +1 = (z + 1) (z + w) (z + w)
7. a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a + bw) (a + bw2)
8. a3 ă b3 = (a ă b) (a ă bw) (a ă bw2)
9. a2 + b2 + c2 ă ab ă bc ă ca = (a + bw + cw2) (a + bw2 + cw2)
10. a3 + b3 + c3 ă 3abc = (a + b + c) (a + bw + cw2) (a + bw2 + cw)
Tip : Ć |w| = |w2| = 1

1  i 
Ć square root of i =   
 2 
Ć square root of w =  w2
Ć square root of w2 =  w
Ć You can also remember that w, w2 are also the roots of equation x2 + x + 1 {as this
equation is encountered very often}

Illustration 27
If , 2 be the imaginary cube roots of unity, then prove than
(i) (3 + 3 + 52)6 ă (2 + 6 + 22)3 = 0
(ii) (2 ă ) (2 ă 2) (2 ă 10) (2 ă 11) = 49
Solution :
(i) (3 + 3 + 52)6 ă (2 + 6 + 22)3
= (3 + 3 + 32 + 22 )6 ă (2 + 2 + 22 + 4)3

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 QUIZRR 31

= {3( 1 +  + 2 ) + 22}6 ă {2(1 +  + 2 ) + 4}3

= (22 )6 ă (4)3 [since 1 +  + 2 = 0]
= 6412 ă 643 = 64 ă 64 = 0
(ii) (2 ă ) (2 ă 2) (2 ă 10) (2 ă 11)
= (2 ă ) (2 ă 2) (2 ă ) (2 ă 2)
= (2 ă 2)2 (2 ă 2)2 = [(2 ă ) (2 ă 2)]2
= (4 ă 2 ă 22 + 3)2 = [5 ă 2 ( + 2)]2
= (5 + 2)2 = 49

Illustration 28
If  is an imaginary cube root of unity, then show that
(i) (1 ă ) ( 1 ă 2) (1 ă 4) (1 ă 5) = 9 [I.I.T. 65]
(ii) (1 ă  + 2)5 + (1 +  ă 2)5 (1 ă 5) = 32
Solution :
(i) 4 = 3 .  =  and 5 = 3 2 = 2
(1 ă ) (1 ă 2) (1 ă 4) (1 ă 5)
= (1 ă ) (1 ă 2) (1 ă ) (1 ă 2)
= (1 ă 2)2 (1 ă 2)2 = [(1 ă ) (1 ă 2)]2
= [1 ă( + 2) + 3]2
= [1 ă (ă 1) + 1]2 [ 1 +  + 2 = 0   + 2 = ă 1]
= (3)2 = 9
(ii) (1 ă  + 2)5 + (1 +  ă 2)5
= (1 + 2 ă )5 + (1 +  ă 2)5
= (ă  ă )5 + (ă 2 ă 2)5 [ 1 +  = ă 2 and 1 + 2 = ă ]
= (ă 2)5 + (ă 22)5 = ă 325 ă 3210 = ă 322 ă 32 (3)3.
= ă 322 ă 32 = ă 32 (2 + ) = (ă 32) ï (ă 1) = 32

Illustration 29

n n
1 3 1 3
If n is a positive integer, prove that    
 
 2 or  1 according as n is
 2   2 
a multiple of 3 or not a multiple of 3].
Solution :

1 3 1 3
We know   , then  2
2 2

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 32 QUIZRR

n n
1 3  1   3  n 2n
Now given expression =         
 2   2 

Case I : When n = 3m
Given expression = n + 2n = 3m + 6m
= (3)m + (6)m = 1 + 1 = 2
Case II : When n = 3m + 1
n + 2n = 3m + 1
+ 6m + 2

= 3m. + 6m.2
= 1. + 1. 2 =  + 2 = ă 1 [ 1 +  + 2 = 0]
Case III : When n = 3m + 2
n 2n
 +  = 3m + 2
+ 6m + 4

= 3m.2 + 6m.4
= 2 + 4 = 2 + 3 .
= 2 +  = ă 1 [ 1 +  + 2 = 0]

Illustration 30
If 1, 1, 2, ... nă1 be the n, nth roots of unity, show that (1 ă 1) (1 ă 2)... (1 ă n ă 1
) = n.
Solution :
Let x be a nth roots of unity, then
xn = 1 or xn ă 1
= 0 ...(i)
According to question 1, 1, 2... ană1 are all the nth roots of unity
 xn ă 1
= (x ă 1) (x ă 1) (x ă 2)...(x ă nă1)

xn  1
 (x ă 1) (x ă 2)...(x ă nă1) =
x1

 (x ă 1) (x ă 2)...(x ă nă1) = 1 + x + x2 + ... + xnă1 ...(ii)

putting x = 1 in (ii), we get ...(ii)
(1 ă 1) (1 ă 2)... (1 ă n ) = n
ă 1

Illustration 31
Show that x 3p + x 3q + 1
+ x 3r+2, where p, q, are positive integers is divisible by x 2 + x + 1.
Solution :

1 3
x2 + x + 1 = 0  x    or 2
2
where x = , x3p + x3q+1 + x3r+2
= 3p + 3q+ 1 +3r + 2
= 1 +  + 2 = 0

COMPLEX NUMBERS
 QUIZRR 33

When x = 2, x3p + x3q+ 1 + x3r + 2

= 6p + 6q+2 + 6r + 4

= 1 + 2 + 4 = 1 + 2 +  = 0
Since all the roots of equation x2 + x + 1 = 0 satisfy the equation r3p + x3q + 1 + x3r+2 = 0
 x3p + x3q+1 + x3r+2 is divisible by x2 + x + 1

Illustration 32
If z 1 + z 2 + z 3 = , z 1 + z 2  + z 3 2 =  and z 1 + z 2 2 + z 3 = , express z 1, z 2, z 3 in terms of
, , . Hence prove that : ||2 + ||2 + ||2 = 3 (|z 1|2 + |z 2|2 + |z 3|2).
Solution :
Given, z1 + z2 + z3 =  ...(i)
2
z1 + z2  + z3  =  (ii)
and z1 + z2 2 + z3 =  ...(iii)


  +  +  = 3z1   z1 = ...(iv)
3

    2 
 +  + 2 = 3z3  z3 = ...(v)
3

  2  y
and  + 2 +  = 3z2  z2 = ...(vi)
3

Second part :


2
    z1  z2  z3  z1  z2  z3  

= z1 z1  z2 z2  z3 z3  z1 z2  z3  z2 z1  z3  z3 z1  z2     
= z1
2
 z2
2
 z3
2
 
 z1 z2  z3  z2 z1  z3  z3 z1  z2    

2

   z1  z2   z3 2  z 1  z2   z3 2 

= z1  z2  z3 
2
 z 1  z2 2  z3      2 & 2  
 

= z1
2
 z2
2
 z3
2
  
 z1 z2 2  z3   z2 z1   z3 2  z3 z1 2  z    

2

   z1  z2 2  z3   z 1  z2 2  z3  
COMPLEX NUMBERS
34 QUIZRR

 2

= z1  z2  z3  z1  z2   z3 
2
    2 & 2  
 

= z1
2
 z2
2
 z3
2
   
 z1 z2   z3 2  z2 z1 2  z3   z3 z1   z2 2  
 ||2 + ||2 + |r|2

= 3 z1 2
 z2
2
 z3
2
   2

+ z1 z2 1      z3 1    
2
 
  2
 2
+ z2 z1 1      z3 1      
+ z3 z 1       z 1     
1
2
2
2

= 3 z1 2
 z2
2
 z3
2


COMPLEX NUMBERS
SOLUTION OF A
TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 3

SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLE

1. I nt r od u ct ion

There are 6 elements in a ABC, the three sides BC = a, CA = b, AB = c and the three angles
A, B, C.
A + B + C =  = 180Ĉ

1
1. Area of the triangle () = (Base) (height)
2 A

The area of the triangle is a.h/2.

c b
But in triangle BAH, we have sin(B) = h/c. h
Hence the area of the triangle is a.c. sin(B)/2.
B a H C
Similarly we have that the area of the triangle
= b.c.sin(A)/2 = a.b.sin(C)/2

A
The area of a triangle ABC = a.c. sin B = b.c. sin = a.b. sin C
2 2 2

2. Sine rule : In a triangle ABC we have seen that

area = a.c.sin (B)/2 = b.c.sin(A)/2 = a.b.sin(C)/2
 a.c.sin(B) = b.c.sin(A) = a.b.sin (C)
dividing through out by a.b.c., we get
In any triangle ABC we have

a b c
 
sin A sin B sin C

3. Cosine rule : In any triangle ABC we have

a2 = b2 + c2 ă 2bc cos A
b2 = c2 + a2 ă 2ca cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 ă 2ab cos C

b2  c2  a 2
cos A 
2bc

a2  c2  b2
cos B 
2ac

a2  b2  c2
cosC 
2ab
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4 QUIZRR
4. Projec tion formula :
a = b cos C + c cos B
b = c cos A + a cos C
c = a cos B + b cos A
5. Semi-Perimeter of ABC (s) :

a  b c
s
2

 2s = a + b + c
2s ă 2a = b + c ă a
2s ă 2b = c + a ă b
2s ă 2c = a + b ă c
6. Half a ngle formula e :

A (s  b)(s  c)
sin 
2 bc

A s(s  a)
cos 
2 bc

A (s  b)(s  c) ( s  b)(s  c)
tan  
2 s(s  a) 

A s( s  a) s(s  a)
cot  
2 (s  b)(s  c) 

Tip : for sine formula, in numerator the other sides are taken and the side opposite to the
angle is not in the formula.

 = area of triangle ABC = s( s  a)( s  b)(s  c) (HeroÊs formula)

a bc

4R

B B B B C C C C
The expression for sin , cos , tan , cot , sin , cos , tan , cot can be derived using
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
symmetry.

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 5

7. Find the value of sin A, using sin A/2 & cos A/2

2 2
sin A = s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c) 
bc bc

8. Napier Analogy :

BC bc A
tan  cot
2 bc 2

3. C ir cles C onnect ed wit h T r iangle

(i) Circum-circle
The circle passing through the vertices of the triangle ABC is called the circum-circle. Its
radius R is called the circum-radius. In the triangle ABC, A

a b c
R  
2sin A 2sin B 2sin C O
R
abc
R B C
4

(ii) In-circle
The circle touching the three sides of the triangle internally is called the inscribed or the in-
circle of the triangle. Its radius r is called the in-radius of the circle. In the triangle ABC,

 A
r
s

A B C
r  (s  a) tan  ( s  b) tan  (s  c) tan O
2 2 2
r
A B C B C
r  4R sin sin sin
2 2 2

B C A C A B
a sin sin b sin sin c sin sin
r 2 2  2 2  2 2
A B C
cos cos cos
2 2 2

A B C 1
Remark : From r = 4R sin sin sin , we find that r  4R.
2 2 2 8
 2r  R. Here equality holds for the equilateral triangle.

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 6 QUIZRR
(iii) Escribed circles
The circle touching BC and the two sides AB and AC produced of ABC externally is called
the escribed circle opposite A. Its radius is denoted by r1. Similarly r2 and r3 denote the radii
of the escribed circles opposite angles B and C respectively.
r1, r2, r3 are called the ex-radii of ABC. Here

 A A B C
r1   s tan  4R sin cos cos , B
sa 2 2 2 2

r1 O1
 B B C A
r2   s tan  4R sin cos cos ,
sb 2 2 2 2
A
C
 C C A B
r3   s tan  4R sin cos cos ,
sc 2 2 2 2

r1r2 + r2r3 + r3r1 = 4R + r,

r1r2 r3
r1r2  r2 r3  r3 r1  s2 
r

4. m – n T heor em

If a point D divides the side BC of ABC internally in the ratio m : n and BAD = , DAC =
 and ADC =  then A
(m + n) cot  = m cot  ă n cot   
= n cot B ă m cot C


B m : D n C

The result can be derived using sine rule in ABD and ADC.

Illustration 1

In the figure, ABC is a triangle in which angle C = 90Ĉ C

and AB = 5 cm. D is a point on AB such that AD = 3 cm
and ACD = 60Ĉ. Find the length of side AC. 60Ĉ

A 3 cm D B
5 cm

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 7

Solution :
Using m ă n theorem,
(3 + 2) cot CDA = 2 cot 30Ĉ ă 3 cot 60Ĉ

3
 cot CDA =
5

Now, using sine rule in CDA,

AC AD

sin CDA sin ACD

3 5 3
 AC  . 5 cm
sin 60 28 7

1. Regular n sides Polygon O

a = side length; r = in-radius; R = circum-radius
R a
a a r
r R
 and 
2 tan 2sin
n n
a/2 a/2

2. Distance of orthocentre from vertices of triangle :

AD, BE are altitudes and H is the orthocentre of a triangle ABC as shown. As quadrilateral
CEHD is cyclic, (as opposite angles are supplementary)
angle EHA = angle C A
From AHE, AH sin C = AE
 AH sin C = AB cos A = AE
F E
c cos A  c  H
 AH =   cos A
sin C  sin C 
B D C
 AH = 2R cos A
 distances of orthocentre (H) from the vertices A, B & C are :
2R cos A, 2R cos B & 2R cosC respectively.
Note : The triangle formed by joining the points D, E & F is known as pedal triangle.

3. Distance of orthocentre from sides of triangle :

DH = AD ă AH
 DH = AB sin B ă 2R cos A

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 8 QUIZRR
 DH = c sin B ă 2R cos A
 DH = 2R sin C sin B + 2R cos (B + C)
 DH = 2R cos B cos C
 The distances of orthocentre (H) from the sides BC, CA & AB are :
2R cosBcosC, 2R cosCcosA and 2R cosAcosB respectively.

4. Distance of circumcentre O from sides : A

BOC = 2A
O
COM = A R

OM = R cos A B M C

The distances of circumcentre from sides BC, CA & AB are :

RcosA, RcosB and RcosC respectively.

I mp or t ant T heor em

The centroid (G), circumcentre (O) & orthocentre (H) in any triangle are collinear. The
centroid divides the line joining orthocentre and circumcentre in 2 : 1 internally.

OG 1 2
i.e.  1
GH 2
H G O

or 1
OG = OH
3

2
& HG = OH
3

The lengths of median

A
1 2 2
AD = b  c  2bc cos A
2

F  
1 2 2
BE = c  a 2 a cos B
2

1
CF = a 2  b2 2ab cosC B D C
2

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 9

Distance between orthocentre (H) & circumcentre (O)

OH = R 1  8 cosA cosB cosC

1 R
OG = OH = 1  8 cosA cosB cosC
3 3
Distance between circumcentre (O) & incentre (I) / excentre

A B C
OI = R 1  8sin sin sin
2 2 2

A B C
OI1 = R 1  8sin cos cos
2 2 2

A B C
OI2 = R 1  8cos sin cos
2 2 2

A B C
OI3 = R 1  8cos cos sin
2 2 2 A
Length of angle bisector

2bc A
AD = cos
b+ c 2
B C
D
Illustration 2

A BC
Prove that : (b  c ) sin  a cos
2 2

Solution :
Since b = 2R sin B and c = 2R sin C

A A
(b  c)sin  2R (sin B + sinC) sin
2 2

B+C BC A
= 4R sin .cos .sin
2 2 2

 A A BC
= 2R  2cos .sin  cos
 2 2 2

BC BC
= 2R sin A cos  a cos
2 2

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
10 QUIZRR

Illustration 3

Prove that a cos A + b cos B ă c cos C = 2 c cos A cos B

Solution :
L.H.S. = 2R {sin A cos A + sin B cos B ă sin C cos C}
= R {sin 2A + sin 2B ă sin 2C}
= R {2 sin (A + B) cos (A ă B) ă 2 sin C cos C}
= R {2 sin C cos (A ă B) + 2 sin C cos (A + B)} since A + B =  ă C
= 2R sin C {cos(A ă B) + cos (A + B)} = 4R sin C cos A cos B
= 2c cosA cos B since c = 2R sinC

Illustration 4

b c ca a b cos A cosB cosC

If   , prove that :  
11 12 13 7 19 25

Solution :

bc ca ab bccaab abc A C A+C

    (By ratio proportional i.e. = = )
11 12 13 11  12  13 18 B D B+D

bc a ca b ab c

 ,  ,  , then
11 7 12 6 13 5

a b c
Let    k (say)
7 6 5

b2  c2  a 2 2 2
2 (6  5  7 )
2
1 7
cos A =  k  
2bc 2
k 2(6) (5) 5 35

c2  a2  b2 k2 (52  72  62 ) 19
cos B =  
2ca k2 2 (5)(7) 35

a2  b2  c2 k2 (72  62  52 ) 5 25
cos C =   
2 k2 2(7)(6) 7 35

cos A cos B cos C

  
7 19 25

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 11

Illustration 5

In any triangle ABC, prove that (b + c) cos A + (c + a) cos B + (a + b) cos C = a + b + c.

Solution :
L.H.S.
= (b + c) cos A + (c + a) cos B + (a + b) cos C
= b cos A + c cos A + c cos B + a cos B + a cos C + b cos C
= (b cos A + a cos B) + (c cos A + a cos C) + (c cos B + b cos C)
= c + b + a = R.H.S. [By using projection Rule]

Illustration 6

4
In a triangle ABC, a = 6, b = 3 and cos (A ă B) = . Find the angle C.
5
Solution :

AB ab C
Since, tan  cot
2 ab 2

1  cos(A  B) ab C
  cot
1  cos  A  B  a  b 2

4
1
5  6  3 cot C
 4 63 2
1
5

C C
 cot  1   45  C  90
2 2

Illustration 7

A B C
If in a triangle ABC, tan , tan , tan , are in harmonic progression, then show that
2 2 2
the sides a , b, c are in arithmetic progression.
Solution :

A B C
tan , tan , tan are in H.P.
2 2 2

A B C
 cot , cot , cot are in A.P.
2 2 2

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
12 QUIZRR

B A C
 2cot  cot  cot
2 2 2

s( s  b) s(s  a) s( s  c)
 2  
( s  a)(s  c) (s  b)( s  c) ( s  a)(s  b)

Multiply throughout by (s  a)(s  b)(s  c)

 2 (s ă b) = (s ă a) + (s ă c)
 2b = a + c
 a, b, c are in A.P.

7. Solut ion of t r iangles

We have studied that a triangle has six parts or six elements viz three sides and three angles.
From geometry, we know that when any three elements are given of which necessarily a side is
given, the triangle is completely determined i.e., remaining three elements can be determined. The
process of determining the unknown elements knowing the known elements is known as the
solution of a triangle. In practice, there are four different cases for which the solution is discussed
as under.

Case 1 : When all three sides are given.

To solve a triangle given the three sides a, b, c.
To determine angles A, B and C
The angles A, B and C are determined by using the following relations :

A ( s  b)(s  c)
tan 
2 s( s  a)

A (s  b)(s  c)
sin 
2 bc

A s(s  a)
cos 
2 bc

b2  c2  a 2
or by cos formulas, cos A 
2bc

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 13

Illustration 8

The sides of a triangle are 20, 30 and 21. Find the greatest angle.
Solution :
The grea test a ngle is opposite to the side whose length is 30.
Let a = 20, b = 30, c = 21
We have to find angle B.

B (s  a)(s  c)  a  b c 
sin   where s  
2 ca  2 

(35.5  20)(35.5  21)

=
20  21

(15.5  14.5)
= = 5351
20  21

= 0.7315

B
sin  0.7315
2

B
 47 (Approximately)
2

B = 94Ĉ
Case 2 : When two sides and the angle included between these are given.

Illustration 9

If b = 251, C = 147, A = 47Ĉ, find the remaining angles.

(Use NapierÊs rule)
Solution :

BC bc A
tan  cot
2 b c 2

B  C 251  147
 tan  cot 23 30´
2 251  147

26
= tan 66 30´ = 0.268 ï 2.2998 {we have used these]
97
SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
14 QUIZRR

BC
 tan  0.6164
2

BC
  31 39´ (From the trignometric tables)
2

 B ă C = 63Ĉ18´
But B + C = 133Ĉ (180Ĉ ă A = B + C)
Adding 2B = 196Ĉ 18´
 B = 98Ĉ 9´
 C = 34Ĉ 51´

Case 3 : To solve a triangle having given two angles and a side.

Let the given parts be denoted by B, C, a, then the third angle A can be found from the relation.
A = 180Ĉ ă (B + C)

a sin B
b
sin A

 log b = log a + log sin B ă log sin A

Similarly, c can be found from the equation
log c = log a + log sin C ă log sin A

Illustration 1 0

Solve the triangle ABC, given a = 18, A = 25Ĉ, B = 108Ĉ

Suggested answer :
C = 180Ĉ ă (25 ă 108Ĉ) = 47Ĉ

a sin B
b
sin A

Taking log on both sides, we get

log b = log a + log (sin B) ă log (sin A)
= log 18 + log (sin 108Ĉ) ă log (sin 25Ĉ)
= log 18 + log (sin 72Ĉ) ă log (sin 25Ĉ)
= log 18 + log (0.9511) ă log (0.4226)
(from Trigonometric table)
= 1.2553 + 1.9782 ă 1.6259

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 15

= 1.2553 ă 1 + 0.9782 + 1 ă 0.6295

log b = 1.076
Taking antilog, we get b = 40.52.
Similarly using
log c = log a + log (sin C) ă log (sin A),
we can evaluate the value of C as 31.23Ĉ.

Ambiguous Case
Case 4 : Given two sides and the angle opposite to one of the sides

Given the elements b, c and B of a triangle. This case is called Ambiguous case.
Draw the specified side AB (= c) and make the angle B (= ABD) as given. Now to make the
triangle mark an arc of radius equal to b with centre at point A. This arc may intersect or touch
or neither intersect nor touch the line BD. Accordingly we have the following results :

Ć If b < c sin B, there is no triangle. A

B D

Ć Ib b = c sin B and B is acute, there is one right angled triangle and right angle at C.
A

c b

B D
C
Ć If b > c sin B and b < c and B is acute, there are two triangles satisfying the given
conditions. A

c b
b

B D
C2 C1

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
16 QUIZRR
Ć If b > c, there is only one triangle.

c b

B D
C

Ć If B is obtuse, there is no triangle except when b > c.

Use sine rule to find angle C. Then A = 180Ĉ ă (B + C). The side a can also be found using sine
rule.

Illustration 1 1

In any ABC, if a = 2, b = 3  1 and ÂCÊ = 60Ĉ, solve the triangle.

Solution :
Two sides and included angle is given (case ă 2)

BA ba C
tan  cot
2 ba 2

3 12
= cot 30
3 12

3 1
= 3
33

3 1 tan 60  tan 45

= 
3 1 1  tan 60 tan 45

= tan (60Ĉ ă 45Ĉ) = tan 15Ĉ

BA
  15
2

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 17

or B ă A = 30Ĉ ...(i)
We know, A + B + C = 180Ĉ     A + B = 120Ĉ ...(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get B = 75Ĉ & A = 45Ĉ
To find side c, we use sine Rule

a c 2 3
 or c  2  6
sin A sin 60 1 2

Thus A = 45Ĉ, B = 75Ĉ and c  6

Illustration 1 2

If A = 30Ĉ, a = 100, c  100 2 , find the number of triangles that can be formed.

Solution :
Here a, c and A are given, therefore we will have to examine whether two triangles are possible
or not. For two triangles
(i) a > c sin A and (ii) a < c

100 > c  100 2 sin 30Ĉ

100 > 50 2 and

a < c i.e. 100  100 2  Two triangles can be formed.

Illustration 1 3
In the ambiguous case, if the remaining angles of the triangle formed with a , b and A be
sin C1 sin C2
B1, C1 and B2, C2, then prove that : sin B  sin B  2cos A
1 2

Solution :

b sin A
sin B1 ă sin B2 = (using sine rule)
a

c1 sin A c2 sin A
sin C1  and sin C2 
a a

c1 sin A c2 sin A
a  a c1  c2 2b cos A
 L.H.S. = b sin A b sin A  L.H.S. =   2cosA
b b
a a

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
18 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 4
In a ABC; a , c , A are given and b 1 = 2b 2, where b 1 and b 2 are two values of the third side :

then prove that 3a = c 1  8 sin 2 A

Solution :
a2 + b2 + c2 ă 2bc cos A
Consider this equation as a quadratic in b.
b2 ă (2c cos A)b + c2 ă a2 = 0
 b1 + b2 = 2c cos A
& b1 b2 = c2 ă a2
& b1 = 2b2
 3b1 = 2c cos A and 2b12 = c2 ă a2

2
 2c cosA  2 2
 2  c a 0
 3 

 8c2 cos2 A = 9c2 ă 9a2

 8c2 (1 ă sin2A) = 9c2 ă 9a2
 9a2 = c2 + 8c2 sin2 A

 3 a  c 1  8sin 2 A

Illustration 1 5

Prove that : r 1 + r 2 + r 3 ă r = 4R.

Solution :

      
(r1 + r2) + (r3 ă r) =  s  a  s  b    s  c  s 
   

 2s  a  b   s  ( s  c) 
=   
 ( s  a)(s  b)   s( s  c) 

 c c 
=   
 ( s  a)( s  b) s(s  c) 

c
= s(s  c)  (s  a)(s  b)
s( s a)(s  b)( s  c)


cab abc abc

=    4R
s( s  a)( s  b)( s  c) 2 

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 19

Alternatively :

A B C B C A
r1 + r2 = 4R sin cos cos + 4R sin cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2

C  A B A B
= 4R cos sin 2 cos 2  cos 2 sin 2 
2  

C  A + B 2C
= 4R cos sin    4R cos
2  2  2

A B C A B C
r3 ă r = 4R cos cos sin ă 4R sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

C  A B A B
= 4R sin  cos 2 cos 2  sin 2 sin 2 
2  

C  A + B 2 C
= 4R sin cos    4R sin 2
2  2 

 2C C
 r1 + r2 + r3 ă r = 4R  cos  sin 2   4R
 2 2

Illustration 1 6

1 1 1 1 a 2  b2  c 2
Prove that :    
r12 r22 r32 r2 2

Solution :

1
r12

1
r22

1
r32

r
1
2

1
 2 (s  a) 2
 (s  b)2  (s  c)2  s2 

=
1
 2 4s 2
 2 s(a  b  c)  a 2  b2  c2 

=
1
 2 4s 2
 2s(2s)  a2  b2  c2 
a2  b2  c2
=
2
SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
20 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 7

In a triangle ABC, the vertices A, B, C are at distance of p, q, r from the orthocentre

respectively. Show that a qr + brp + cpq = a bc.
Solution :
Let H be the orthocentre of triangle ABC
From question, HA = p, HB = q, HC = r A

p
F E

H
q r
From figure,
HBD = EBC = 90Ĉ ă C
B C
D
HCD = FCB = 90Ĉ ă B
 BHC = 180Ĉ ă (HBD + HCD)
= 180Ĉ ă [90Ĉ ă C + 90Ĉ ă B]
= B + C = 180Ĉ ă A
Similarly, AHC = 180Ĉ ă B and AHB = 180Ĉ ă C
Now, Area of BHC + Area of CHA + Area of AHB
= Area of ABC

1 1 1
 .q.r.sin BHC + .r. p.sin CHA + . p.q.sin AHB = 
2 2 2

  1
 bc.sin A
2

1 1 1
 qr.sin(180  A) + rp sin(180  B)  pq sin (180  C)  
2 2 2

1 1 1
 qr.sin A + rp sin B + pq.sin C = 
2 2 2

1 a 1 b 1 c
 qr.  pr.  pq. 
2 2R 2 2R 2 2R

abc  abc 
 aqr + brp + cpq = 4R.  = 4. .   abc   
4  4R 

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 21

Illustration 1 8

If the bisector of the angle C of a triangle ABC cuts AB in D and the circum-circle in E,
prove that CE : DE = (a + b)2 : c 2.
Solution :
 AD is internal bisector of C.

AD b
 
DB a
C
AD + DB a  b
or, 
DB a
C/2 C/2
ac
or, BD = {remember this result}
ab
D
Since angles of the same segment are equal. A B

C
 ABE = ACE =
2 E
and BEC = BAC = A
applying sine rule in triangle BEC,

 C
a sin  B + 
CE

BC
 CE =  2 ...(i)
sin CBE sin BEC sin A

applying sine rule in triangle BDE,

 C
ac sin  
DE

BD
 DE =  2
C sin A ( a  b)sin A ...(ii)
sin
2

From (i) and (ii),

 C
a sin  B + 
CE
  2
( a  b)
DE C
ac sin
2

 C
(a  b)sin  B + 
CE
  2
or, DE C ...(iii)
c sin
2

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
22 QUIZRR

 C  C C
sin  B +  sin  B +  2cos
 2
  2 2
Now, C C C
sin 2sin .cos
2 2 2

sin  B + C  sin B
=
sin C

sin A +sin B a  b
=  ...(iv)
sin C c

From (iii) and (iv), we have

CE a  b a  b (a  b)2
 . 
DE c c c2

Illustration 1 9

A B C
 cot  cot cot
(a  b  c)2
2 2 2
Prove that : in any ABC 2 2 2

a b c cot A + cot B + cot C

Solution :

cos A 2bc cos A b2  c 2  a 2

cot A =  
sin A 2bc sin A 4

b2  c 2  a 2 a2  b2  c2
  cot a   4

4

A
2cos2
1  cos A 2 A
  cot
Also sin A A A 2
2sin cos
2 2

2bc(1  cos A) A
 cot
2bc sin A 2

A  2bc   2bc cos A

  cot 2 
4
SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 23

=
 2bc   (b2  c2  a2 )
4

a2  b2  c2  2ab  2bc  2ca ( a  b  c) 2

= 
4 4

A
 cot 2 ( a  b  c)2
 
 cot A a 2  b2  c 2

Illustration 20

If p 1, p 2, p 3 are the length of the altitudes of a triangle ABC, prove that p 1ă2 + p 2ă2 + p3ă2

(cotA + cot B + cot C)

=


Solution :

1 1 a
ap1    
2 p1 2

1 a2  b2  c2
  p2 
4 2
1

2bc cos A + 2ca cosB + 2ab cos C

=
4 2

1  cos A 
=
2 2  abc  a 

abc  cos A 
=
2 2   2R sin A 

 cot A  abc 
=  
  4 R 

=
 cot A since abc = 4R.


SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
24 QUIZRR

Illustration 21

If a 2, b 2, c 2 are in A.P., prove that cot A, cot B and cot C are also in A.P.
Solution :
b2 ă a2 = c2 ă b2
sin2 B ă sin2 A = sin2 C ă sin2 B
or sin (B + A) sin (B ă A) = sin (C + B) sin (C ă B)
or sin C (sin B cosA ă cos B sin A) = sin A (sin C cos B ă cos C sin B)
Divide each term by sin A sin B sin C
 cot A ă cot B = cot B ă cot C
 cot A, cot B, cot C are in A.P.

Illustration 20

Prove that
(b + c ă a ) {cot (B/2) + cot (C/2)} = 2a cot (A/2).
Solution :

B+C
sin
L.H.S. = 2(s  a) 2
B C
sin sin
2 2

2(s  a).cos (A/2) 2a cos (A/2) cos (A / 2) A

= 2a sin A/2  2a cot 2
=
 (s  c)(s  a) (s  a) (s  b) 
1/ 2
=
 (s  b) (s  c) 
1/ 2  
 .   
ca ab bc

Illustration 23
1 1 1
Prove : 2a bc cos A cos B cos C = (a + b + c )S.
2 2 2
Solution :

1 1 1
2 abc cos A cos B cos C
2 2 2

 s ( s  a)   s (s  b)   s (s  c) 
= 2abc  .  .  
 bc   ca   ab 

= 2s s ( s  a) ( s  b) (s  c)  (a  b  c)S

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 25

Illustration 24

1 1 1
tan A tan B tan C
2 2 2 1
Prove   
(a  b )(a  c ) (b  c )(b  a ) (c  a )(c  b) S
Solution :

1  ( s  b) (s  c) 
Putting tan A    etc.,
2  s ( s  a) 
we have, L.H.S.

  ( s  b) ( s  c)   (s  c) (s  a)   ( s  a) (s  b)  
      
  s ( s  a)   s (s  b)   s ( s  c)  
 
=  ( a  b) (a  c) ( c  a) (b  a) (c  a) (c  b) 

 
 

( c  b) ( s  b) (s  c)  ( a  c) ( s  c) ( s  a)  (b  a) (s  a) ( s  b)
=
(a  b) (b  c) (c  a) [ s ( s  a) ( s  b) ( s  c)
2
Nr = ă  {(b ă c) {s ă s (b + c) + bc}
= ă s2  (b ă c) + s (b2 ă c2) ă bc (b ă c)
= 0 + 0 + (b ă c) (c ă a) (a ă b)
Note that on simpliication,
bc (b ă c) + ca (c ă a) + ab (a ă b) = ă (b ă c) (c ă a) (a ă b)]
Substituting in (1), we get

Nr 1 1
L.H.S. = r
 
D [ s( s  a) ( s  b) ( s  c)] S

Illustration 25

A
Given S = a 2 ă (b ă c )2 in a triangle ABC whose area is S, then find the value of tan
2

Solution :

1
S bc sin A  ( a  b  c) ( a  b  c)
2

A A 2( s  b).2( s  c) A
or sin cos   4 sin 2
2 2 bc 2

A 1
 tan 
2 4
SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
26 QUIZRR

Illustration 26

a 3 cos (B ă C) + b 3 cos (C ă A) + c 3 cos (A ă B) = 3a bc.

Solution :
a3 cos (B ă C) + b3 cos (C ă A) + c3 cos (A ă B)
= k3 sin3 A cos (B ă C) + k3 sin3 B cos (C ă A) + k3 sin3 C cos (A ă B)
= k3 [sin2 A sin (B + C) cos (B ă C) + sin2 B sin (C + A) cos (C ă A) + sin2 C sin (A + B) cos (A ă B)]

1 3
= k [sin2 A [sin 2B + sin 2C) + sin2 B (sin 2C + sin 2A) + sin2 C (sin 2A + sin 2B)]
2

= k3 [sin2 A sin B cos B + sin2 A sin C cos C + sin2 B sin C cos C + sin2 B sin A cos A +
sin2 C sin A cos A + sin2 C sin B cos B]
= k3 [sin A sin B (sin A cos B + cos A sin B) + sin B sin C (sin B cos C + cos B sin C)
+ sin C sin A (sin C cos A + cos C sin A)]
= k3 [sin A sin B sin (A + B) + sin B sin C sin (B + C) + sin C sin A sin (C + A)]
= k3 [sin A sin B sin C + sin B Sin C sin A + sin C sin A sin B]
= 3k sin A.k sin B.k sin C = 3abc.

Illustration 27

1 5 1 20 1
In a triangle ABC, if tan A = and tan B = , find tan C , and prove that in this triangle
2 6 2 37 2
a + b = 2b.
Solution :

C  A  B  A B
We have tan  tan  90    cot   
2  2  2 2

A B 6 37
cotcot  1 . 1
2 2  5 20
= B A 37 6
cot  cot 
2 2 20 5

222  100 122 2  61 2

=   
5  61 5  61 5  61 5

A C  ( s  b) (s  c)   (s  a) ( s  b) 
Again tan . tan   .  
2 2  s ( s  a)   s ( s  c) 

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 27

5 2 sb
Hence . 
6 5 s

 3s ă 3b = s or 2s = 3b
or a + b + c = 3b or a + c = 2b

Illustration 28

If p 1, p 2, p 3 are the altitudes of a triangle from the vertices A, B, C and  be the area of

1 1 1 2a b C
triangle, prove that    cos2
p1 p2 p3 (a  b  c ) 2

Solution :
Since p1, p2, p3 are perpendiculars from the vertices A, B, C to the opposite sides, we have

1 1 1
 ap1  bp2  cp3
2 2 2

1 1 1 a b c
Hence p  p  p  2  2  2
1 2 3

a  b  c a  b  c  2c 2 s  2 c
=  
2 2 2

s  c ab s( s  c)
=  .
 s ab

ab 1 2ab 1
= cos2 C = cos2 C
s 2 (a + b + c)  2

Illustration 29

If ,  ,  are the lengths of the altitudes of a triangle ABC, prove that

(cot A  cot B  cot C)

 2   2   2 


Solution : Since , ,  are the lengths of altitudes of ABC, we have

1 1 1
 a  b   c   ...(1)
2 2 2

1 1
Also ab sin C  bc sin A
2 2

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
28 QUIZRR

1
= ca sin B   ...(2)
2

Hence from (1), we have

1 1 1 a2 b2 c2 a2  b2  c2
      ...(3)
2 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2

1 1 a2  b2  c2
And (cot A + cot B + cot C) =
  4

a2  b2  c2
=
4 2

ă2 + ă2 + ă2 = (cot A cot B + cot C)/.

Illustration 30

Let O be a point inside a triangle ABC such that OAB = OBC= OCA =  then show that
(a) cot  = cot A + cot B + cot C
(b) cosec2  = cosec2 A + cosec2 B + cosec2 C
Solution :
OCB = C ă  and
A
BOC = 180Ĉ ă  ă (C ă ) = 180Ĉ ă C.

Similarly AOB = 180Ĉ ă B
Now from OAB, we have
O
OB AB c
  
sin  sin (180  B) sin B 
B C

c sin 
so that OB  ...(1)
sin B

Again from OBC, we get

OB BC a
 
sin (C - ) sin (180  C) sin C

a sin (C  )
 OB  ...(2)
sin C

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
 QUIZRR 29

From (1) and (2), we get

or k sin C sin  sin C = k sin A sin B sin (C ă )
or sin C sin  sin (A + B) = sin A sin B sin (C ă )
or sin C sin  sin A cos B + sin C sin  cos A sin B
= sin A sin B cos  ă sin A sin B cos C sin 
Dividing by sin A sin B sin C sin , we get
cot B + cot A = cot  ă cot C
or cot = cot A + cot B + cot C
squaring
cot2  = cote2 A + cot2 B + cot2 C + 2 cot A cot B + 2 cot B cot C + 2 cot C cot A
or cosec2  ă 1 = cosec2 A ă 1 + cosec2 B ă 1 + cosec2 C ă 1 + 2
[ In a , cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A = 1]
or cosec2  = cosec2 A + cosec2 B + cosec2 C.

Illustration 31

a b c
The sides of a triangle are such that 2 2
 2 2

1m n m n (1  m )(1  n2 )
2

m
Prove that A = 2 tană1 , B = 2 tană1 (mn) and   mnbc
n m2  n2

Solution :
From the given ratios we have

ab ab c
2 2
 2 2

(1  m ) (1  n ) (1  m ) (1  n ) (1  m )(1  n2 )
2

a  b 1  m 2 a  b 1  n2
 , 
c 1  m2 c 1  n2

Now from sine rule, we know that

a b a sin A
  
sin A sin B b sin B

AB A B
sin cos
a  b sin A + sin B 2 2
  
a  b sin A ă sin B A+B A B
cos sin
2 2
SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
30 QUIZRR

ab  A  B  A ă B
  tan   cot  
ab  2   2 

or a + b = k si

AB A B
cos 2 sin 2
2  1  m 2 1n
,
A + B 1  m2 A  B 1  n2
cos sin
2 2

Apply C and D on both.

A B A B
tan tan  m2 , cot tan  n2
2 2 2 2

Multiplying and dividing them, we get

A m2 B
 tan 2  2 , tan 2  m2 n2
2 n 2

m
 A = 2 tană1 , B = 2 tană1 (mn)
n

1 1 2 tan (A/2)
 bc sin A  bc . etc.
2 2 1 + tan 2 (A/2)

SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
TRIGONOMETRIC
EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 3

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
A trigonometric equation is one that involves one or more trigonometric functions. For example,
tan2 t + 1 = sec2 t
Solving trigonometric equations such as 2 sin x = 1 refers to the process of finding the values for
the variable x that will make a true numerical statement. Since trigonometric functions are
periodic most trigonometric equations have infinitely many solutions.

1. SOLUTION OR ROOT OF A TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS

A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the given trigonometrical equation is called a
solution or root of the equation.
Ex. 2 sin  = 1, clearly  = 30 and  = 150 satisfies the equation, therefore, 30 and 150 are
solutions of the equation 2 sin  = 1 between 0 and 120 .

2. SOLUTION OF A TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION

A trigonometric equation has three kinds of solution :
1. Principal solution : Numerically smallest value of the unknown angle satisfying the
given equation.
2. Particular solution : Any value of angle satisfying the given equation.
3. General solution : Collection of all particular solutions.

For example, the equation cot ( /6) = 3 is satisfied

  7 5
If  = or or  , etc.
6 6 6 6

 4 2
 = , ,  , etc.
3 3 3
Out of these, the numerically smallest is = /3.
This is the principal solution. It is a particular solution also. Also the above values of  taken
individually are particular solutions.
For the general solution, we observe that since contangent function is periodic with period and
it takes the value 3 only once in the internal [0, ], ( /6) can be equal to any particular
solution plus a multiple of . If we take the particular solution as the principal solution,

 
then   = n  + , n 1
6 6


  = n + , n  1 is the general solution.
3
If in any equation, we get two values of the unknown angle which are numerically equal but
opposite in sign, the principal solution is assumed as the positive angle, e.g., Principal solution of
sec = 2 is  = /3, although = /3 also satisfies it.

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 4 QUIZRR
3. METHODS FOR FINDING PRINCIPAL VALUES :

1
Suppose we have to find the principal value of  satisfying the equation sin  =
2
Since sin  is negative,  will be in 3rd or 4th quadrant. We can approach 3rd or 4th quadrant
from two directions. If we take anticlockwise direction the numerical value of the angle will be
greater than . If we approach it in clockwise direction the angle will be numerically less than
. For principal value, we have totake numerically smallest angle.
So for principal value :
(i) If the angle is in 1st or 2nd quadrant we must select anticlockwise direction and if the angle
is in 3rd or 4th quadrant, we must select clockwise direction.
(ii) Principal value is never numerically greater than .
(iii) Principal value always lies in the first circle (i.e. in first rotation)

 5 
On the above criteria, will be or . Among these two has the least numerical
6 6 6

 1
value. Hence is the principal value of  satisfying the equation sin  = .
6 2
From the above discussion, the method for finding principal value can be summed up as
follows :
(a) First draw a trigonometric circle and mark the quadrant, in which the angle may lie.
(b) Select anticlockwise direction for 1st and 2nd quadrants and select clockwise direction for
3rd and 4th quadrants.
(c) Find the angle in the first rotation.
(d) Select the numerically least angle among these two values. The angle thus found will be the
principal value.
(e) Incase, two angles one with positive sign and the other with negative sign qualify for the
numerically least angle, then it is the convention to select the angle with positive sign as
principal value.

4. GENERAL SOLUTION OF SOME SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

We list below the general solution of some simple trigonometric equations. (n 1 in this lesson)
(i) sin  = 0  = n


(ii) cos  = 0   = (2n + 1)
2
(iii) tan  = 0  = n


(iv) sin  = 1   = (4n + 1)
2


(v) sin  = 1   = (4n + 3)
2

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 5

(vi) cos  = 1  = 2n

(vii) cos  = 1   = (2n + 1)

5. GENERAL SOLUTION
Since trigonometrical functions are periodic functions, therefore, solutions of trigonometrical
equations can be generalised with the helpof periodicity of trigonometrical functions. The solution
consisting of all possible solutions of a trigonometrical equation is called its general solution.
General solution of equation
(a) sin  = sin    = n + ( 1)n  ; n  I
sin  = k, 1  k  1   = n + ( 1)n  ; n  I. and  = sin 1
k
(finding principal value of )
(b) cos  = cos    = 2n μ  ; n  I
1
cos  = k   = 2n μ  ; n  I and  = cos k
(where  is the principal angle)
(c) tan  = tan    = n +  ; n  I
1
tan  = k   = n +  ; n  I,  = tan k
(where  is the principal angle)
2 2
(d) sin  = sin    = n μ 
2 2
(e) cos  = cos    = n μ 
2 2
(f) tan  = tan    = n μ d
Some deductions :
(I) 1. sin  = 0   = n


2. cos  = 0   = (4n μ 1)
2

3. tan  = 0   = n


(II) 1. sin  = 1   = (4n + 1)
2

2. cos  = 1   = 2n

3
(III) 1. sin  = 1   = 2n +
2

2. cos  = 1   = (2n + 1)

6. PARTICULAR SOLUTION
Def. All possible values of unknown which satisfy the given equation are called solutions of the
given equation.

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 6 QUIZRR
For complete solution :
1. There should be no extraneous root.
2. There should be no root loss.
While solving equations following points must be kept in mind.
1. Squaring should be avoided as far as possible. If squaring is done check for the extraneous
roots.
2. Never cancel equal terms containing ÂunknownÊ on two sides which are in product. It may
cause root loss.
3. The answer should not contain such values of  which make any of the terms undefined.
4. Domainshould not change. If it changes, necessary corrections must be made.
5. Check that denominator is not zero at any stage while solving equations.

Illustration 1
Solve sin x = tan x.
Solution :

sin x FG
cos x 1 IJ
sin x = tan x  sin x
cos x
= 0  sin x
cos xH =0
K
 sin x (cos x 1) = 0  sinx = 0 or cos x = 1
 sin x = 0  x = n, n  1
 cos x = 1  cos x = cos 0  x = 2m μ 0, m  l or x = 2m, m  l
These solutions are included in the solutions x = n, n  l because 2m is also an integer.
 The solution is x = n, n  l

TIP : Cosine form is convenient compared to sine form, if occurs in both sides of the equation.
Ex. cos  = sin 3
We can solve this equation to get two different forms.

FG   3IJ   = 2n μ FG   3IJ

I. cos  = cos
H2 K H2 K

or  μ 3 = 2n μ . From this we can find .
2

FG   IJ = sin 3
II. cos  = sin 3 or sin
H2 K
  = n + ( 1)n 3.
To obtain , we will have to consider two cases. When n is odd ( 1)n = 1 and when n is even
( 1)n = 1 and accordingly we can get the value of .

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 7

Clearly in sine form we will have to deal with ( 1)n which is inconvenient compared to the
dealing of μ obtained in cosine form.
Type I. Problems based on preliminaries : In this type we will discuss problems which can
be converted in standard form after a little simplification.

Illustration 1
Find the most general values of  satisfying the equations :

1
(i) sin  = ă 1 (ii) cos  = ă (iii) tan  = ă 3
2

Solution :
(i) Given equation is sin  = 1.

FG   IJ   = n + ( 1)n
FG   IJ
or sin  = sin
H 2K H 2K

i.e.  = n + ( 1)n + 1
, where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
2

1
(ii) Given equation is cos  =
2

2 2
or, cos  = cos   = 2n μ where n = 0. μ 1, μ 2, ...
3 3

(iii) Given equation is tan  = 3

FG   IJ   = n + FG   IJ
or, tan  = tan
H 3K H 3K

= n , where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
3

Illustration 2
Solve the equation :
(i) sin 9 = sin  (ii) sin 5x = cos 2x
Solution :
(i) Given Equation is sin 9 = sin 
or, sin 9 sin  = 0

9 +  9  
or, 2 cos . sin =0
2 2

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 8 QUIZRR

or, cos 5 . sin 4 = 0

 either cos 5 = 0 or, sin 4 = 0


 5 = (2n + 1)  4= n
2

 n
or,  = (2n + 1)   =
10 4

n 
  = , (2n + 1) where n = 0, μ1, μ2, ...
4 10

(ii) Given equation is

sin 5x = cos 2x.

FG   5 xIJ
or, cos 2x = cos
H2 K
FG   5 xIJ
 2x = 2nμ H2 K

Takingpositive sign, 2x = 2n + 5x.
2

 
or, 7x = 2n +  x = (4n + 1)
2 14


Taking negative sign, 2x = 2n + 5x
2

 
or, 3x = (4n 1)  x = – (4n 1)
2 6

 
Hence x = (4n + 1) , (4n 1) where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
14 6

Illustration 3
Solve 3 tan ( ă 15Ĉ) = tan ( + 15Ĉ)
Solution :
Given, 3tan ( 15 ) = tan ( + 15 )

tan ( +15 ) 3
or, =
tan (  15 ) 1

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 9

tan ( + 15 ) + tan (  15 ) 4

or, = [By componendo and dividendo]
tran ( + 15 )  tan (  15 ) 2

sin ( +15+  15 )

or, =2
sin ( + 15 +15 )


or, 2 sin 2 = 2 or, sin 2 = 1 = sin
2

 n 
 2 = n + ( 1)n  = + (1) n
2 2 4
where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
Type II. Problems based onmethod of factorisation :
Working Rule :
Step I. Make R.H.S. zero, factorise L.H.S.
Step II. Equate each factor to zero and solve.
Step III. Check for root loss and extraneous roots.
Finally, collect the results after correction.

Illustration 4
Solve, 7 cos2  + 3 sin2  = 4
Solution :
Given 7 cos2  + 3 sin2  = 4
or, 7 cos2  + 3 (1 cos2 ) = 4
1
or, 4 cos2  = 1  cos = μ
3

1  
Taking positive sign, cos  = = cos   = 2n 
2 3 3

1 2 2
Taking negative sign, cos  = = cos   = 2n 
2 3 3

 2
  = 2n μ , 2n μ , where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
3 3

Illustration 5

Solve 2 cos 2 + 2 sin  = 2

Solution :

2 sin  = 2(1 cos 2)

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
10 QUIZRR

or, 2 sin  = 4 sin2  or, 2 sin  4 sin2  = 0

or,
LM
2 sin  1  2 2 sin 2  = 0
3
OP
MN PQ
If 2 sin  = 0, sin  = 0 [. z = 0  z = 0]
  = n, where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...

1
If 1 2 2 sin3/2  = 0, sin3/2  =
2 2

F 1I
3

= G J
2 1
or, (sin )3/2
H 2K  sin  =
2
= sin
6


  = n + ( 1)n , where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
6


  = n, n + ( 1)n , where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
6

Illustration 6

1
Solve cos  cos 2 cos 3 =
4

Solution :
4 cos  cos 2 cos 3 = 1
or, (2 cos 3 cos ) 2 cos 2 = 1
or, (cos 4 + cos 2) 2 cos 2 1= 0
2
or, 2 cos 4 cos 2 + 2 cos 2 1= 0
or, 2 cos 4 cos 2 + cos 4 = 0
or, cos 4 [2 cos 2 + 1] = 0

 
If cos 4 = 0, 4 = (2n + 1)    = (2n + 1)
2 8

If 2 cos 2 + 1 = 0

1 2 2
or, cos 2 = = cos   2 = 2n μ
2 3 3

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 11


 = n μ
3

 
Hence,  = (2n + 1) , n  where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
8 3

Illustration 7

x
Solve 8 tan2 = 1 + sec x
2

Solution :

x 1  cos x
We know that tan2 =
2 1 + cos x

x
Given, 8 tan2 = 1 + sec x
2

FG 1  cos x IJ = 1 + 1 = 1 + cos x
or, 8
H 1 + cos x K cos x cos x
or, 8 cos x 8 cos2 x = (1 + cos x)2
or, 8 cos x 8 cos2 x = 1 + cos2 x + 2 cos x
or, 9 cos2 x 6 cos x + 1 = 0
or, (3 cos x 1)2 = 0 or, 3 cos x 1= 0

1
or, cos x = = cos  (suppose)
3
 x = 2n μ 

FG 1 IJ , where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
H 3K
1
or, x = 2n μ cos

 
Check :   (2 + 1) and cos x  0 [Otherwise, equationwill be meaningless]
2 2


 x  (2n + 1) and x  (2n + 1)
2


i.e. x is not odd multiple of or  which is clearly satisfied.
2

FG 1 IJ
 x = 2n μ cos 1
H 3K
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
12 QUIZRR

Illustration 8
Solve the equation cot  ă tan  ă cos  + sin  = 0
Solution :
cot  tan  cos  + sin  = 0

cos  sin 
or,  cos  + sin  = 0
sin  cos 

cos 2   sin2 
or, (cos  sin ) = 0
cos  sin 

or, (cos  sin )

LM cos  + sin  OP = 0
N cos  sin  Q
cos  + sin 
 either cos  sin  = 0, or, 1 = 0
sin  cos 

If cos  sin  = 0, cos  = sin 

 
or, tan  = 1 or, tan  = tan    = n +
4 4

cos  + sin 
If 1 = 0
sin  cos 

cos  + sin = sin  cos 

1
or, cos  + sin  = sin 2
2

1
Squaring, we get 1 + sin 2 = sin2 2
4

4  16  4.1(4)
 sin 2 =
2

or, sin 2 = 2 μ 2 2

Taking positive sign, sin 2 = 2 μ 2 2 > 1 and hence impossible

Taking negative sign, sin 2 = 2 2 2 = sin  (say)

[. | 2 2 2 | < 1, hence we have supposed it as sin ]

 2 = n + ( 1)n 

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 13

n 
or,  = + ( 1)n , where  = sin 1
(2 2 2)
2 2

where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ....

Illustration 9
Solve for x, (ă   x  ), the equation 2(cos x + cos 2x) + sin2 x (1 + 2 cos x) = 2 sin x
Solution :
2(cos x + cos 2x) + sin 2x + 2 sin 2x cos x 2 sin x = 0

3x x
or, 2.2 cos cos + sin 2x + sin 3x + sinx 2 sin x = 0
2 2

3x x 5x x x x
or, 4 cos cos + 2 sin . cos 2 sin cos = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2

x LM
2 cos
3x
+ sin
5x
 sin
x
=0
OP
or, 2 cos
2 N 2 2 2 Q
x LM
2 cos
3x
+ 2 cos
3x
.sin x = 0
OP
or, 2 cos
2 N 2 2 Q
x 3x
or, 4 cos cos [1 + sin x] = 0
2 2

x 3x
or, cos cos [1 + sin x] = 0
2 2

x x 
If cos = 0, = (2n + 1)  x = (2n + 1) 
2 2 2

3x 3x  
If cos = 0, = (2n + 1)  x = (2n + 1)
2 2 2 3

FG   IJ
If 1 + sin x = 0, sin x = 1 = sin H 2K
FG   IJ 
 x = n + ( 1)n H 2K = n + ( 1)n + 1
2

Putting the value of n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, .... in the above results and selecting the values lying in the
interval   x  , we have

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
14 QUIZRR

  
x = , , ,  ,  ,
3 3 2

  
= , ,  , , 
2 3 3

Illustration 1 0
Solve tan x + tan 2x + tan 3x = 0.
Solution :
tan x + tan 2x + tan 3x = 0
or, tan x + tan 2x + tan (x + 2x) = 0

tan x+ tan 2 x
or, tan x + tan 2x + = 0
1  tan x tan 2 x

or, (tan x + tan 2x) 1 + LM 1 OP

= 0
N 1  tan x tan 2 x Q
If tan x + tan 2x = 0, tan x = tan 2x
or, tan x = tan ( 2x)  x = n + ( 2x) or, 3x = n

n
 x=
3

1
If 1 + = 0 then, 1 tan x tan 2x = 1
1  tan x tan 2 x

2 tan x
or, tan x tan 2x = 2 or, tan x = 2
1  tan2 x

or, tan2 x = 1 tan2 x

1
or, 2 tan2 x = 1 or, tan2 x =
2

1
or, tan x = μ
2

Taking positive sign,

1
tan x = = tan  (suppose)
2

 x = n+ 

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 15

Taking negative sign.

tan x =
1
= tan ( )
LM tan () = tan  =  1 OP
2 N 2Q

 x = n + ( )

1 1
 x = n μ  = n μ tan
2

n 1 1
Hence, x = , n μ tan where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
3 2

Illustration 1 1
Find all solutions of the equation, 4 cos2 x sin x ă 2 sin2 x = 3 sin x.
Solution :
4 cos2 x sin x 2 sin2x 3 sin x = 0
or, sin x [4 cos2 x 2 sin x 3] = 0
2
or, sin x [4 4 sin x 2 sin x 3] = 0
or, sin x [4 sin2 x + 2 sin x 1] = 0
If sin x = 0, x = n
If 4 sin2 x + 2 sin x 1 = 0

2  4  4 4(1) 1  5
sin x = =
2.4 4

1 + 5  LM sin 182 = 5 1

and 18 =
 OP
When sin x = . sin x = sin
4 10 N 4 10 Q

 x = n + ( 1)n
10

1  5 F 5 +1 I LM cos 36= 5 +1 OP

When sin x =
4
, sin x = GH 5 JK
= cos 36
N 4 Q
or, sin x = sin 54 [ . 36 = 90 54 ]

FG  3 IJ LM 54 = 3 OP
or, sin x = sin
H 10 K N 10 Q

 x = n + ( n F 3 I
1) GH  JK
10

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
16 QUIZRR

 FG  3 IJ
 x = n + ( 1)n
10
, n + ( 1)n H 10 K
where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ....

Illustration 1 2

Solve : sin x + 3 cos x = 2

Solution :

Given 3 cos x + sin x = 2 .

this equation is of the form.

a cos  + b sin  = c. Here a = 3 , b = 1, c = 2 ].

For real solution, |c|  a2 + b2 i.e. 2  3 +1

or, 2  2 which is true.

Hence dividing both sides by 2 we get

3 1 1
cos x+ sin x =
2 2 2

  
or, cos x . cos + sin x . sin = cos
6 6 4

FG IJ   
or,
H
cos x
6 K
= cos
4
 x = 2 n  
6 4

 
Taking positive sign, x = 2n +
6 4

  5
 x = 2n + + = 2n +
4 6 12

 
Taking negative sign, x = 2n
6 4

  
 x = 2n + = 2n 
4 6 12

5 
 x = 2n + , 2n where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ....
12 12

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 17

Illustration 1 3

FG   ,  IJ
Find all values of  in the interval H 2 2K satisfying the equation.

2 
(1 ă tan ) (1 + tan ) sec2  + 2tan = 0
Solution :
Given equation is
2 
(1 – t an ) (1 + tan ) . sec2  + 2tan = 0
tan2 
or, (1 tan2 ) (1 + tan2 ) + 2 = 0
4 tan2 
or, 1 tan  + 2 = 0
z
or, 1 z + 2 = 0 where tan2  = z (suppose)
2

or, 1 + 2z = z2
Clearly, when z = 3 equation (1) is satisfied


 z = 3  tan2  = 3  tan  = μ 3 .   = n +
3

Value of  within given interval i.e.

FG   ,  IJ are  
H 2 2K 3
and
3
.

Illustration 1 4
If 32 tan8  = 2 cos2  ă 3 cos  and 3 cos 2 = 1, then find the genera value of .
Solution :
Given 3 cos 2 = 1

1
or, cos 2 =
3

1
1
2 1  cos 2 3 =2=1
Now, tan  = = ...(1)
1 + cos 2 1 + 1 4 2
3

Now 32 tan8  = 2 cos2  3 cos 

2 cos2 
FG 1 IJ 4
or, 2 cos2 
or, 3 cos  = 32
H 2K = 2 3 cos  2 = 0

or, 2 cos2  4 cos  + cos  2 = 0 or, (cos  2) (2 cos  + 1) = 0

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18 QUIZRR

1 2
or, 2 cos  + 1 = 0 [ . cos   2] or, cos  = = cos
2 3

2
  = 2n μ where n = 0, μ 1, μ 2, ...
3

Illustration 1 5
Find real values of x for which 27cos 2x . 81sin 2x is minimum. Also find this minimum value.
Solution :
cos x + 4 sin 2x
Let y = 27cos 2x
. 81sin 2x
= 33

FG 3 cos 2 x+ 4 sin 2 xIJ

= 3
5
H2 5 K = 35 cos (2 x  ) , where tan  =
4
.
3

For minimum y, cos (2x ) 1 = cos .

 2x  = 2n μ 

 x=
1 LM
(2 n 1) + tan 1
4
, n  I.
OP
2 N 3 Q
5 1
Minimum value of y = 3 = .
243

Illustration 1 6

4
If tan (cot x) = cot (tan x), prove that sin 2x = .
(2n + 1)

Solution :

FG   tan xIJ
tan (cot x) = tan
H2 K
FG   tan xIJ
 cot x = n+
H2 K

or, cot x + tan x = n+
2

cos x sin x 
or, + = (2n + 1)
sin x cos x 2

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 19

cos 2 x+ sin2 x 
or, = (2n + 1)
sin x cos x 2

1  1 (2 n+ 1) 
or, = (2n + 1) or, =
2 sin x cos x 22 sin 2 x 4

4
 sin 2x =
(2 n+1) 

Illustration 1 7
x cos x
Solve the equation ecos = eă + 4.
Solution :
x cos x
Given equation is ecos = e + 4

1 x
or, z– – 4 = 0 where ecos = z (suppose)
z

or, z2 4z 1 = 0

4  16  4.1 (1)
 z=
2

 z=2μ 5

 z= 2+ 5 or, z = 2 5
x x
 ecos = 2 + 5  ecos = 2 5

 cos x = log (2 + 5 ) > 1  cos x = loge (2 5)

and is impossible  no solution as 2 5< 0

 no solution and hence log is not real

Illustration 1 8
Find the solution set of inequality sin x > 1/2.
Solution :
When sin x = 1/2, the two values of x between 0 and 2
are /6 and 5/6.

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
20 QUIZRR

 5
From, the graph of y = sin x, it is obvious that, between 0 and 2 sin x > 1/2 for < x< .
6 6

Hence sin x > 1/2  2n + /6 < x < 2n + 5/6.

 FGH 2 n  + 6 , 2 n  + 6 IJK
 5
The required solution set is
n1

Illustration 1 9

Solve : sin x + cos x ă 2 2 sin x cos x = 0

Solution :

Here sin x + cos x = 2 2 sin x cos x = 2 sin 2x ...(1)

FG 1 sin x+ 1 IJ FG IJ
or, 2
H 2 2
cos x = 2 sin 2 x or sin x+
K H 4 K
= sin 2 x

FG x+  IJ
or, 2x = n + ( 1)n H 4K

Taking n even, n = 2m, m  I, 2x = 2m + x +
4


 x = 2m  + where m  I
4
Taking n odd, n = 2m + 1, m  I

FG x+  IJ
2x = (2m + 1)  H 4K
 2 m+ 1 
 3x = (2m + 1)  or x = 
4 3 12

FG 1IJ 1 FG 2 m+ 3 IJ  , where m  1.
H
Thus, x = 2 m+
4 K
 or
3 H 4K
Illustration 20
General value of  satisfying the equation tan2  + sec 2 = 1 is .....
Solution :
Given tan2  + sec 2 = 1

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 QUIZRR 21

or, tan2  +
1 + tan2 
= 1
LM cos 2 = 1  tan  OP
2

1  tan2 N 1 + tan  Q
2

or, tan2  tan4  + 1 + tan2  = 1 tan2 

or, tan4  3tan2  = 0
or, tan2  (tan2  3) = 0
2
 either tan  = 0 or, tan2  3 = 0

 tan  = 0  tan  = μ 3


 = n  = n μ
3

 
Clearly for tan  to be defined   odd and for sec 2 to be defined 2  odd
2 2


i.e.   odd
4


 = n or nμ
3

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
TRIGONOMETRIC
RATIOS
 QUIZRR 3

DEFINITION OF TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Let a revolving line OP starts from OM and revolves into the position OP, thus tracing out the
angle MOP.
Draw PM perpendicular to the initial line OM.
In the triangle MOP, OP is the hypotenuse, PM is the perpendicular, and OM is the base.
The trigonomietrical ratios, or fuctions, of the angle MOP are defined as follows.

MP Perp. , is called the Sine of the angle AOP;

, i.e.,
OP Hyp. P

OM Base
, i.e., , is called the Cosine of the angle AOP;
OP Hyp.

MP Perp. O
, i.e., , is called the Tangent of the angle AOP;. M
OM Base

OM Base
, i.e., , is called the Cotangent of the angle AOP;
MP Perp.

OP Hyp.
, i.e., , is called the Secant of the angle AOP;
OM Base

OP Hyp.
, i.e., , is called the Cosecant of the angle AOP;
MP Perp.

Sign of T r igonomet r ic R at ios

As we know that cartesian plane is divided into 4 quadrants, the sign of trigonometric ratios vary
according to the quadrant
90

IInd quadrant Ist quadrant

Only sin & cosec All T-ratios are positive
are positive (as both x & y are tue)

180 O or 360
Only tan  & cot are positive Only cos  & sec are positive
IIIrd quadrant IV quadrant

270

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
4 QUIZRR
You can learn this thing by the following line
ÂAfter School To CollegeÊÊ
   
All sin tan cos 
T-ratios T-ratio T-ratios T-ratios
includes includes includes
1
= cosec  cot  sec 
sin
Note : The angle we talk about in trigonometry and all its formulas is in Radians and NOT
in degrees. So we convert degree into radians whenever we are given question in
degrees.
Relation between Degree & Radian
 radian = 180 degree

180
 1 radian = degree



or 1 degree = radian
180

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF SOME ANGLES

Angle 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180

1 1 3 3 1 1
Sine 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2

3 1 1 1 1 3
Cosine 1 0    1
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1
Tangent 0 1  1  0
3 3  3 3

1 1
Cotangent  1 0  1 
3 3 3  3

2 2
Cosecant  2 2 1 2 2 
3 3

2 2
Secant 1 2  2  1
3 2  2 3

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 QUIZRR 5

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS FOR AN ANGLE OF ANY MAGNITUDE

Complementary Angles
Two angles are said to be complementary when their sum is equal to a right angle. Thus any
angle  and the angle 90  are complementary.

Supplementary angles
Two angles are said to be supplementary when their sum is equal to two right angles i.e., the
supplement of any angle  is 180 .

Allied or Related Angles

1
The angles n   and 1 n   , where is any integer, are known as allied or related
2 2
angles.
The trigonometric functions of these angles can be expressed as trigonometric functions of ,
with either a plus or a minus sign.The following working rules can be used in determining
these functions.

for complimentary angles , T-ratio interchange

   
sin      cos  , cos      sin 
 2   2 

   
tan      cot  , cot      tan 
 2   2 

   
cosec      sec  , sec      cosec 
2  2 

for supplementary angles, T-ratios remain same though value may become negative relative
to quadrant
sin( ) = sin sin (+ ) = sin {as in III quad sin is negative}
cos( ) = cos cos (+ ) = cos
tan( ) = tan tan ( + ) = +tan
(apply the quadrant rule for the last two also)

TABLE OF FORMULAE FOR ALLIED ANGLES

180  180 +  360   90  90 +  270  270 + 

Sin sin sin sin sin cos cos cos cos 

Cos cos cos cos cos sin sin sin sin 

Tan tan +tan tan tan cot cot cot cot 

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 6 QUIZRR
For learning this table use the concept done earlier about quadrants

For Example sin (180 + ) will enter III quadrant (assuming  to be acute) and we know sin is
negative in third quadrant

for ex. sin (180 + ) = sin

sin (270 + ) = cos

becuase (270 = 3 90) a complementary angle, so sin will change to cos, and 270 +  lies in
IV quadrant and sin is negative in IV quadrant, so cos.
Note : We put the sign according to T-ratio on the left not on the R.H.S.
Also note T-ratios for  
sin( ) = sin
cos( ) = cos
tan( ) = tan

BASIC FORMULAS
1. sin2 + cos2 = 1
2. 1 + tan2 = sec2 or sec2 tan2 = 1
3. 1 + cot2 = cosec2 or cosec2 cot2 = 1

Some formulas derived from above reslts

sin    1  cos2  or cos    1  sin 2 

1
sec  + tan  = sec   tan 

1
cosec + cot =
cosec   cot 

Some alzebraic formulas useful in problems :

a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 2ab
3 3 3
a + b = (a + b) 3ab(a + b)
a3 b3 = (a b)3 + 3ab(a b)
a + b+ c = 0  a + b3 + c3 = 0
3

Componendo & dividendo :

p a
If  , then by using componendo & dividendo
q b

pq ab

pq a b

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 QUIZRR 7

Illustration 1

1  sin 
Prove that  sec   tan 
1  sin 

Solution :

1  sin  1  sin  1  sin 

L.H.S. =  .
1  sin  1  sin  1  sin 

1  sin 2 1  sin  2 1  sin 

=  
2
1  sin  2
cos  cos 

1 sin 
=   sec   tan   R.H.S.
cos  cos 

Illustration 2
Show that (1 + cotA ă cosec A) (1 + tanA + secA) = 2
Solution :
L.H.S. = (1 + cotA cosec A) (1 + tanA + secA)

 cosA 1  sin A 1 
=  1  sinA  sin A   1  cosA  cos A 
  

 sinA + cosA  1   cosA + sinA + 1 

=   
 sin A  cosA 

(sinA + cosA)2  12
=
sinA cos A

sin2 A + cos2 A + 2sinA cosA 1

=
sinA cosA

2sinA cosA
= = 2 = R.H.S.
sinA cosA

Illustration 3
Prove that 3(sinx ă cosx)4 + 4(sin6x + cos6x) + 6(sinx + cosx)2 = 13
Solution :
L.H.S. = 3[(sinx cosx)2]2 + 4[(sin2x)3 + (cos2x)3)] + 6(sin2x + cos2x + 2sinx cosx)

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 8 QUIZRR
2 2
= 3(sin x + cos x 2sinx cosx) + 4(sin2x + cos2x) (sin4x + cos4x
2
sin2x cos2x)]
+ 6(sin2x + cos2x + 2sinx cosx)
= 3(1 2sinx cosx)2 + 4(sin4x + cos4x) sin2x cos2x) + 6(1 + 2sinx. cosx)
= 3(1 + 4sin2x cos2x 4sinx cosx) + 4[(sin2x + cos2x)2 2sin2x cos2x sin2x cos2x]
+ 6 + 12sinx cosx
= 3 + 12sin2x cos2x 12sinx cosx + 4(1 3sin2x cos2x) + 6 + 12sinx cosx
= 3 + 12sin2x cos2x + 4 12sin2x cos2x + 6 = 13

Illustration 4

3
2 2 3 2 2
If tan  = 1 ă e , prove that sec + tan  cosec  = (2  e )

Solution :
Given tan2 = 1 e2
Now, L.H.S. = sec + tan3 cosec

cosec 
= sec   1  tan3  
 sec  

= sec (1 + tan3. cot) = sec (1 + tan2)

= sec sec2

3 3
= sec 3   (sec 2 ) 2  (1  tan 2 ) 2

3 3
= (1  1  e2 ) 2  (2  e2 ) 2

Illustration 5
Cosec ă sin = m and sec ă cos = n, eliminate .
Solution :

1
Given, cosec  sin   m or,  sin   m
sin 

1  sin 2  cos2 
or, m or, m ...(i)
sin  sin 

1
Again sec cos = n or,  cos  n
cos 

1  cos2  sin 2 
or, n or, n ...(ii)
cos  cos 

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cos2 
From (i), sin   ...(iii)
m

cos4 
Putting in (ii), we get n or, cos3 = m2n
2
m cos 

1 2
 cos   (m 2
n) 3 2
or, cos   (m 2
n) 3 ...(iv)

2 4 2
2 2 1 2 1
cos  (m n) 3 m n3
3
From (iii), sin      m 3 n 3  (mn2 ) 3
m m m

2
 2
sin   2 3
( mn ) ...(v)

adding (iv) and (v), we get

2 2
2 2 3
(m n) 3  (mn )  cos2   sin 2 

2 2
2 2 3
or, (m n) 3  (mn )  1.

Pr ob lems b ased on limit s b et ween which sin, cos, sec , cosec, lies or d oes not lie.
Working Rule : Use the following whichever is applicable.
(i) 1 < sin < 1 or , |sin| < 1 or, sin2 < 1
(ii) 1 < cos < 1 or, cos2 < 1
(iii) sec < 1 or, sec > 1 i.e. sec2 > 1
(iv) cosec < 1 or, cosec > 1 i.e. cosec2 > 1

Illustration 6

2 4 xy
Is the equation sec   possible for real values of x and y ?
( x  y)2

Solution :

2 4 xy
Given, sec  
( x  y)2

4 xy
 sec2 > 1         1
( x  y)2

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2
or, (x + y) < 4 xy or, (x + y)2 4xy < 0 or, (x y)2 < 0
But for real values of x and y, (x y)2 < 0
 (x y)2 = 0  x= y Also x + y  0  x  0. y  0

2 4 xy
 given equation sec   is possible for real values of x and y only when x = y
( x  y)2

and x  0

Illustration 7

1
Show that the equation sin   x  is impossible if x is real.
x
Solution :

1
Given sin   x 
x

1 1 1
 sin   x2   2 x.  x2  2  2  2
x2 x x
which is not possible since sin2  < 1

Illustration 8
If sin + sin2 = 1, then prove that cos12 + 3cos10 + 3cos8 + cos6 ă 1 = 0
Solution :
Given sin = 1 sin2 = cos2 . ...(1)
L.H.S. = Cos6[cos2 + 1]3 1
3 3
= sin  (1 + sin) 1 by (1)
2 3 3
= (sin + sin ) 1 = 1 1 = 0. by (1)

Illustration 9

t3  t5 t5  t7
If tn  sin n   cos n , then 
t1 t3

Solution :
L.H.S. = [(sin3 + cos3) (sin5 + cos4)  (sin + cos)
= [sin3(1 sin2) + cos3 (1 cos2)]  (sin + cos)
= sin2 cos2 [sin + cos) (sin + cos)
= sin2 cos2.
the L.H.S. is

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t3  t5
L.H.S. =
t1
now we will solve R.H.S.

t5  t7
R.H.S. =
t3

(sin5   cos5 )  (sin7   cos7 ) sin5 (1  sin2 )  cos5 (1  cos2 )
= =
(sin 2   cos3 ) sin3   cos3 

sin5  cos2   cos5  sin2  sin2  cos2 (sin3   cos3 )

= =
sin3   cos3  (sin3   cos3 )
= L.H.S.
Hence proved

Illustration 1 0

2
 1  sin   cos   1  cos 
  
 1  sin   cos   1  cos 

Solution :

(1  sin )2  cos2   2cos (1  sin )

L.H.S. =
(1  sin ) 2  cos2   2cos (1  sin )

1  sin 2   cos2   2sin   2 cos (1  sin )

=
1  sin2   cos2   2sin   2 cos  (1  sin )

2(1  sin )  2cos (1  sin ) 1  cos 

= 
2(1  sin )  2 cos (1  sin ) 1  cos 

We have cancelled 2(1 + sin) from Nr and Dr.

Illustration 1 1

 1 1  2 2 1  sin 2  cos2 
 2 2
 2 2 
  sin  cos  
 sec   cos  cosec   sin   2  sin 2  cos2 

Solution :

1 cos2 

sec2   cos2  1  cos4 

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cos2 
=
(1  cos2 ) (1  cos2 )

cos2 
=
sin2  (1  cos2 )

Similarly

1 sin 2 

cosec 2  sin2  cos2 (1  sin2 )

Hence,

 cos2  sin 2  
L.H.S. =  2 2
 2 2  sin 2  cos2 
 sin  (1  cos ) cos  (1  sin  

cos4  sin4 
= 
1  cos2  1  sin 2 

= [sin2cos2(sin2 + cos2) + (cos4 + sin4)]  (1 + cos2 + sin2 + cos2 sin2)

sin2  cos2   (cos2   sin2 )2  2sin2  cos2 

=
2  cos2  sin2 

1  sin2  cos2 
= = R.H.S.
2  cos2  sin2 

Illustration 1 2

If a cos ă bsin = c , show that a sin   b cos    a 2  b 2  c 2

Solution :
Square a cos bsin = c. Then
 a cos  + b2 sin2
2 2
2ab sin cos = c2
or a2 (1 sin2) + b2 (1 cos2) 2ab sin cos = c2
 a2 + b2 c2 = a2 sin2 + b2 cos2 + 2ab sin cos
or (a sin + b cos)2 = a2 + b2 c2
 a sin + b cos = μ  (a2 + b2 c2)

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Illustration 1 3

ax by a x sin  by cos  2/3 2/3 2 2 2/3

  (a 2  b 2 ), a nd   0 , show that (a x) + (by) = (a ă b )
cos  sin  cos2  sin 2 
Solution :
From the second relation, we get

sin2  sin  by

2
cos  cos  ax

tan3 = by/ax  tan = (by)1/3/(ax)1/3

(by)1 / 3
 sin   ,
[( ax)2 / 3  (by)2 / 3 ]1 / 2

(ax)1/ 3
cos  
[( ax)2 / 3  (by) 2 / 3 ]1 / 2

Putting for sin and cos in

ax by
  a2  b2 , we get
cos  sin 

[(ax)2/3 + (by)2/3]1/2 [ax/(ax)1/3 + by/(by)1/3] = a2 b2

or [(ax)2/3 + (by)2/3]1/2 [(ax)2/3 + (by)2/3] = a2 b2
or [(ax)2/3 + (by)2/3]3/2. = a2 b2
or (ax)2/3 _ (by)2/3 = (a2 b2)2/3

Illustration 1 4
If m 2 + m´2 + 2mm´ cos = 1, n 2 + n´2 + 2nn´ cos = 1, and mn + m´n´ + (mn´ + m´n) cos = 0,
prove that m 2 + n 2 = cosec2.
Solution :
The given relation can be written as
(m´ + mcos)2 = 1 m2 m2 cos2 =1
or (m´ + mcos)2 = 1 m2 sin2 ...(1)
2 2 2
Similarly (n´ + n cos) = 1 n sin  ...(2)
Now (m´ + mcos) (n´ + ncos)
= m´n´ + (mn´ + m´n)cos + mncos2
= mn + mncos2 by given relation
= mn (1 cos2) = mnsin2

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Now squaring both sides, we get
or (m´ + mcos)2 (n´ + ncos)2 = m2n2 sin4 ...(3)
Hence substituting from (1) and (2) in (3), we get
(1 m2 sin2) (1 n2 sin2) = m2n2 sin4
or (m2 + n2) sin2 = 1 i.e. m2 + n2 = cosec2.
(b) Eliminate  from the equations
a cos + b sin = c and
a cos2 + 2a sin cos + b sin2 = c

Illustration 1 5
Prove that tan 1Ĉ tan 2Ĉ tan 3Ĉ ... tan 89Ĉ =1
Solution :
We will use the property of complementary angles to solve this problem.


We know tan      cot 
2 

So now tan 89 = tan(90 1 ) = cot 1

tan 88 = tan(90 2 ) = cot 2
So going in this manner
(tan 1 cot 1 ) (tan 2 cot 2 ) ... (tan 44 cot 44 tan 45 )
= tan 45 = 1
as only tan45 term will be left

Illustration 1 6

1
Prove that sin25Ĉ + sin210Ĉ + sin215Ĉ + ... sin285Ĉ + sin290Ĉ = 9
2
Solution :
This question will also be solved on the same lines as that of previous questions
sin 5 = sin(90 45 ) = cos 85
Similarly sin 10 = sin(90 80 ) = cos 80
sin 40 = sin(90 50 ) = cos 50
& the middle term is sin 45
(sin285 + cos285) + (sin280 + cos280) ... (sin250 + cos250) + sin245
from 85 to 50 with a difference of 5 there are 8 terms (pairwise) & we know sin2 + cos2 = 1
Hence

= 8 + sin245 = 8  1  17
2 2

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Sum and d iffer ence for mulas

sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + sinB cosA
sin(A B) = sinA cosB sinB cosA
cos(A + B) = cosA cosB sinA sinB
cos(A B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB
Note the cos formulas, they have ( ) sign for sum formula and (+) ve sign for difference.

tan A  tan B
tan (A + B) 
1  tan A tan B

tan A  tan B
tan (A  B) 
1  tan A tan B

 1
where A, B   n   
 2

cot A cot B  1
cot (A  B) 
cot A  cot B

cot A cot B  1
cot (A  B) 
cot B  cot A

where A, B  n
Cot formulaÊs are opposite of tan formulas, the denominator & numerator part are switched.

Some I mp or t ant d ed uct ions

sin (A+B) sin (A B) = sin2A sin2B
= cos2B cos2A
cos (A + B) cos (A B) = cos2A sin2B
= cos2B sin2A

sin (A  B)
tan A  tan B 
cos A cos B

sin (B  A)
cot A  cot B 
sin A sin B

  1  tan    1  tan 
tan      & tan     
4  1  tan  4  1  tan 

This formula will be used in various number of questions.

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T r ignomet r ic R at io of mult ip le angles
sin 2A = 2 sinA cosA
cos 2A = cos2A sin2A
= 2cos2A 1
= 1 2sin2A

2 tan A
tan 2A =
1  tan 2 A

sin 3A = 2 sinA 4 sin3A

cos 3A = 4 cos3A 3cosA

3 tan A  tan 3 A
tan 3A =
1  3 tan 2 A

Some formulas related to half angles

1  cos  
= tan
sin  2

1  cos  
= cot
sin  2

1  cos  
= tan 2
1  cos  2

1  cos  
= cot 2
1  cos 2

O t her d ed uct ions

Sometimes even after remembering all these above formulas we are not able to recognise them
in questions. So look into these formulas also
Conversion of squares & cubes into multiple angles :

1
sin2A = (1  cos 2A)
2

1
cos2A = (1  cos 2A)
2

1
sin3A = (3sin A  sin 3A)
4

1
cos3A = (cos3A  3cos A)
4

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O t her for mulas

2 tan A / 2
sin A =
1  tan 2 A / 2

1  tan 2 A / 2
cos A =
1  tan 2 A / 2

TRANSFORMATION FORMULAS
1. Transformation of product into sum or differences
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A B)
2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) sin(A B)
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos (A B)
2 sin A sin B = cos(A B) cos(A + B)
2. Transformation of sum & differences into product

A  B  A  B
sin A + sin B = 2sin   cos  
 2   2 

 A  B A  B
sin A sin B = 2sin   cos  
 2   2 

A  B  A  B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 

 A  B  A  B
cos A cos B = 2sin   sin  
 2   2 

Illustration 1 8

sin(B  C) sin(C  A) sin(A  B)

Prove that   0
cos B cos C cos C cos A cos A cos B

Solution : First term of L.H.S.

sin (B  C) sin B cosC  cos B sin C

= 
cos B cos C cos B cosC

sin B cosC cos B sin C

=   tan B  tan C
cos B cosC cos B cosC

Similarly, second term of L.H.S. = tan C tan A

and, 3rd term of L.H.S. = tan A tan B
Now, L.H.S. = (tanB tanC) + (tanC tanA) + (tanA tanB) = 0

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Illustration 1 9

   
Show that cot   x  . cot   x  1
4  4 

   
cos   x  cos   x 
4  4 
Solution : L.H.S. =      
sin   x  sin   x 
4  4 

 1
cos2
 sin2 x  sin2 x
4  2 1
=  1
sin2  sin2 x  sin2 x
4 2

Illustration 20
If sin sin ă cos cos + 1 = 0, prove that 1 + cot tan = 0
Solution :
Given, sin sin cos cos + 1 = 0
or, cos cos sin sin = 1
or, cos ( + ) = 1
cos  sin 
Now, 1 + cot tan = 1 .
sin  cos 

sin  cos   cos  sin  sin(  )

= 
sin  cos  sin  cos 

0
= sin  cos   0 [ sin2 ( + ) = 1 cos2 ( + ) = 1 1 = 0]

Illustration 21

n sin  cos 
If tan   , prove that tan( ă ) = (1 ă n) tan
1  n sin 2 

n sin  cos 
Solution : tan =
1  n sin2 

n sin  cos 
cos2 
= 1 n sin2  [dividing numerator & denominator by cos2 ]

cos2  cos2 

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n tan  n tan 
= 2 2

sec   n tan  1  tan2   n tan2 

n tan 
= ...(i)
1  (1  n) tan2 

tan   tan 
Now, L.H.S. = tan ( ) =
1  tan  tan 

n tan 
tan  
1  (1  n) tan2 
= [From (i)]
n tan 
1  tan 
1  (1  n) tan 2 

tan   (1  n) tan 3   n tan  (1  n) tan   (1  n) tan3 

= =
1  (1  n) tan2   n tan 2  1  tan 2 

(1  n) tan  (1  tan 2 )
=  (1  n) tan 
1  tan 2 

Illustration 22

3
If cos ( ă ) + cos( ă ) + cos( ă ) =  , prove that cos  + cos  + cos  = sin + sin
2
+ sin = 0
Solution :

3
Given, cos ( ) + cos( ) + cos( ) = 
2
or, 3 + 2 cos ( ) + 2 cos ( ) + 2cos ( ) = 0
or, 3 + 2 (cos cos + sin sin) + 2 (cos cos + sin sin) + 2 (cos cos + sin sin) = 0
or, (cos2 + sin2) + (cos2 + sin2) + (cos2 + sin2) + 2 (cos cos + sin sin)
+ 2 (cos cos + sin sin) + 2 (cos cos + sin sin) = 0
or, (cos2 + cos2 + cos2 + 2cos cos + 2cos cos + 2cos cos) + (sin2 + sin2 + sin2
+ 2sin sin + 2sin sin + 2sin sin) = 0
or, (cos + cos + cos)2 + (sin + sin + sin)2 = 0
which is possible only when
cos + cos + cos = 0 and sin + sin + sin = 0

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Illustration 23
If cos (A + B) sin (C + D) = cos (A ă B) sin (C ă D) prove that cotA cotB cotC = cotD.
Solution :
We have cos (A + B) sin (C + D) = cos(A B) sin (C D)

cos(A  B) sin(C  D)
i.e. 
cos(A  B) sin(C  D)

cos(A  B)  cos(A  B) sin(C  D)  sin(C  D)

 
cos(A  B)  cos(A  B) sin(C  D)  sin(C  D)

2 cos A cos B 2sin Ccos D

or, 
2sin A sin B 2cos Csin D

 cotA cotB = tanC cotD or Cot A cot B cot C = cot D

Illustration 24
Prove that tan 70Ĉ ă tan 20Ĉ = 2 tan 50Ĉ
Solution :
 70 = 50 + 20

tan50  tan 20

 tan 70 =
1  tan 50 tan 20

or tan 70 tan 70 tan 50 tan 20 = tan 50 + tan 20

or tan 70 tan 20 = tan 50 + tan 50 = 2 tan 50
[ tan 70 tan 20 = tan (90 20 ) tan 20 = cot 20 tan 20 = 1]

sin (70  20)

Alt. tan 70 tan 20 =
cos70 cos 20

2sin 50
= {Comp. Rule)
2sin 20 cos 20

2sin 50 2sin 50

=   2 tan 50
sin 40 cos 50

Illustration 25
tan 3A tan 2A tan A = tan 3A ă tan 2A ă tan A
Solution :
Rearranging the given relation, we have to prove that
tan A + tan 2A = tan 3A (1 tan A tan 2A)

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tan A  tan 2A
or  tan 3A
1  tan A tan 2A

or tan (A + 2A) = tan 3A, which is true.

Illustration 26
Prove that tan (/4 + ) ă tan (/4 ă ) = 2 tan 2)
Solution :

  tan ( / 4 )  tan  1  tan 

tan      

4  1  tan ( / 4 )  tan  1  tan 

  1  tan 
Similarly, tan     
4  1  tan 

1  tan  1  tan  (1  tan )2  (1  tan )2

 L.H.S. 
= 1  tan  1  tan  =
1  tan 2 

4 tan  2tan 
= 2
 2.  2tan 2
1  tan  1  tan 2 

Illustration 27

   1  sin  
tan        tan   sec 
 4 2  1  sin  

1  tan ( / 2) cos ( / 2)  sin ( / 2)

Solution : L.H.S. = 
1  tan ( / 2) cos ( / 2)  sin ( / 2)

 cos( / 2)  sin ( / 2)2   cos2 ( / 2)  sin 2 ( / 2)  2sin ( / 2) cos ( / 2) 

=   =  
 cos( / 2)  sin ( / 2)2  
 cos 2
( / 2)  sin 2
( / 2)  2sin (  / 2) cos ( / 2) 
 

 1  sin   1  sin 
=   =
 1  sin   [(1  sin ) (1  sin )]

1  sin  1  sin 
= 2 = cos 
(1  sin  )

1 sin 
= cos   cos  = sec  + tan 

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Illustration 28
tan A + 2 tan 2A + 4 tan 4A + 8 cot 8A = cot A
Solution :
tan A + 2 tan 2A + 4 tan 4A + 8 cot 8A = cot A
shift tan A to R.H.S.
now R.H.S.
= cot A tan A

cos A sin A cos2 A  sin2 A

=  
sin A cos A sin A cos A

2 cos 2A
= = 2 cot 2A
sin 2A
Tip : Remember this formula
cot A tan A = 2 cot 2A
now question becomes
2 tan 2A + 4 tan 4A + 8 cot 8A = 2 cot 2A
 4 tan 4A + 8 cot 8A = 2 (cot 2A tan 2A)
using the same formula
 4 tan 4A + 8 cot 8A = 4 cot 4A
 8 cot 8A = 4 (cot 4A tan 4A)
now R.H.S.
= 4 (cot 4A tan 4A)
= 8 cot 8A
= R.H.S.

Illustration 29

1
Prove sin A sin (60Ĉ ă A) sin (60Ĉ + A) = sin 3A
4
Solution :

1
sin A sin (60 A) sin (60 + A) = sin 3A
4
L.H.S. = sin A sin (60 A) sin (60 + A)
here using the formula
sin (A + B) sin (A B) = sin2A sin2B
= sin A (sin2 60 sin2 A)

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3  3sin A  4 sin3 A
= sin A   sin 2 A  =
4  4
but now 3sinA 4 sin3 A = sin 3A

sin 3A
 L.H.S. =
4
= R.H.S.
Hence proved.

Illustration 30

sin A  sin 3A  sin 5A + sin 7A

 tan 4A
cos A  cos 3A  cos 5A + cos7A

Solution :
7+ 1= 3+ 5

(sin A  sin7A)  (sin 3A  sin 5A)

L.H.S. =
(cos A  cos7A)  (cos3A  cos5A)

2sin 4A cos 3A  2 sin 4A cos A

= 2cos 4A cos3A  2cos 4 A cos A

sin 4A (cos3A  cos A)

=  tan 4A
cos 4A (cos3A  cos A)

Illustration 31

cos 3A  2 cos 5A  cos7A cos 5A

 = cos 2A ă sin 2A tan 3A.
cos A  2 cos 3A  cos 5A cos 3A

Solution :

(cos3A  cos7A)  2 cos5A

L.H.S. = (cos A  cos5A  2cos3A

2 cos5A cos 2A  2 cos5A cos5A

= 
2 cos3A cos 2A  2 cos3A cos 3A

cos(3A  2A) cos 3A cos 2A sin 3A sin 2A

=  
cos3A cos 3A cos 3A

= cos2A tan3A sin2A.

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Illustration 32

cos 6  6 cos 4  15 cos 2  10

 2cos 
cos 5  5 cos 3  10 cos 

Solution :
In the Nr write 6 as 1 + 5 and 15 as 10 + 5
Nr = cos 6 + cos 4 + 5cos 4 + 5 cos 2 + 10 cos 2 + 10
= 2 cos 5 cos  + 5.2 cos 3 cos  + 10.2 cos2 
= 2 cos  [cos 5 + 5 cos 3 + 10 cos ]
= 2 cos  [Dr]

Nr
  2cos 
Dr
Alt. Bring 2 cos  from R.H.S. with Dr in L.H.S. and using
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A B),
r
we get D = (cos 6 + cos 4) + 5 (cos 4 + cos 2) + 10 (1 + cos 2)
= cos 6 + 6 cos 4 + 15 cos 2 + 10 = Nr
 Nr / Dr = 1

Illustration 33
cos  + cos  + cos  + cos ( +  + ) = 4 cos {( + )/2} cos {( + )/2} cos {( + )/2}
Solution :
      2 
L.H.S. = 2 cos cos  2 cos cos
2 2 2 2

        2 
= 2 cos  cos 2  cos 
2  2 

        

= 2cos .2cos cos   cos()  cos 
2 
= 4 cos cos cos
2 2  2 2 2

Illustration 34

n n
 cos A  cos B   sin A  sin B   A  B
      2 cot n   or 0 according as n is even or odd integer.
 sin A  sin B   cos A  cos B   2 
Solution :

n n
 2 cos (A + B)/2 cos A  B)/2   2 sin (A + B)/2 cos (A  B)/2 
    
 2 sin (A  B)/2 cos A  B)/2   2 sin (A  B)/2 sin (B  A)/2 

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= cotn {(A B)/2} + [ cot {(A B)/2}]n

= 2 cotn {(A B)/2 or 0
according as n is even or odd as
( 1)n = 1 or 1

Illustration 35

cos 2A cos 3A  cos 2A cos 7A  cos A cos10A

 cot 6A cot 5A
sin 4A sin 3A  sin 2A sin 5A  sin 4A sin 7A

Solution :
Multiply above and below by 2 and apply 2cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A B) and
2 sin A sin B = cos (A B) cos (A + B)

(cos5A  cos A)  (cos 9A  cos5A) + (cos11A + cos 9A)

 L.H.S. =
(cos A  cos7A)  (cos3A  cos7A)  (cos3A  cos11A)

cos A  cos 11A 2 cos6A cos 5A

= 
cos A  cos11A 2sin 6A sin 5A

= cot 6A cot 5A.

Illustration 36
If 2 cos A = x + 1/x, 2 cos B = y + 1/y, show that 2 cos (A ă B) = x/y + y/x.
Solution :

1
2 cos A  x   x2 2x cos A + 1 = 0
x
 x = cos A + i sin A = eiA, y = eiB

x y eiB eiA
    ei (A  B)  e i (A  B)
y x eiA eiB

= 2 cos (A B)

 ei = cos  + i sin , e i
= cos  i sin 

Illustration 37
If  and  are the solutions of a cos  + b sin  = c , then show that
sin  + sin  = 2bc /(a 2 + b 2), sin  sin  = (c 2 ă a 2)/(a 2 + b 2)
Solution :
From the given relation we have
a cos  = c b sin . Square and change in terms of sin 

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2 2 2
a (1 sin ) = c 2bc sin  + b sin2 
2

 (a2 + b2) sin2  2bc sin  + (c2 a2) = 0

Its roots are sin  and sin  as  and  are the values of  as given.

2bc
 sin  + sin  = sum of roots =
a  b2
2

c2  a 2
sin  sin  = product of roots =
a 2  b2

Illustration 38
If a cos 2 + b sin 2 = c has  and  as its solutions, then prove that
tan  + tan  = 2b/(c + a ), tan  tan  = (c ă a )/(c + a )
Solution :
Given a cos 2 + b sin 2 = c

1  tan 2  2tan 
putting cos 2 = & sin 2 =
2
1  tan  1  tan2 

now given equation becomes

 1  tan 2    2 tan  
a   b  2 
c
 1  tan 2  
   1  tan  

a (1 tan2) + 2b tan  = c (1 + tan2 )

 tan2 (c + a) 2b tan  + (c a) = 0
now this is quadratic in tan  & roots are given to be  & 

2b
Hence tan  + tan  = c  a

ca
& tan  tan  =
ca

Illustration 39
If 1, 2, 3, 4 be the four values of q which satisfy the equation 3 tan 3 = tan (45Ĉ + ), then
prove that  tan 1 = 0
Solution :
equation given is 3 tan 3 = tan (45 + )

3 tan   tan 3 
putting tan 3 =
1  3 tan 2 

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1  tan 
& tan (45 + ) = 1  tan 

& tan  = t
now equation becomes

 3t  t3  1  t
 3
 2

 1  3t  1  t

reducing this, equation becomes

3t4 6t2 + 8t 1 = 0
Now 1 2 3 4 are solution to the equation
3 tan4 6 tan2 + 8 tan  1 = 0

 coeff. of tan3
sum of roots =
coeff. of tan 4

= 0, as there is no tan3 term

 tan 1 + tan 2 + tan 3 + tan 3 = 0

Illustration 40
Find the max. and min. value of 7cos  + 24 sin 
Solution :
In 7 cos  + 24 sin ,
take 7 = r cos  and 24 = r sin .

 r  (72  24 2 )  25

 L.H.S. = r [cos  cos  + sin  sin ]

= 25 cos ( )
Now max. and min. values of cos ( ) are 1 and 1.
Therefore the max. and min. values of given expression are 25 and 25 respectively.

Illustration 41
Prove that 5 cos  + 3 cos ( + /3) + 3 lies between ă 4 and 10.
Solution :
The given expression is

1
5 cos  + 3 (cos  cos 60 sin  sin 60 ) + 3 = [(13 cos   3 3 sin )]  3
2

Put 13 = r cos , 3 3 = r sin .

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 r  169  27  196  14

r
 Given expression = [cos (  )]  3  7 cos (  )  3
2
Hence max. and min. values of expression are 7 + 3 and 7 + 3 i.e. 10 and 4 respectively.

Illustration 42

 1  e  cos   e
If tan    tan , prove that cos   1  e cos 
2 1  e 2

Solution :
We know that

1  tan 2 (A / 2)
cos A 
1  tan 2 (A / 2)

1  tan 2   / 2 
 cos  =
1  tan 2 ( / 2)

1  (1  e) /(1  e) tan 2 ( / 2)

=
1  (1  e) /(1  e) tan 2 ( / 2)

From the given relation

{1  tan 2 ( / 2)}  e{1  tan 2 ( / 2)}

=
{1  tan 2 ( / 2)}  e{1  tan 2 ( / 2)}

Divide above and below by 1 + tan2 (/2)

cos   e
 cos  
1  ecos 

Illustration 43

a cos   b
If cos   , prove that tan   / 2   [( a  b ) /(a  b)] tan ( / 2)
a  b cos 

Solution :

a cos   b 1  tan 2   / 2 
cos    
a  b cos  1  tan 2 ( / 2)

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  
a 1  tan 2 ( / 2)  b 1  tan 2 ( / 2) 
a 1  tan ( / 2)  b1  tan ( / 2)
= 2 2

1  tan 2 ( / 2) (a  b)  (a  b) tan 2 ( / 2)
or 
1  tan 2 ( / 2) (a  b)  (a  b) tan 2 ( / 2)

Apply componendo and dividendo

2 tan2 ( / 2) 2 (a  b) tan 2 ( / 2)

2 2( a  b)

 tan ( / 2)  ( a  b) /( a  b) tan ( / 2)

Illustration 44

cos   cos 
If cos   , then prove that tan (/2) =  tan (/2) cot (/2).
1  cos  cos 

Solution :

 1  cos 
tan 2 
2 1  cos 

 cos   cos    cos   cos  

= 1   1  
 1  cos  cos    1  cos  cos  

(1  cos )  cos  (1  cos ) (1  cos ) (1  cos )

= =
(1  cos )  cos  (1  cos ) (1  cos ) (1  cos )

 2sin2 ( / 2) 2cos2 ( / 2)
or tan 2  .
2 2 cos2 ( / 2) 2sin 2 ( / 2)

= tan2 (/2) . cot2 (/2)

 tan (/2) =  tan (/2) cot (/2)

Illustration 45
If an angle  be divided into two parts such that the tangent of one part is m times the
tangent of the other, then prove that their difference  is obtained from the equation sin
 = [(m ă 1) / (m + 1)] sin .
Solution : Let the two parts be A and B so that
A + B =  and A B =  and tan A = m tan B.

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tan A m
 
tan B 1

Apply componendo and dividendo

tan A  tan B m  1
 
tan A + tan B m  1

sin (A  B) m  1
or 
sin (A  B) m  1

or sin  = {(m 1)/(m + 1)} sin.

Illustration 46
If cos ( + ) sin ( + ) = cos ( ă ) sin ( ă ), prove that cot  cot  cot  = cot .
Solution :
From the given relation, we have

sin (   ) cos (  )

sin (   ) cos(  )

Now apply comp. and div.

sin (   )  sin (   ) cos(  )  cos (  )

 
sin (  )  sin (  ) cos (  )  cos (  )

2sin  cos  2cos  cos 

or 
2 cos  sin  2sin  sin 

 cot  = cot  cot  cot .

Illustration 47

x  y x  y
If tan , tan z, tan are in G.P., then show that cos x = cos y . cos 2z.
2 2
Solution :

x y x y
sin sin
sin2 z 2 2
2
b = ac    
2
cos z cos x  y x  y
cos
2 2

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sin2 z cos y  cos x

or 
2
cos z cos y  cos x

Cross multiply or by C and D

cos x.1 = cos y (cos2 z sin2 z) = cos y cos 2z.

Illustration 48

If 0 < , ,  < /2, prove that sin  + sin  + sin  > sin ( +  + )
Solution :
On putting the values of sin ( +  + ), we get sin  + sin  + sin  sin ( +  + )
= sin  (1 cos  + cos ) + sin  (1 cos  cos ) + sin  (1 cos  cos ) + sin  sin  sin  > 0
 , ,  all lie in 1st quadrant.
 cos  cos  is +ive and less than 1 so that 1 cos  cos  is +ive and also sin  is + ive.
Thus every term in L.H.S. is + ive, i.e. L.H.S. > 0
 sin  + sin  + sin  > sin ( +  + )

SUM OF SERIES
Ć Arithmatic Series

nd
sin
2 sin  2 a  (n  1) d 
sina + sin (a + d) + sin (a + 2d) + ... + sin (a + (n 1)d) = d  
sin  2 
2

nd
sin
2 cos  2 a  (n  1) d 
cosa + cos (a + d) + cos (a + 2d) + ... + cos (a + (n 1)d) = d  
sin  2 
2

 difference 
sin  n . 
 2  (sin) or (cos)  first  last term 
 
easier rule to remember :  difference   2 
sin  
 2 

Geometric Series

sin (2n A)
cosA cos 2A cos 4A ... cos 2n 1
A =
2n sin A

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Some more (which you can remember, if possible)

   
sin + sin + sin sin ( +  + ) = 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2

  

cos + cos + cos + cos ( +  + ) = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2

Illustration 49

   
For 0   
2
, if x   cos 2n , y   sin 2n , z   cos2n  sin 2n , then x + y = xy and
n 0 n 0 n 0

xyz = x + y + z = xy + z.

Solution :
All are infinite G.P.s with common ratio < 1.

1 1 1 1
x 2
 2
, y 2

1  cos  sin  1  sin  cos2 

1
 x y  xy ...(1)
sin  cos2 
2

1
z ...(2)
1  cos  sin 2 
2

 1 1  1
(x + y + z) =  2
 2   2 2
 sin  cos   1  sin  cos 

1 1
= 2 2

sin  cos  1  sin  cos2 
2

1 1
= .
sin  cos  (1  sin  cos2 )
2 2 2

= xyz by (1) and (2)

or xy + z = xyz  x + y = xy

Illustration 50
Show that cos2 A + cos2 B ă 2 cos A cos B cos (A + B) = sin2 (A + B)
Solution :
L.H.S. = cos2 A + cos2 B 2 cos A cos B (cos A cos B sin A sin B)

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 QUIZRR 33
= (cos2 A cos2 A cos2 B) + (cos2 B cos2 A cos2 B) + 2 sin A sin B cos A cos B
= cos2 A (1 cos2 B) + cos2 B (1 cos2 A) + 2 sin A sin B cos A cos B
= (sin A cos B + cos A sin B)2 = sin2 (A + B)

Illustration 51

sin x sin 3 x sin 9 x 1

   (tan 27 x  tan x )
cos 3 x cos 9 x cos 27 x 2

Solution :
2 = 3 1, 6 = 9 3, 18 = 27 9

sin(A  B)
Use tan A tan B =
cos A cosB

1  2sin x cos x  1 sin (3 x  x)


2  cos3 x cos x  2 cos3 x cos x
T1 =

1
=  tan 3 x  tan x
2

1
T2 =  tan 9 x  tan 3 x ,
2

1
T3 =  tan 27 x  tan 9 x etc.
2

1
Hence, T1 + T2 + T3 =  tan 27 x  tan x
2

Illustration 52

 
(a) F or a posi t i ve i n t eger n, let f n ()   tan  (1  sec )(1  sec 2) (1 + sec 4)... (1 + sec2n )
 2

Then (IIT 1999)

     
(a) f2  1 (b) f3  1
 16   32 

     
(c) f4  1 (d) f5  1
 64   128 

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34 QUIZRR
Solution :
Ans. (a), (b), (c), (d).

sin ( / 2)  2 cos2 ( / 2) 2cos2  2cos2 2 

E  fn ()   . . ...
cos ( / 2)  cos 2 cos 2 cos 4  
Combine first two factors

sin   2cos2 2 cos2 2 

fn ()   . ...
cos   cos 2 cos 4 
Again combine first two factors
= tan 2 [ ] = tan 2n .

    
 f2    tan 4.  tan  1
 16  16 4


 n  2,  
16


Similarly each other is tan  1.
4

Illustration 53
If the angle A of a triangle ABC is given by the equation 5 cos A + 3 = 0, then sin A and
tan A are the roots of the equation 15x 2 + 8x ă 16 = 0
Solution :
We are given 5 cos A + 3 = 0 so that cos A = 3/5  A being the angle of ABC, sin A cannot
be negative so cos A = 3/5  sin A = 4/5 and then tan A = 4/3.
 sin A + tan A = 8/15 = S
and sin A tan A = 16/15 = P
2
 x x S + P = 0 is the required equation.

Illustration 54
If cosx + cosy + cosz = 0, then find the value of cos 3x + cos 3y + cos 3z.
Solution :

 cos 3x = 4  cos3 x  3 cos x

= 4  a3  0

Now if a + b + c = 0 then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.

  cos 3x = 4.3 (cosx cosy cosz)

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Illustration 55

Prove :
(a)  = 16 cos5 ă 20 cos3 + 5 cos
cos 5
(b) sin 5 = 5 cos4 sin ă 10 cos2 sin3 + sin5
(c) Express sin 5 in terms of sin and hence find the value of sin 36Ĉ.
Solution :
(a), (b), (c)
By De-MoivreÊs Theorem we know that
(cos + i sin)5 = cos 5 + i sin 5
L.H.S. on expansion by binomial theorem is
cos5 + 5cos4 (i sin) + 10 cos3 (i sin)2 + 10 cos2 (i sin)3 + 5 cos (i sin)4 + (i sin)5
Now equate real and imaginary parts and change
sin2 to 1 cos2 and cos2 to 1 sin2
depending on the answer
 cos 5 = cos (16cos4 20cos2 + 5) ...(1)
4 2
sin 5 = sin (16sin  20sin  + 5) ...(2)
Deduction :
If  = 36 , then 5 = 180
 sin 5 = 0
1
Also sin 36 < sin 45 or sin 2 36 <
2
Now from (2) we get
0 = s (16s4 20s2 + 5), s = sin 36  0

20  400  320 10  2 5  2 1 
 s2 =   s  
32 16  2

10  2 5
 s =
4

Illustration 56
Prove the following :

3
cos3 + cos3 (120Ĉ + ) + cos3 (240Ĉ + ) = cos 3
4
Solution :
We know that cos 3A = 4 cos3A 3 cos A
1
 cos3 A  (cos 3A + 3 cosA)
4

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36 QUIZRR
Also cos (2n + ) = cos.
Applying the above we have

1
L.H.S. = [(3cos + cos 3) + 3cos (120 + ) + cos (360 + 3) + 3 cos (240 + ) + cos (720 + 3)
4

1 3
= [(3 cos 3] + [cos + cos (120 + ) + cos (240 + )]
4 4

3 3
= cos 3 + [cos + 2 cos ((180 + ) cos 60 ]
4 4

3 3  1  3
= cos 3 +  cos   2. 2 ( cos )  = cos 3.
4 4   4

Illustration 57

 3 5 7 3
cos 4  cos4  cos 4  cos 4 
8 8 8 8 2
Solution :
cos4 (7/8) = cos4 ( /8) = cos4 (/8)
cos4 (5/8) = cos4 (/2 + /8) = sin4 (/8)
 L.H.S. = 2 [cos4 A + sin4 A], where A = /8
= 2[1 2 sin2 A cos2 A] = 2 [2sin A cos A]2

2
  2 1 3
= 2   sin 2.   2  sin    2  
 8 4 2 2

Illustration 58

 2 6 7
tan 2  tan 2  ...  tan 2  tan 2  35
16 16 16 16
Solution :

  7   2 6    3 5  
 16  16      
   16 16   16 16  2

Thus these are complementary.

4  
and  . If we take  
16 4 16

L.H.S. = (tan2 + cot2) + (tan2 2 + cot2 2) + (tan2 3 + cot2 3) + 1

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Now 1st bracket = (tan  + cot )2 2

2 2
 1   2 
=   2   2
 sin  cos    sin 2 

8 4 
=  2 where 4  
1  cos 4  16 4

=
8 2
28 2  
2  1  2.
 2 1 
8
2nd bracket = 2826
1  cos8

3rd bracket
8
= 1  cos12  8 2  
2 1 2


and tan2 1
4
 S = 14 + 6 + 14 + 1 = 35.

Illustration 59

r 3
 sin 4 16 
2
, r  1, 3, 5, 7

Solution :

 7     5 3  
 16  16   2 ,  16  16   2
   

Hence by C.R.,
(sin4x + cos4x) + (sin4y + cos4y)
= 1 2 sin2x cos2 x + 1 2 sin2 y cos2y

1 1  2 3 
= 2 [sin 2 2 x  sin 2 2 y] = 2  sin  sin 2
2 2 8 8 

1  2 2  3
= 2  sin 8  cos 8   2 by C.R.
2  

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Illustration 60
 tan ( + 60Ĉ) + tan tan ( ă 60Ĉ) + tan ( + 60Ĉ) tan ( ă 60Ĉ) = ă 3.
tan
Solution :

 sin A sin B 
We know that tan A tan B + 1 =   1
 cos A cosB 

cos A cosB  sin A sin B cos  A  B

= 
cos A cosB cos A cosB

Now take 3 from R.H.S. to L.H.S. and write it as 1 + 1 + 1.

Hence we have to prove that
[tan tan ( 60 ) + 1] + [tan  tan ( 60 ) + 1] + [tan ( + 60 ) tan ( 60 ) + 1] = 0

cos      60  cos      60  cos(  60    60)

or  
cos  cos    60  cos  cos    60  cos    60  cos    60 

cos 60 cos    60   cos60 cos    60   cos120 cos 

=
cos  cos    60  cos    60 

1
[cos (  60)  cos (  60)]  cos (90  30) cos 
= 2
Dr

1
. 2 cos  cos 60  sin 30 cos  1 (cos   cos )
= 2 = 0
Dr 2 Dr

Illustration 61

 2   4 
If x sin  = y sin      z sin     then prove that  xy = 0
 3   3 

Solution :
Let each be equal to 1/k.
We have to prove that xy + yz + zx = 0

1 1 1
or    0, on dividing by xyz
x y z

1   2   4  
On putting the values  x  k sin   sin    3 
  sin   

 0
3 


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 QUIZRR 39

Combine Ist and 3rd

  2  2  2  
= k 2sin     cos  sin      0
  3  3  3  

2  1
 2cos  2     1
3  2

1 1 1
   0 or xy + yz + zx = 0
x y z

Illustration 62

2 4 6 1
(a) cos  cos  cos 
7 7 7 2

 3 5 7 9 1
(b) cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 
11 11 11 11 11 2

 2 3 4 5 6
(c) cos 0  cos  cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 1
7 7 7 7 7 7
Solution :
(a) angles being in A.P. of three terms  = 2/7 = , n = 3, /2 = /7

sin (3 / 7) 1  2 6  
S cos  
sin ( / 7) 2 7 7 

sin (4  / 7) 4
= cos
sin ( / 7) 7

1 sin (8  / 7) 1 sin (   / 7) 1
= 2 sin ( / 7)  2 sin ( / 7)   2 .
 
(b) Here the angles are in A.P. of 5 terms.

 2  
n  5,   ,   
11 11 2 11


sin 5.
11 1  9 
S .cos  11  11 
 2  
sin
11

5 5 10
2sin cos sin
11 11  11 sin       1
=
   11  2
2sin 2sin 
11 11

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40 QUIZRR

6 
(c) Hint : cos 0 = 1, cos   cos ,
7 7
Now solve it yourself.

Illustration 63

 3 5 1
(a) sin sin sin 
14 14 14 8

 3 5 7 9 11 13 1
(b) sin sin sin sin sin sin sin 
14 14 14 14 14 14 14 64

Solution :

   6  6
(a) sin  sin     cos 14
14  2 14 

 8  8
= cos       cos
 14  14

3   4  4
sin  sin     cos
14  2 14  14

5   2  2
sin  sin     cos
14  2 14  14

2 4 8
 L.H.S. =  cos cos cos
14 14 14

=  3
1
2 sin A
 
.sin 23 A , A 
2
14

1 8 1  
=  sin  sin    
 7   7
8sin 8 sin
7 7

1 1
=    1 
8 8

 sin ( + ) = sin 

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 QUIZRR 41

7 
(b) sin  sin  1,
14 2

13    
sin  sin      sin
14  14  14

11 3 9 5
Similarly sin  sin and sin  sin
14 14 14 14
Hence the question reduces to square of part (a)

2
1 1
 Ans. =   
 
8 64

Illustration 64

3
sin 20Ĉ sin 40Ĉ sin 60Ĉ sin 80Ĉ =
16
Solution :

L.H.S. =  
3 / 2 sin 20 sin (60  20) sin (60  20)

=  
3 / 2 sin 20 (sin2 60  sin2 20)

=  
3 / 2 sin 20 [(3 / 4)  sin 2 20]

=  
3 / 8 [3sin 20 4sin3 20]

=  
3 / 8 sin (3.20)

=  
3 / 8 sin 60   
3/8 . 
3 / 2  3 /16 .

Illustration 65

2 cos 2 n   1
(2 cos  ă 1) (2 cos 2 ă 1) (2 cos22  ă 1) .... (2 cos2nă1  ă 1) =
2 cos   1

Solution :
Try it yourself.

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 42 QUIZRR

Illustration 66

   3   5   7  1
 1  cos   1  cos   1  cos   1  cos 
 8  8  8  8  8

Solution :
By supplementary rule
cos ( A)= cos A

   3   3    
L.H.S. =  1  cos  1  cos   1  cos   1  cos 
 10  10   10   10 

 2   3 
=  1  cos   1  cos2   sin 2 18 sin 2 54
 10   10 

2
 5  1 5  1 1
=  .  
 4 4  16

Illustration 67
If cos ( + ) = (4/5) and sin ( ă ) = (5/13) and ,  lie between 0 and /4 find tan 2.
Solution :
cos ( + ) = 4/5

 tan (  )  (52  4 2 )  4  3 / 4

sin ( ) = 5/13

 tan (  )  5 / (13 2  52 )  5 / 12

tan 2 = tan ( +  +  )

tan (  )  tan (  ) 3 / 4  5 / 12 56
= = 
1  tan (  ) tan (  ) 1  3 / 4.5 /12 33

Illustration 68
(a) If sinx + cosx = a , evaluate sin6 x + cos6 x.
(b) If sin A + sin 2A = x, cos A + cos 2A = y, then prove that (x 2 + y2) (x 2 + y2 ă 3) = 2y.
Solution :
(a) sin6 x + cos6 x

1
= 1 3 sin2 x cos2 x = [4 3 sin2 2x] ...(1)
4

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 QUIZRR 43

Now sin x + cos x = a. Squaring

1 + sin 2x = a2  sin 2x = a2 1
Putting in (1),

1
 L.H.S. = [4 3 (a2 1)2].
4
1  sin 2x  1  1  a2 1  1
2
or 0  a  2  a  0 and a2  2
2

which implies that  2  a  2 .

(b) Squaring and adding the given relations, we get

1 + 1 + 2 cos (2A A) = x2 + y2

1 2
 cos A  ( x  y2  2) ...(1)
2
Now from second relation, we get
cos A + 2 cos2 A 1= y
2
or 2 cos A + cos A 1= y
or (cos A + 1) (2 cos A 1) = y
Now put for cos A from (1).

Illustration 69
If x and y are acute angles such that x + y and x ă y satisfy the equation tan2  ă 4 tan 
+ 1 = 0, then x = ....., y = ......
Solution : x = /4, y = /6
The roots of quadratic in tan are
tan (x + y) and tan (x y)
 S = tan (x + y) + tan (x y) = 4 ...(1)
and P = 1
 tan 2x = tan (x + y + x y)

S 
=    tan
1P 2

 
 2x  or x
2 4


Now put x  in S = 4 i.e. in (1)
4

1t 1t
   4 where t = tan y
1t 1t

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2 (1  t2 ) 1
or 2
4  cos 2 y 
1t 2

 2y = /3 or y = /6

Illustration 70
Show that for all real values of , the expression a sin2  + b sin  cos  + c cos2  lies
1 1 1 1
between (a  c )  b 2  (a  c )2 and (a  c )  b 2  (a  c )2 .
2 2 2 2
Solution :
The given expression

1
= [ a (1  cos2)  b sin 2  c (1  cos 2)]
2

1 1 1
= ( a  c)  b sin 2  ( c  a) cos 2
2 2 2
Hence by the least and greatest values of the given expression are respectively

1 1 2
( a  c)  b  ( c  a)2
2 2 as 
 2 2 2 2

 a  b  a sin   b cos   a  b 
and
1
2
( a  c) 
1
2
b2
 ( c  a )2 
so that the value of the expression lies between these values as required.

Illustration 71

1 2 2 2/3
2
If cos   (a  1) and tan    tan , prove that cos2/3  + sin2/3  = (2/a )2/3.
2  
2

Solution :

 1  cos  3  (a 2  1)
We have tan 2 / 3   tan 2  
2 1  cos  (3)  ( a 2  1)

sin2 / 3  cos2 / 3


(3)  (a 2  1) (3)  ( a2  1)

a b
or 
p q

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 QUIZRR 45

Now apply the rule of ratio proportion

1/3
a b a  b  a3  b3 
    ...(2)
p q p  q  p3  q3 

p + q= 2 3

p3 + q3 = 2[3 3  3 3 ( a2  1)]  6 3 a2

a3 + b3 = sin2  + cos2  = 1,
a + b = sin2/3  + cos2/3 
 From last two relations of (2), we have
sin2/3  + cos2/3 

1/3 1/3
 1   24 3 
= 2 3 2
 2
 6 3 a   6 3 a 

= (4/a2)1/3 = (2/a)2/3.

Illustration 72

tan(     ) tan 
(a) If  , then prove that either sin ( ă ) = 0 or sin 2 + sin 2 + sin
tan(     ) tan 
2 = 0.
(b) If cos ( ă ) + cos ( ă ) + cos ( ă ) = ă 3/2, then prove that cos  = 0, sin  = 0
Solution :
(a) Apply componendo and dividendo and remember

sin (A  B)
tan A  tan B 
cos A cos B

sin 2 sin(  )
 
sin 2 (  )  sin(  )

or sin ( ) [sin2 + 2 cos ( ) sin ( + )] = 0

or sin ( ) [sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2] = 0

(b) 3 = 1 + 1 + 1 = (cos2 + sin2) + ( ) + ( )

or (cos2 + cos2 + cos2 + 2 cos cos + 2 cos cos + 2 cos cos ) + (In sin) = 0
or (cos + cos + cos)2 + ( )2 = 0
    cos = 0,  sin = 0
[ x2 + y2 = 0  x = 0, y = 0]

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46 QUIZRR

Illustration 73
Prove that tan 18Ĉ is a root of the equation 5x 4 ă 10x 2 + 1 = 0 and hence prove that tan2 18Ĉ
= 0.1056
Solution :
If  = 18 then 5 = 90  3 = 90 2

3t  t3 1  t2
or tan 3 = cot 2 or 
1  3t2 2t

 5t4 10t2 + 1 = 0  t2  1  0.8

or t2 = 1 + 0.8944 = 1 .8944 = 0.1056
2 2
t = tan 18 is +ive and less than 1.
 tan 45 = 1  tan 18 < tan 45 or t< 1
and +ive. The other value being > 1 is rejected.

Illustration 74
Determine the smallest positive value of x (in degrees) for which
tan (x + 100Ĉ) = tan (x + 50Ĉ) tan (x) tan (x ă 50Ĉ)
Solution :
From the given relation, we have

tan ( x  100)
 tan ( x  50) tan x
tan ( x  50)
We have chosen the combination as above because sum of the angles in both sides is (2x + 50 ).

sin( x  100) cos( x  50) sin( x  50) sin x


cos( x  100) sin(x  50) cos( x  50) cos x
Apply componendo and dividendo

sin (2 x  50) cos50


sin150  (cos 2 x  50)
2 sin (2x + 50 ) cos (2x + 50 ) = cos 50

1
 sin 150 = sin 30 =
2
sin (4x + 100 ) = sin 40
= sin (180 + 40 ) = sin 220
or = sin (2 40 ) = sin 320
 4x + 100 = 220 or 320
or 4x = 120 or 220 or x = 30 or 55

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 QUIZRR 47

Illustration 75

cos 4 x sin 4 x cos4 y sin 4 y

If   1, prove that   1.
cos 2 y sin 2 y cos 2 x sin 2 x

Solution :
A careful look at the question suggests that we have to prove x = y. We know that
2 cos2  = 1 + cos 2,
and 2 sin2  = 1 cos 2.
Hence changing to double angles in the given relation

cos4 x sin 4 x
  1 , we get
cos2 y sin 2 y

1 1 1 1
(1  cos 2 x) 2 (1  cos 2 y)  (1  cos 2 x) 2 . (1  cos 2 y)
4 2 4 2

1 1
= (1  cos 2 y). (1  cos 2 y)
2 2

or (1  cos2x) 2
 
 (1  cos2 x)2  cos 2 y (1  cos2 x)2  (1  cos2 x)2 
= 2 (1 cos2 2y)
or 2 (1 + cos2 2x) cos 2y (4 cos 2x) = 2 2 cos2 2y
or cos2 2x + cos2 2y 2 cos 2x cos 2y = 0
2
or (cos 2x cos 2y) = 0
 cos 2x = cos 2y or y = n + x

cos4 y sin 4 y
 2
 2
 cos2 x  sin2 x  1
cos x sin x
(on putting y = x)

Illustration 76

sin 4 A cos 4 A 1 sin 8 A cos8 A 1

If   , then prove that   .
a b a b a 3
b 3
(a  b )3

Solution :
(a + b) (b sin4 A + a cos4 A) ab = 0
4 4
or ab [sin A + cos A 1] + a2 cos4 A + b2 sin4 A = 0
or ab [1 2 sin2 A cos2 A 1] + a2 cos4 A + b2 sin4 A = 0
or (a cos2 A b sin2 A)2 = 0

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 48 QUIZRR

cos2 A sin2 A 1
or   ...(1)
b a ab

sin8 A cos8 A 1 a4 b4
   .  by (1)
a3 b3 a 3
(a  b)4 (a  b) 4

(a  b) 1
= 
4
(a  b) (a  b)3

Illustration 77
(a) Sum the following series :

1 1 1
   ... n terms.
sin  sin 2 sin 2 sin 3 sin 3 sin 4

(b) sec . sec 2 + sec 2 sec 3 + ... n terms

Solution :
(a) The difference of the angles is .
Multiply above and below by sin .

1  sin  sin  
S =    ...
sin   sin  sin 2 sin 2 sin3 

sin (2  )
T1 =  cot   cot 2
sin  sin 2

1
Sn = [(cot   cot 2)  (cot 2  cot 3)  ...  cot n  cot (n  1) ]
sin 

1
= [cot   cot (n  1) ]
sin 

(b) Change in cos and proceed as in part (a) by multiplying above and below by sin .

1
 S [tan (n  1)   tan n]
sin 

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 QUIZRR 49

T he angles of t r iangle and r elat ed id ent it ies

If A + B + C = , then :
sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sinA sinB sinC
cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C = 1 4 cosA cosB cosC
cosA + cosB + cosC = 1 + 4 sinA/2 sinB/2 sinC/2
sinA + sinB + sinC = 4 cosA/2 cosB/2 cosC/2
tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC
cotA cotB + cotB cotC + cotC cotA = 1
tanA/2 tanB/2 + tanB/2 tanC/2 + tanC/2 tanA/2 = 1
cotA/2 + cotB/2 + cotC/2 = cotA/2 cotB/2 cotC/2

Illustration 78
Prove the following for A + B + C = 
(a) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sinA sinB sinC
(b) cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C = ă1 ă 4 cosA cosB cosC

A A C
(c) sinA + sinB + sinC = 4cos cos cos
2 2 2
Solution :
(a) L.H.S. = 2 sin A cos A + 2 sin (B + C) cos (B C)
= 2 sin A cos A + 2 sin A cos (B C)
= 2 sin A [cos A + cos (B C)]
= 2 sin A [cos (B C) cos (B + C)] [ cos A = cos (B + C)]
= 2 sin A . 2 sin B sin C
= 4 sin A sin B sin C.
(b) In the answer we want 1 and as such we write cos 2A as 2 cos2 A 1 and combine the
other two terms.
L.H.S = (2 cos2 A 1) + 2 cos (B + C) cos (B C)
= 1 + 2 cos2 A 2 cos A cos (B C)
= 1 + 2 cos A [cos A cos (B C)]
= 1 + 2 cos A [ cos (B + C) cos (B C)]
= 1 2 cos A (2 cos B cos C)
= 1 4 cos A cos B cos C.
(c) L.H.S. = 2 sin (A/2) cos (A/2) + 2 sin {(B + C)/2} cos {(B C)/2}
= 2 sin (A/2) cos (A/2) + 2 cos (A/2) cos {(B C)/2}
= 2 cos (A/2) [sin(A/2) + cos {(B C)/2}]
= 2 cos (A/2) [cos {(B + C)/2} + cos {(B C)/2}]
= 2 cos (A/2) [2 cos (B/2) cos (C/2)
= 4 cos (A/2) cos (B/2) cos (C/2)

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Illustration 79
If  +  +  =  , prove that
sin2 + sin2 ă sin2 = 2sin sin cos [IITă1980]
Solution :
We are given  +  +  =  ,
  +  =  
 cos ( + ) = cos ( )
..
or cos cos sin sin = cos [ . cos( ) = cos]
or sin sin cos = cos cos
[Note that we have brought sin sin and cos on one side because term without square in the
given identity is 2sin sin cos]
Squaring, we get
(sin sin cos)2 = cos2 cos2
or sin2 sin2 + cos2 2sin sin cos = (1 sin2) (1 sin2)
or sin2 sin2 + cos2 2sin sin cos
2
= 1 sin  sin  + sin2 sin2
2

or sin2 + sin2 + cos2 1 = 2sin sin cos

2 2 2
or sin  + sin  + 1 sin  1 = 2sin sin cos
2 2 2
or sin  + sin  sin  = 2sin sin cos

Illustration 80
If A + B + C = 180Ĉ, Prove that

A B C A B C
sin 2  sin 2  sin 2  1  2 sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
Solution :
Given A + B C = 180

A B C A B C
    90 or,   90 
2 2 2 2 2 2

  A B  C
cos     cos  90  
2 2  2

A B A B C
or, cos cos  sin sin  sin
2 2 2 2 2

A B C A B
or, sin sin  sin  cos cos
2 2 2 2 2

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 QUIZRR 51

A B C
[Note that sin sin sin occur without square in the given identity, therefore, we have brought
2 2 2

A B C
sin sin andsin on one side.]
2 2 2

2
 A B C 2 A 2B
or,  sin 2 sin 2  sin 2   cos 2 cos 2
 

A B C A B C
or, sin 2 sin 2  sin 2  2sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

 2 A  2 B
=  1  sin   1  sin 2 
 2  

A B C A B C
or, sin 2 sin 2  sin 2  2sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

= 1  sin 2 A  sin 2 B  sin 2 A sin 2 B

2 2 2 2

C A B C A B
or, sin 2  2sin sin sin  1  sin 2  sin 2
2 2 2 2 2 2

A B C A B C
or, sin 2  sin 2  sin 2  1  2sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

Illustration 81
Show that sin2 + sin2 + 2sin sin cos( + ) = sin2( + ).
Solution :
[Here three angles ,  and  +  occur and the term without square is 2sin sin cos( + )
which has a factor sin sin, therefore we will keep  and  one one side.]
Let  +  = , then cos( + ) = cos
or, cos cos sin sin = cos
or, sin sin + cos = cos cos
or, (sin sin + cos)2 = cos2 cos2
= (1 sin2) (1 sin2)
or, sin2 sin2 + cos2 + 2sin sin cos = 1 sin2 sin2 + sin2 sin2
or, cos2 + 2sin sin cos = 1 sin2 sin2
or, sin2 + sin2 + 2sin sin cos = 1 cos2 = sin2
 sin2 + sin2 + 2sin sin cos( + ) = sin2( + ) [   =  + ]

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52 QUIZRR

Illustration 82
In a ABC, prove that tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC
Solution :
In ABC, A+B+C= A+B= C
or, tan(A + B) = tan( C)

tan A + tanB
or,  tan C [  tan( C) = tanC]
1  tan A tan B
or, tanA + tanB = tanC + tanA tanB tanC
or, tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC

Illustration 83
If A + B + C = , prove that

A B B C C A
tan tan  tan tan  tan tan  1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Solution :
 A+B+C=

A B C  A B  C
    or,   
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 A B   C C
 tan     tan     cot
2 2 2 2 2

A B
tan  tan
or, 2 2  1
A B C
1  tan tan tan
2 2 2

A C B C A B
or, tan tan  tan tan  1  tan tan
2 2 2 2 2 2

A B B C C A
or, tan tan  tan tan  tan tan  1.
2 2 2 2 2 2

Illustration 84

In a ABC, if cotA + cotB + cotC = 3 . prove that the triangle is equilateral.

Solution : In ABC, A + B + C = 
show that
cotA cotB + CotB cotC + cotC cotA = 1 ...(1)

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 QUIZRR 53

as an exercise for the student

Again, given cotA + cotB + cotC = 3

or, (cotA + cotB + cotC)2 = 3
or, cot2A + cot2B + cot2C + (cotA cotB + cotB cotC + cotC cotA) = 3
or, cot2A + cot2B + cot2C + 2 1=3 [from (1)]
or, cot2A + cot2B + cot2C = 3 2=1
or, 2(cot2A + cot2B + cot2C) = 2 1
or, 2cot2A + 2cot2B + 2cot2C 2 1=0
or, 2cot2A + 2cot2B + 2cot2C
2(cotA cotB + cotB cotC + cotC cotA) = 0 [using (1)]
or, cot2A + cot2B 2cotA cotB + cot2B + cot2C 2cotB cotC + cot2C + cot2A 2cotC cotA = 0
or, (cotA cotB) + (cotB
2
cotC) + (cotC
2
cotA) = 0
2

which is possible only when,

(cotA cotB)2 = 0 i.e. cotA = cotB
(cotB cotC)2 = 0 i.e. cotB = cotC
and (cotC cotA) = 0
2
i.e. cotC = cotA
Hence, cotA = cotB = cotC
or, A=B =C
Hence, ABC is equilateral.

Illustration 85
If A + B + C = , prove that
A B C
cos A + cosB + cosC  1  4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
Solution :
L.H.S. = (cosA + cosB) + cosC 1

A+B AB
= 2 cos cos  cos C  1
2 2

= 2cos    C  cos A  B  cosC  1

2 2  2

C AB C
= 2sin cos  1  2sin 2  1
2 2 2

C AB C C AB C
= 2sin cos  2sin 2 = 2sin  cos  sin 
2 2 2 2 2 2

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54 QUIZRR

C AB   A  B  C AB A  B
= 2sin  cos  sin    = 2sin  cos  cos
2 2  2 2  2  2 2 

C A B A B C
= 2sin . sin sin  4 sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

Illustration 86

sin 2A  sin 2B  sin 2C A B C

 8 cos cos cos
cos A  cos B  cos C  1 2 2 2

Solution :
sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 4sinA sinB sinC

A B C
and cos A  cos B  cosC  1  4 sin sin sin
2 2 2

sin 2A  sin 2B  sin 2C

dividing, we get
cos A  cos B  cos C  1

4sinA sin Bsin C

=
A B C
4sin sin sin
2 2 2

A A B B C C
4.2sin cos . 2sin cos . 2sin cos
= 2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
4 sin sin sin
2 2 2

A B C
= 8 cos cos cos
2 2 2

Illustration 87

A B C A B C

If A + B + C = , prove that cos  cos  cos = 4cos cos cos
2 2 2 4 4 4
Solution :

 A B C
L.H.S. =  cos  cos   cos
 2 2 2

A+B AB C
= 2cos cos  cos
4 4 2

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 QUIZRR 55

C AB   C
= 2cos cos  sin   
4 4 2 2

C AB C

= 2cos cos  sin
4 4 2

C AB C C

= 2cos cos  2sin cos
4 4 4 4

  C AB   C
= 2cos cos  sin
4  4 4 

= 2 cos   C cos A  B  cos      C 

2 4 
4  4 

C A B

[on R. H. S. after leaving the factor 2 cos we are left with 2 cos cos , therefore,
4 4 4
we have changed sine in cosine. If both terms are in sine or cosine transform the terms in the
bracket in the form cos C μ cosD, otherwise in the form sinC μ sinD]

  C AB   C
= 2 cos cos  cos
4  4 4 

C A+CB CA+B

= 2 cos 2 cos cos
4 8 8

= 4 cos   C cos   B cos   A [ A + C = + B and B + C =  A]

4 4 4

A B C

= 4 cos cos cos
4 4 4

2nd Method :
A B C
R.H.S. = 4 cos cos cos
4 4 4

  A B   C
= 2cos  2cos cos
4  4 4 

 A 2  (B  C) C B 
= 2 cos  cos  cos
4  4 4 
[Using the formula 2cosA cosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A B)]
 A 2  (  A) C B
= 2 cos  cos  cos [ B+ C=  A]
4  4 4 

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A A C  B
= 2cos  cos  cos
4  4 4 

A A A CB

= 2cos cos  2cos cos
4 4 4 4

  A   A   A   A CB
= cos 
C+B
   cos     2cos cos [   A = B + C]
 4 4   4 4  4 4

  A  C + B C B  C + B C B 
= cos  cos     cos     cos   
2  2   4 4   4 4 

A C B
= 0  cos  cos  cos [ cos( ) = cos]
2 2 2

A B C
= cos  cos  cos
2 2 2

Illustration 88
In a triangle prove that
(a) cos A + cos B + cos C > 1 but not greater than 3/2

A B C 1
(b) sin sin sin 
2 2 2 8
Solution :

A B C
(a) cos A  cos B  cos C  1  4 sin sin sin  1 ...(1)
2 2 2

A B C
as neither of sin ,sin ,sin is ive or zero.
2 2 2
Again cosA + cosB + cosC

A B AB C C C
= 2cos cos  1  2sin 2  2sin .1  1  2sin 2
2 2 2 2 2

AB
 0  cos 1
2

 1 C
= 2  s2  s   , where s = sin
 2 2

 1
2
1 1 3  1
2
3
= 2  s      =  s   
 2 2 4 2 

2 2

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 QUIZRR 57

 cosA + cosB + cosC < 3/2

In other words,  cos A  3 / 2.

(b) From above,

A B C 3
1  4 sin sin sin 
2 2 2 2

A B C 1
 sin sin sin 
2 2 2 8

Illustration 89
Prove that 1 + cos56Ĉ + cos58Ĉ ă cos66Ĉ = 4cos28Ĉ cos29Ĉ sin33Ĉ [I. I. T. 73]
Solution :
L.H.S. = 1 + cos56 + (cos58 os66 )
= 2cos228 + 2sin62 sin4
= 2sin(90 28 ) sin4 + 2cos228 [ 62 = 90 28 ]
= 2cos28 (sin4 + cos28 )
= 2cos28 (sin4 + sin62 ) [  cos28 = cos(90 62 ) = sin62 ]
= 2cos28 . 2sin33 . cos29
= 4cos28 . cos29 . sin33

Illustration 90
If xy + yz + zx = 1, prove that

x y z 4 xyz
2
 2
 2
 [I. I. T. 71]
1 x 1 y 1 z (1  x )(1  y 2 )(1  z 2 )
2

Solution :
Let x = tanA, y = tanB, z = tanC
given xy + yz + yz = 1
 tanA tanB + tanB tanC + tanC tanA = 1
or, tanC (tanA + tanB) = 1 tanA tanB

tan A  tan B 1  
or,   cot C  tan   C 
1  tan A tan B tan C 2 

 
or, tan(A  B)  tan   C 
 2 

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58 QUIZRR


 AB C [Taking principal value]
2


or, A+ B+C = ...(1)
2

Now, L.H.S.

x y z
= 2
 2

1x 1 y 1  z2

tan A tan B tan C

=  
2 2
1  tan A 1  tan B 1  tan 2 C

1  2 tan A 2 tan B 2 tan C 

=    
2  1  tan A 1  tan B 1  tan 2 C 
2 2

1
= (tan 2A  tan 2B  tan 2C). ...(2)
2


Now from (1), A + B + C =
2
 2A + 2B + 2C = 
or, 2A + 2B =  2C or, tan(2A + 2B) = tan( 2C)

tan 2A  tan 2B
or,  tan 2C
1  tan 2A tan 2B

or, tan2A + tan2B = tan2C + tan2A tan2B tan2C

or, tan2A + tan2C + tan2B = tan2A tan2B tan2C

1
From (2), L.H.S. = (tan 2A  tan 2B  tan 2C)
2

1
= (tan 2A tan 2B tan 2C)
2

1 2 tan A 2 tan B 2 tan C

= . . .
2 1  tan A 1  tan B 1  tan 2 C
2 2

1 2x 2y 2z 4 xyz
= . . . =
2 1  x2 1  y2 1  z2 (1  x ) (1  y2 )(1  z2 )
2

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
 QUIZRR 59

Illustration 91
If x + y + z = xyz, show that

3x  x3 3 y  y3 3z  z3 3x  x3 3 y  y3 3 z  z3
  = . .
1  3x 2 1  3 y2 1  3z 2 1  3x2 1  3 y2 1  3 z2

Solution :
Let x = tanA, y = tanB, z = tanC
Now,  x + y + z = xyz
 tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC
or, tanA + tanB = tanC (1 tanA tanB)

tan A  tan B
or,   tanC  tan(  C)
1  tan A tan B

or, tan(A + B) = tan( C)

 A+B= C [Taking principal value]
or, A+B+C= 

3 tan A  tan3 A 3 tan B  tan 3 B 3 tan C  tan3 C

Now, L.H.S. =  
1  3 tan 2 A 1  2 tan 2 B 1  3 tan 2 C

= tan3A + tan3B + tan3C ...(2)

Now, from (1), A + B + C =   3A + 3B = 3 3C
 tan(3A + 3B) = tan (3 3C)
= tan[2 + ( 3C) = tan ( 3C)

tan 3A  tan 3B
or,   tan3C
1  tan 3A tan3B

or, tan3A + tan3B = tan3C + tan3A tan3B tan 3C

or, tan3A + tan3B + tan3C = tan3A tan3B tan3C
 From (2) L.H.S. = tan3A tan3B tan3C

3 tan A  tan3 A 3 tan B  tan 3 B 3 tan C  tan3 C

= . .
1  3 tan 2 A 1  3 tan 2 B 1  3 tan 2 C

3 x  x3 3 y  y3 3 z  z3
= , . = R.H.S.
1  3 x2 1  3 y2 1  3 z2

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60 QUIZRR

Illustration 92

AB BC C A
, prove that cosA + cosB + cosC + cosD = 4cos
If A + B + C + D = 2 cos cos
2 2 2
Solution :
L.H.S. = (cosA + cosB) + (cosC + cosD)

AB AB CD CD

= 2cos cos  cos cos
2 2 2 2

AB AB  A  B CD

= 2cos cos  cos     cos
2 2  2  2

 CD A  B
=  A  B  C  D  2  
 2 2 

AB AB AB CD

= 2cos cos  2 cos cos
2 2 2 2

A  B AB C  D
= 2cos cos  cos
2  2 2 

= 2 cos A  B  2sin A  B  C  D sin C  D  A  B

2 4 4

AB A  C  (B  D) B  C  (A  D)
= 4 cos sin sin
2 4 4

AB A  C  (2  A  C) B  C  (2  B  C)

= 4 cos sin sin
2 4 4
[ A + B + C + D = 2  B + D = 2 A C and A + D = 2 B C]

AB  A  C  B  C 
= 4 cos sin    sin   
2  2 2  2 2

A  B   A  C     B  C 
= 4 cos   sin       sin    [  sin( ) = sin]
2  2 2   2 2 

AB AC BC

= 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2

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 QUIZRR 61

Illustration 93
If A + B + C = 2S, prove that
cos2S + cos2(S ă A) + cos2(S ă B) + cos2(S ă C) = 2 + 2cosA cosB cosC
Solution :
L.H.S. = cos2S + cos2(S A) + cos2(S B) + cos2(S C)

1  cos 2S 1  cos 2(S  A) 1  cos 2(S  B) 1  cos 2(S  C)

=   
2 2 2 2

1
= [4  {cos 2S + cos(2S  2A} + {cos(2S  2B) + cos(2S  2C)]}
2

1 4S  2A 2A 4S  2B  2C 2(C  B) 
=  4  2cos cos  2cos cos 
2 2 2 2 2 

1
= [4  2 cos (2S  A) cos A  2 cos (2S  B  C) cos(C  B)]
2

1
= [4  2 cos(B  C) cos A  2cosA cos(C  B)]
2
[ A + B + C = 2S  2S A = B + C and 2S B C = A]

1
= [4  2 cos A {cos(B  C)  cos(C  B)]}
2

1
= [4  2cos A  2cos B cosC]
2
= 2 + 2cosA cosB cosC

Illustration 94

A B C
If A + B + C = , show that tan 2  tan 2  tan 2  1
2 2 2
Solution :
 A + B + C =  then as done earlier

A B B C C A
tan tan  tan tan  tan tan  1 ...(1)
2 2 2 2 2 2

A B C
Let tan  x, tan  y, tan  z
2 2 2
then from (1), xy + yz + zx = 1 ...(2)

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62 QUIZRR
Now  (x y) + (y
2
z) + (z
2
x) > 0
2

 x2 + y2 2xy + y2 + z2 2yz + z2 + x2 2zx > 0

or, 2(x + y +z ) > 2(xy + yz + zx)
2 2 2

or, x2 + y2 + z2 > 1 [ xy + yz + zx = 1)
Putting the values of x, y, z.

A B C
We get tan 2  tan 2  tan 2  1
2 2 2

Illustration 95
If A + B + C = , prove that
(tanA + tanB + tanC) (cotA + cotB + cotC) = 1 + secA secB secC
Solution :
 A+B+C=  A + B=  C
tan(A + B) = tan( C) = tanC

tan A  tan B
or   tan C . which on simplification gives
1  tan A tan B

tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC ...(1)

Now, L.H.S. = tanA tanB tanC (cotA + cotB + cotC)
= tanB tanC + tanC tanA + tanA tanB
[ tanA cotA = 1, tanB cotB = 1, tanC cotC = 1]

sin Bsin C sin Csin A sin A sin B

=  
cos B cosC cosCcos A cos A cos B

cos A sin Bsin C  cosB sin Csin A  cosCsin A sin B

=
cos A cos B cosC

sin C[cos A sin B  sin A cos B]  cosCsin A sin B

=
cos A cos Bcos C

sin Csin(A  B)  cos Csin A sin B sin Csin(  C)  cosCsin A sin B

= =
cos A cos B cosC cos A cos BcosC

sin2 C  cosCsin A sin B

= [ sin( C) = sinC]
cos A cosBcosC

1  cos2 C  cos Csin A sin A 1  cosC(sin A sin B  cos C)

= = cos A cos B cosC
cos A cos B cosC

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 QUIZRR 63

1  cosC[sin A sin B  cos{   (A  B)}]

=
cos A cos B cosC

1  cosC[sin A sin B  cos(A  B)]

=
cos A cos B cosC

1  cosC[sin A sin B  cos A cosB  sin A sin B]

=
cos A cos BcosC

1  cos Ccos A cos B

=  sec A sec Bsec C  1
cos A cosB cos C

Illustration 96

If A + B + C = , prove that
(cotB + cotC) (cotC + cotA) (cotA + cotB) = cosecA cosecB cosecC
Solution :

cos B cosC
cot B  cot C  
sin B sin C

cos Bsin C  sin B cosC sin (B  C)

= 
sin Bsin C sin Bsin C

sin (  A) sin A
=  ...(1)
sin Bsin C sin Bsin C

sin C
Similarly, cot C  cot B 
sin A sin B

sin C
and cot A  cot B 
sin A sin B

Multiplying (1), (2) and (3), we get

sin A sin B sin C

L.H.S. = . .
sin Bsin C sin Csin A sin A sin B

= cosecA cosecB cosecC

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64 QUIZRR

Illustration 97

1
If A + B + C = , show that
2
 sin 2 A(sin 2B  sin 2C)  2 sin A sin B sin C
Solution :
Ist term = sin2A sinB cosB + sin2A sinC cosC
Similarly, second term = sin2B sinC cosC + sin2B sinA cosA
and third term = sin2C sinA cosA + sin2C sinB cos B
Now, L.H.S. = (sin2A sinB cosB + sin2B sinA cosA) + (sin2A sinC cosC + sin2C sinA cosA)
+ (sin2B sinC cosC + sin2C sinB cosB)
= sinA sinB sin(A + B) + sinA sinC sin(A + C) + sinB sinC (B + C)
= sinA sinB sinC + sinA sinB sinC + sinA sinB sinC
= 3sinA sinB sinC.

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 3

FU N CT I ON S

El e m e n t a r y N u m b e r Sy s t e m
The whole of calculus is based on the concepts of real numbers. So let us briefly discuss real
numbers.
Real Numbers

Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers

Integers Fractions

Positive O Negative
Integers Integers

Term s & t heir definit ions

Ć Integers : The numbers ă 4, ă 3, ă 2, ă 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are called integers.
i.e. set of positive integers + zero + negative integers.
They are denoted by I or Z
Ć Natural numbers : They are a subset of integers & denoted by N
N = {1, 2, 3, .... }
i.e. all positive integers.
Ć Whole numbers : It is also a subset of integers. It contains positive integers + zero.
Denoted by W
W = {0, 1, 2, 3 ...}
Ć Zero : Zero is an integer but neither a positive nor a negative integer. But it
is non-negative as well as non-positive integer.

Int ervals
1. Open Interval : For two real numbers a and b, where a < b, the set of all real numbers
lying strictly between a and b (i.e. not including a and b) is called an
open interval.
denoted by ( ) [round brackets]
i.e. a < x < b x  (a, b)

FUNCTIONS
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2. Closed interval : Again for same 2 real numbers, if x can take values between a and
b, including a & b, then its a closed interval.
i.e. a  x  b x  [a, b] {square brackets are used}
3. Half Open Interval : It contains both type of intervals, open, closed interval & closed open
interval. In this type only one end point is included.
a < x b x  (a, b]
a  x< b x  [a, b)
4. Infinite intervals : Before going to intervals let us discuss first about infinity, denoted
by .
By infinity we mean that it is a very big real number, larger than any
real number but how large, it is not fixed.
When we say x  R, we indirectly mean
ă  < x <  or x  (ă , )
coming to infinite intervals now,
whenever   is at one or both the end points we never include them;
i.e.
ă  < x <  or x  (ă , )
round brackets

Not square brackets
ă  < x < a or x  (ă , a)
ă  < x  a or x  (ă , a]
x a or x  (ă , a]

So m e B a s i c De f i n i t i o n s
Ć Domain : For a given function y = f (x), the set of values which x can take provided that
for those values y is well defined, is known as Domain of the function.

1
for ex. y  , here x can take all real values except 0 because at x = 0 the value
x
of y is invalid.
Ć Range : For a given function y = f (x), the set of values which y can take, corresponding
to each real number in the domain, is known as Range of function.
for ex. y = x2, here x can take all real values but y can take only positive values.
Domain & Range can also be expressed as

Domain Range
function
The values which The values which
input can take output can take

FUNCTIONS
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Ć Periodicity : A function is said to be periodic if it repeats itself after a certain interval.

for example

-2 -1 1 2 3
This graph is repeating
after every integeral interval.

We just covered the basic definitions of these terms, though their properties will be discussed later
on in detail.

Cl a s s i f ic a t io n o f f u n c t i o n s :
(I) Algebraic functions :
Functions consisting of finite number of terms involving powers and roots of independent variable
with the operations +, ă, ï ,  are called algebraic functions.
x1
for example : f  x   x  x, x2  1,
x1

1. Po l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n s
f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... anxn, where a0, a1... an R (i.e. real constants) and n is a non negative
integer, is said to be a polynomial function of degree n (given an  0)
for ex. f (x) = 3x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 (polynomial of degree 3)
f (x) = 1 (polynomial with degree 0)

f  x   x3  x2  1 (not a polynomial function)

(a) Constant Function DOMAIN y

If the range of a function x R
f consists of only one
number than f is called a y=a f(x) = a
constant function RANGE
i.e. y = f (x) = a y {a}
ex. y = f (x) = 1
x

(b) Identity Function DOMAIN y

y= x
The function y = f (x) = x x R
is known as identify
function.
RANGE

y R
45Ĉ
x

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2. Rat io n al fu nc t io n

P  x
They are of the form f  x  (Q (x)  0)
Q  x

where P (x) Q (x) are 2 polynomials in x & Q (x)  0 as it will make denominator 0.
Domain : Here domain is all real no. excepts when denominator is zero [i.e. Q (x)  0]

x2  2 x  1
for eg. f  x 
 x  1  x  2
here domain  R ă {1, 2} because at 1 & 2 denominator becomes 0.

Irrat iona l fun c t ions

Algebraic functions consisting of non integral rational powers of x are known as irrational functions.

x1 / 2  x1 / 3 x2  1
eg. f  x   x1 / 2 , ,
x2  1 x1 / 3  1

T ip s f o r A l g e b r a i c f u n c t i o n s
1. Denominator should not be zero.
2. Expression under even root should not be negative.
3. Odd roots of any real no is defined & atleast one odd root of a real number is real.

Illustration 1
x
y
Find the domain of the function
x 2  3x  2

Solution :
x
y
Given
x2  3 x  2

for y to be valid, the value under root has to be greater than zero (here it cannot be zero because
it is in denominator)
 x2 ă 3x + 2 > 0
x2 ă 2x ă x + 2 > 0
(x ă 2) (x ă 1) > 0
 x< 1& x> 2 ă
 domain  (ă , 1)  (2, ) 1 2

FUNCTIONS
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T Y PE (II ) EX PON EN T I A L & L OGA RI T H A M I C FU N CT I ON

1. Ex p o n e n t i a l Fu n c t i o n
The function g = f (x) = ax, a > 0, a  1 is said to be an exponential function.
It is divided into 2 parts depending on the value of a.
for 0 < a < 1, y decreases as x increases
a > 1, y increases as x increases
Y
Y

1
1

X
X
a>1
0<a<1
Shape of curve
as we can see from the graph that the value of y approaches zero but is never 0 (i.e. asymptote)
and can take all positive values.
Domain : x  R
Range : y  (0, )

2. L o g a r i t m i c Fu n c t i o n
The function y = f (x) = loga x is known as logarithmic function.
provided that
x> 0
a > 0
and a  1
So the domain is very clear from the constraints only
Domain : x  (0, )
Range : y  (ă, )
Here also the function depends on the value of a.
Y Y

O
X X
O 1 1

0<a<1 a>0

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Pro p e r t i e s o f l o g a r i t h m i c f u n c t i o n s :
1. loge (ab) = loge a + loge b

b
2. l og e   = log b ă log a
a e e

3. loge am = m loge a
4. loga a = 1

1
5. logbm a = logb a
m

1
6. logb a = log b
a

log m a
7. logb a =
log m b
b
8. alog a = b
log bc a
9. a = clog b

 x  y, if a  1
10. If loga x > loga y  
 x  y, if 0  a  1
11. loga x = y  x = ay

 x  a y , if a  1
12. loga x > y   y
 x  a , if 0  a  1

 x  a , if a  1
y

13. logax < y   y

 x  a , if 0  a  1

Also, when we say log x = y, then we take log with base 10.
Similarly for loge x = y we write it as ln x = y (log with base e is also called natural log)

Illustration 2
Find domain of f (x) = ln (ă 2 + 3x ă x 2)
Solution : for f (x) to be valid the log function should be valid and for that ă x2 + 3x ă 2 > 0
Now, ă x2 + 3x ă 2 > 0
 x2 ă 3x + 2 < 0
 x2 ă 2x ă x + 2 < 0
 (x ă 2) (x ă 1) < 0 ă
 x  (1, 2) 1 2
 domain  (1, 2)

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 9

Illustration 3

1
2
Find the domain of e x 1

Solution :
The function is valid for all real values except for those on which x2 ă 1 becomes zero.
 x2 ă 1  0
for x = ă 1, 1, x2 ă 1 is zero
 domain  R ă {ă 1, 1}

Illustration 4
Find the domain of the following functions :

 5x  x2 
(a) y log 10  
 4
 

(b) y = log10 {log10 log10 log10 x}

Solution :

 5 x  x2 
(a) Given, y  log10  4

 

for this function to be valid, the term on R.H.S. has to valid. For that to be true there are 2
conditions i.e.

5 x  x2
1. 0
4

 5 x  x2 
2. log10 
   0
 4 
First solving for part 1

5 x  x2
0
4

 5x ă x2 > 0
ă
 x2 ă 5x < 0
O 5
 x (x ă 5) < 0
 x  (0, 5) ......... (i)

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10 QUIZRR

Now solving the second part

 5 x  x2 
log10 
   0
 4 

5 x  x2
  100
4

5 x  x2
 1
4 ă
 2
5x ă x  4 1 4
 x2 ă 5x + 4  0
 (x ă 4) (x ă 1)  0
 x  [1, 4] ................ (ii)
since both conditions have to be satisfied, we have to take the intersection of (i) & (ii)
 from (i) & (ii)
x  [1, 4]
 Domain  [1, 4]

(b) f (x) = log10 (log10 log10 log10 x)

for function to be valid
log10 (log10 log10 x) > 0 & x > 0
 log10 (log10 x) > 100 & x > 0
 log10 (log10 x) > 1 & x > 0
 log10 x > 101 & x > 0
 x > 1010 & x > 0
combining both we get
Domain  (1010, )

Illustration 5
Find the domain of the function :

1
f  x   x 1
log10 1  x 

Solution :
This question is a mix of algebraic & logarithmic functions.

1
Now, f  x   x1
log10 1  x

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 QUIZRR 11

We will solve both the parts separately & then combine their results to get the final results.
log10 (1 ă x) is valid when x < 1

1
& log 1  x is valid when 1 ă x  1 ( loga1 = 0) & x < 1
10  
 x < 1 except x = 0 (from 1 ă x  1 because at x = 0, denominator becomes 0)
 x  (ă  1) ă {0} ................ (i)
now solving the algebraic part

for x  1 to be valid x + 1  0
 x  ă 1 ................ (ii)
combining (i) & (ii)
we get x  [ă 1, 0)  (0, 1)
 The domain of the given functions is [ă 1, 0)  (0, 1)

T r i g o n o m e t r y /c i rc u l a r f u n c t i o n s :
Functions involving trigonometric ratios are called trigonometric functions.

(a) y = f(x) = sin x

Domain : (ă , ); Range : [ă 1, 1] ;
Period : 2; Nature : odd ;

  
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained :   , 
 2 2
Y

(0, 1)

ă (0, 0) 2 3 4 X
ă3 ă2

(0, ă1)

(b) y = f(x) = cos x

Domain : (ă , ); Range : [ă 1, 1] ;
Period : 2; Nature : even;
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained : [0, ]
Y
1

ă2 ă /2 2
ă /2 X

ă1

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12 QUIZRR

(c) y = f(x) = tan x

Domain : R ă (2n + 1) /2, n  I; Range : (ă , ),
Period : ; Nature : odd;

  
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained :   , 
 2 2

3
ă2 2 2 2 2
3 0
X
2

(d) y = f(x) = cot x

Domain : R ă n, n  I Range : (ă , ),
Period : ; Nature : odd;
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained : (0, )
Y

ă2 0 2
3
X
2 2

(e) y = f(x) = sec x

Domain : R ă (2n + 1) /2, n  I; Range : (ă , ă 1]  [1, )
Period : 2; Nature : even ;

    
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained : 0,    ,  
 2  2 
Y

3
2 1 2 2
X
0 ă1

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 QUIZRR 13

(f) y = f(x) = cosec x

Domain : R ă n, n  I; Range : (ă , ă 1]  [1, );
Period : 2; Nature : odd ;

    
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained :   , 0    0, 
 2   2

3
1 2 2
0
X
2 ă1

I n v e r s e t r ig o n o m e t ri c /i n v e r s e c i r c u l a r f u n c t io n s :
Functions involving inverse of trigonometric ratios are called inverse trigonometric or inverse
circular functions. y
ă1
(a) y = f(x) = sin x /2
Domain : [ă 1, 1]

   x
Range :  2 , 2  ă1 1
 
Nature : odd ;
/2
y = sină1x

y
(b) y = f(x) = cosă1 x
Domain : [ă 1, 1]
Range : [0, ] /2
Nature : neither even nor odd
x
ă1 0 1
y = cosă1x

(c) y = f(x) = tană1 x y

/2
Domain : (ă , ),

   x
Range :  2, 2 0
 
ă /2
Nature : odd;

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(d) y = f(x) = cosecă1 x y

Domain : (ă , ă 1]  [1, ) /2

    
  2 , 0    0, 2 
Range : x
ă1 0 1
   
Nature : odd; ă /2

y = cosec ă1 x

y
(e) y = f(x) = secă1 x
Domain : (ă , ă 1]  [1, )

    /2
Range :  0, 2    2 , 
   
ă1 0 1 x
Nature : neither even nor odd
y = sec ă 1 x

(f) y = f(x) = cotă1 x y

Domain : (ă , ),
Range : (0, ) /2
Nature : neither even or odd.
0 x
y = cot ă1x

Illustration 6
Find the domain for the following :

  x2 
(a) f ( x )  cos  sin x  (b) y  f  x   sin 1  log 2   
 
  2 

Solution :

(a) f ( x)  cos  sin x is defined if

value under root is non-negative

i.e. cos (sin x)  0
but we know that sin x lies between ă 1 & 1
 ă 1  sin x  1
& for [ă 1, 1] cosine function is always + ve

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 QUIZRR 15

   
because cos x  0 for   ,  & >1
 2 2 2
 cos (sin x)  0 for all x
 x  R
 Domain  R
  x2  
(b) for function, f(x) = sin ă1  log 2    to be valid
 
  2 

x2
firstly 0 &
2

x2
then ă 1 < log2 1
2

x2
for the first part  0  x2 > 0
2
because log can not be 0
 x  R ă {0} ........... (i)

x2
for second part ă 1 < log2 1
2

x2
 2ă1 <  21
2

1 x2
  2
2 2
 1  x2  4
 ă 2  x   ă 1 or 1  x  2 ........... (ii)
though we can also solve the inequality taking cases & combing to get (ii)
from (i) & (ii)
x  [ă 2, ă 1]  [1, 2]

Illustration 7
Find the domain of the definition of function :

(a) f  x   log 10 sin  x  3   16  x 2

 2 
(b) y  cos 1  
 2  sin x 
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16 QUIZRR

Solution :

(a) Given f (x) = log10 sin (x ă 3) + 16  x2

for f(x) to be well defined

sin (x ă 3) > 0
& we know sin x is positive in (0, ). So generalising it, sin x will be positive in (2n  + 0,
2n + ) as 2 is the period of sin x.
 2n + 0 < (x ă 3) < 2n + 
 2n + 3 < x < (2n + 1) + 3 .......... (i)
for the under root part
16 ă x2  0
 x2 ă 16  0
 (x ă 4) (x + 4)  0
 x  [ă 4, 4] ................ (ii)
combining (i) & (ii)
from (i) x  (2n + 3, (2n + 1) where n = 0,  1,  2
(ii) x  [ă 4, 4]

for n = ă1 n=0

ă4 +3

 The common region is (ă 2 + 3, ă  + 3)  (3, 4]

 Domain is (ă 2 + 3, ă  + 3)  (3, 4]

1  2 
(b) given y  cos  2  sin x 
 

for y to be defined.

2
1 1
2  sin x

2
solving first  1  2  sin x

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 17

denominator here can never be negative or zero because sin x [ă 1, 1], cross multiplying
 ă (2 + sin x)  2
 ă 2 ă sin x  2
 sin x  ă 3
which is true for all values of x as min. value of sin x is ă 1. ............. (i)
now solving the second part
2
1
2  sin x

 2  2 + sin x
 sin x  0
 2n + 0  x  2n + 
 2n  x  (2n + 1)  ............... (ii)
 combining (i) & (ii)
Domain  (2n, (2n + 1) )

So m e o t h e r f u n c t io n s
1. Absolute Value / Modulus function
By absolute / modulus function we mean only the numerical value of the function, irrespective of
its sign, from origin.
This concept is analogous to distance. We can also say that modulus function is distance with
respect to origin.
Though, modulus function is defined as
f : R  R, f (x) = |x|
here,

Domain : x  R Range : [0, )

Period : Non periodic Nature : even

y = –x y=x

X
O

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 18 QUIZRR

The |x| can be defined as follows : |x|

 x , x  0
x  
 x , x 0

for ex. |ă 1| = 1, |2.8| = 2.8, |ă 7.9| = 7.9

here we can understand this as distance, for ex. take |ă 7.9|

ă7.9 O

On number line the distance of ă 7.9 from origin is 7.9. So the value of modulus function is 7.9
So if you are given
if a > 0 a < 0

1. | f(x) | = a  f(x) = a No solution

2. | f(x) | < a  ă a < f(x) < a No solution

3. | f(x) | > a  f(x) < ă a or True for all x

f (x) > a

B a s i c p r o p e r t i e s o f |x |
Ć ||x|| = |x|
Ć |xy| = |x||y|

x x
Ć  , y 0
y y

Ć |x + y| |x| + |y|,
Ć |x ă y|  |x| ă |y|
last two properties are intersecting ones, you can prove them by putting values.

Illustration 8
Find the domain of the following function :

2 x 1
(a) 1 (b) 0
x4 x 2

x3 x
(c) |x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4 (d) 1
x2

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 19

Solution :

2
(a) We have 1
x4

we can see that x  4

2  a a 
 1   & 2  2
x4  b b 

 2 > |x ă 4| {we can do this because mod function is always positive}

 |x ă 4| < 2
 ă 2< xă 4 < 2
 2< x< 6
x  (2, 6) ă {4} (Note : Remember to remove 4 from domain students generally
miss this step)

x 1
(b) we have, 0
x 2

let |x| = y

y1

y2
0 ă
1 2
 y  2 or y  1
Note : we cannot include y = 2.
 |x| > 2 or |x|  1
(x > 2 or x < ă 2) or (ă 1  x  1)
 Domain  (ă , ă 2)  [ă 1, 1]  (2, )

(c) we have |x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
we will solve this by finding the critical points & checking for values greater or smaller about
these critical points. Here critical points are 1 & 2

 x  1  , x  1 
|x ă 1| =   x  1 , x  1
   

 x  2  , x  2 
& x2  
   x  2  , x  2

we can divide the values in 3 region i.e. < 1, between 1 & 2, & greater than 2.

FUNCTIONS
20 QUIZRR

Case 1 : when ă  < x < 1

i.e. in this region |x ă 1| = ă (x ă 1)
& |x ă 2| = ă (x ă 2)
|x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
 ă (x ă 1) ă (x ă 2)  4
 ă 2x + 3  4
 2x ă 1  0
 x  ă ó ............. (i)
Case 2 : when 1  x  2
here in this region |x ă 1| = x + 1
& |x ă 2| = ă (x ă 2)
|x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
 x ă 1 ă (x ă 2)  4
 1  4
 no solution for this solution ............. (ii)
Case 3 : when x > 2
here both are positive i.e. |x ă 1| = x ă 1
& |x ă 2| = x ă 2
|x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
 xă 1 + xă 2  4
 2x ă 3  4
 x  7/2 ............. (iii)
 combining (i), (ii) & (iii)

 1   7 
Domain    ,   , 
 2  2 

x3  x
(d) 1
x2
x3  x
 10
x2

x  3  x   x  2
 0
x2

x3 2
 0 ................ (i)
x2
we know that x  (ă2)
now 2 cases arise for |x + 3|

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 QUIZRR 21

Case 1 : x + 3 < 0 
|x + 3| = ă (x ă 3)
putting these values in (i)

  x  3  2
 0
x2


 x5
0 ă
x2 ă5 ă2

x5
 0
x2

[Now here note that we are getting answer (ă 5, ă 2) but do not forget that this case is for
x < ă 3.
So the answer for this part is (ă 5, ă 3] ............. (ii)

Case : x + 3  0, for x  ă 3
 |x + 3| = x + 3

 x  3  2
0
i.e.
x2 ă
ă2 ă1
x1
0
x2
 x  (ă , ă 2]  [ă 1, )
but again this region is for x  ă 3
 x  [ă 3, ă 2)  [ă 1, ) ............. (iii)
combining (ii) & (iii)
Domain  (ă 5, ă 3)  [ă 3, ă 2)  [ă 1, )
 [ă 5, ă 2)  [ă 1, )

Gr e a t e s t I n t e g e r f u n c t io n /St e p f u n c t i o n
The function y = [x] is known as greatest Integer function & is defined as greatest integer less than
equal to x.
i.e. y = [x] = a if a  x < a + 1
for example
[2.3] = 2, [5.9] = 5, [7] = 7,
take special care of negative values
[ă 7.9] = ă 8, [ă 5] = ă 5
y = f(x) = [x]

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 22 QUIZRR

1 { Points notincluded

Point included

ă3 ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3

ă1

ă2

Domain : R Range : I (i.e. set of ingtegers)

Period : Non-periodic Nature : neither odd/nor even

The function is called step function as we can see from the graph that it follows a step like curve

Fr a c t io n p a r t o f x :
for example if x = 5.9
then fractional part of x is .9
It is denoted by {x} y

Thus, {x} = x ă [x]

& 0  {x} < 1
y = f(x) = {x}
x
ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3

Domain : R Range : [0, 1)

Period : 1 Nature : neither even nor odd

So m e p r o p e r t i e s o f g r e a t e s t i n t e g e r f u n c t i o n & f r a c t i o n a l p a r t
(i) [[x]] = [x]
(ii) [x + n] = [x] + n, if n is an integer
(iii) [{x}] = 0, {[x]} = 0

0 ; if x  integer 
(iv) [x] + [ă x] =  
  1 ; if x  integer 

0 ; if x  integer 
(v) {x} + {ă x} =  1 ; if x  integer 
 

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 23

 [ x] ; if x  integer 
(vi)   x   
  [ x]  1 ; if x  integer 

[ x]  [ y] ,  either one of x or y is integer


(vii) [x + y] =    x   y  1

[ x]  [ y]  1 when  x   y  1

 [ x]   x 
(viii)      , n  N
 n  n

n  1
 x   x  n    x 
1 2 
(ix)
n 
 ......   x  n    nx , n N
    

(c ) Sig n u m f u n c t i o n
The function is defined as
y = f (x) = sgm (x) 1

 1 x0
 O
y  sgn  x  0 x0
1 x0
 ă1

Domain : R Range : {ă 1, 0, 1}
Period : non-periodic Nature : odd

Illustration 9
Find the domain of the following :
(a) [x]2 ă 3[x] + 2  0
(b) 4 [x] = x + {x}
Solution :
(a) given [x]2 ă 3 [x] + 2  0
 ([x] ă 1) ([x] ă 2)  0
 1  [x]  2
Here the value of greatest integer function is 1 & 2.
for value 2, x can lie b/w 2 & 3
 Domain  [1, 3)
TIP : if [x]  n where n  I
x  [n, n + 1)

FUNCTIONS
 24 QUIZRR

(b) given the function, 4 [x] = x + {x}

but x = [x] + {x}
putting this
4 [x] = [x] + {x} + {x}
4 [x] = [x] + 2 {x}
3 [x] = 2 {x}

3 2
 {x} = [x] or  x   x
2 3

we know 0  {x} < 1

2
 0  [x] <
3

 [x] = 0
 0  x< 1 ............. (i)

3
but  x   x
2

& for 0  x < 1, [x] = 0

 {x} = 0 . ............ (ii)
combining (i) & (ii)
The only value to satisfy the question is x = 0

Illustration 1 0
Find the domain of the following :

sin  x  2
(a) x 2 ă 4x + [x] + 3 = 0 (b) f (x) 
 x  2  x  3
Solution : (a) given that x2 ă 4x + [x] + 3 = 0
 x2 ă 4x + (x ă {x}) + 3 = 0
 x2 ă 3x + 3 = {x}
 0  x2 ă 3x + 3 < 1

9 9
But x2 ă 3x + 3 = x2 ă 3x + + 3 ă
4 4

2
 3 3
= x   
 2  4

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 QUIZRR 25

which is always greater than 0

solving now x2 ă 3x + 3 < 1
 x2 ă 3x + 2 < 0
 (x ă 2) (x ă 1) < 0
 x  (1, 2) ............... (i)
 [x] = 1
putting back the value in the original equation
 x2 ă 4x + 4 = 0
 (x ă 2)2 = 0
 x= 2
but from (i) x  (1, 2)
 Thus equation has no solution.

sin  x  2
(b) Given that f  x  
 x  2  x  3
there, there are 2 critical points ă 3 & 2 which divides the number line in 3 region.
1. ă 3  x< 2
[x ă 2] give negative values but there are no problem
but for [x + 3], if x  (ă 2, ă 3]
the function becomes invalid for these values as denominator becomes 0.
 x  [ă 2, 2) ........... (i)
2. x< ă 3 in this region there is no problem as the function is valid for all values
 x  (ă , ă 3) .......... (ii)
3. x 2 for x  [2, 3), the function [x ă 2] returns 0, which makes the function
invalid but for x  3 there is no problem.
 x  [3, ) .......... (iii)
combining (i), (ii) & (iii)
x  (ă , ă 3)  [ă 2, 2)  [3, )

FUNCTIONS
 26 QUIZRR

D OM A I N
Wo r k i n g Ru l e :
In order to find the domain of the function defined by y = f (x), find the real values of x for which y
is defined i.e. y is real. The set of all these values of x will be the domain.
Use the following informations whichever is required.
1. (a) sin x and cos x are defined for all real x.

(b) tan x and sec x are not defined at odd multiples of
2
(c) cot x and cosec x are not defined at multiples of .

 1  sin x  1    tan x    sec x   1 or sec x  1 

(d)   
 1  cos x  1    cot x    cos ecx   1 or cosecx  1

2. (a) sină1x and cosă1 x are defined if and only if ă 1  x  1.

(b) tană1 x and cotă1 are defined for all real x.
(c) secă1 x and cosecă1 x are defined if and only if x  ă 1 or x  1.

  
  sin 1 x   0  cos1 x  
2 2

  
  tan 1 x   0  cot 1 x  
2  2
 
(d)   cos ec 1 x  0  sec 1 x  
2 2

But cos ec x  0 
1
But sec 1 x 
2

3. (a) logba is defined if and only if a > 0, b > 0 and b  1 & a  0

a  bc , if b  1
(b) log b a  c 
a  bc , if b  1

(c) If a > 0, then ax is defined for all real x.

4. For any function Denominator should never be zero.
5. For an algebraic function.
(a) Denominator should never be zero.
(b) an expression under even root should be  0.
6. Use sign scheme for a rational function if required.
7. Find solution of Trigonometrial inequality if required

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 27

So m e u s e f u l t ip s t o f i n d d o m a i n
(a) Domain of (f (x)  g (x)) = Domain of f (x)  Domain of g (x)
(b) Domain of (f (x) . g (x)) = Domain of f (x)  Domain of g (x)

 f  x 
(c) Domain of   = Domain of f (x)  Domain of g (x) {x; g (x)  0}
 g  x 

(d) Domain of f  x = Domain of f (x) such that f (x)  0

(e) Domain of loga f (x) = Domain of f (x) such that f (x) > 0

Illustration 1 1
If [x] denotes the integral part of x, find the domain of definition of the function.
sec 1 x
f x 
x  x
Solution : For f (x) to be defined,
(i) x ă [x] > 0  x > [x]
 [x] < x
 x  an integer ... (1)
(ii) secă1 x should be defined,
 x  ă 1 or x  1 .... (2)
From (1) and (2), common values of x are given by
(ă  < x < ă 1 or 1 < x < ) and x  I
 Domain = R ă ((ă 1, 1)  I)

Illustration 1 2
Find the domain of the function
f (x) = log {a x3 + (a + b)x 2 + (b + c )x + c }, if b 2 ă 4a c < 0 and a > 0
Solution : Given, f (x) = log {ax3 + (a + b)x2 + (b + c)x + c} .............. (i)
For f (x) to be defined,
ax3 + (a + b)x2 + (b + c)x + c > 0
 (ax3 + bx2 + cx) + (ax2 + bx + c) > 0
 x(ax2 + bx + c) + ax2 + bx + c > 0
 (x + 1) (ax2 + bx + c) > 0
 x+ 1 > 0 [... b2 ă 4ac < 0 and a > 0
 ax2 + bx + c > 0 for all real x]
 x> ă 1
Hence domain of f = (ă 1, )

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28 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 3
Find the domain of definition of the following functions :

f x  log 1  2 x  3 
(i) f(x) = sină1 (x 2 ă 4x + 4) (ii)
2

 x  1  x  2 
(iii) f  x   (iv) f(x) = cosă1[2x 2 ă 3]
 x  3  x  4 
([.] denotes the greatest integer function).
Solution :
(i) For f (x) to be defined ă 1  x2 ă 4x + 4  1
 ă 1  (x ă 2)2  1  |x ă 2|  1  ă 1  x ă 2  1  1  x  3
Hence the domain of definition of f(x) is the set x  [1, 3].

(ii) For f(x) to be defined log1/2 (2x ă 3)  0

 2x ă 3  1  x  2 .... (1) [logab   0 when

3
Also 2x ă 3 > 0  x > .... (2) 0 < a < 1, b  1]
2
Combining (1) and (2) we get the required values of x. Hence the domain of definition of
3 
f(x) is the set  , 2 
2 
ă ă
 x  1 x  2  0 ă2 1 3 4
(iii) For f(x) to be defined and x  3, 4.
 x  3 x  4 
By wayy-curve method the domain of definition of f(x) is the set
x  (ă , ă 2]  [1, 3)  (4, )

(iv) For f(x) to be defined ă 1  [2x2 ă 3]  1

 ă 1  2x2 ă 3 < 2  2  2x2 < 5  1  x2 < 5/2
If x2  1 then x  (ă , ă 1]  [1, ) ..... (1)

5  5 5
If x2 < then x    2
, 
2  ..... (2)
2 

 5   5
Combining (1) and (2), x     1  1, 
2 
 2  

which is the domain of definition of f(x).

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 QUIZRR 29

RANGE

Wo r k i n g Ru l e :
First of all, find the domain.
1. If domain does not contain an interval, find the value of x putting the values of x from the
domain. The set of all these values of y will be the range.
2. If function is continuous and domain contains only finite intervals, find the least and greatest
values of y for values of x in the domain. If  and  be the least and greatest values of y
for values of x in the domain, then range f = [, ]. In order to find the least and greatest
dy
values of y, write down the sign scheme for .
dx
This method of finding the range of f (x) can also be used when domain is R or contains an
infinite interval provided f (x) is continuous in the domain.
3. If domain is R or the set of all real numbers except a few points, then express x in terms
of y and from this, find the value of y for which x is real and belongs to the domain. The
set of all these values of y will be the range. But if domain does not contain some points
say  and , then find y when x = , and x =  and exclude these values of y.

Illustration 1 4
Find domain and range of the function y = loge (3x 2 ă 4x + 5).
Solution :
y is defined if 3x2 ă 4x + 5 > 0
where D = 16 ă 4 (3) (5) = ă 44 < 0
and coefficient of x2 = 3 > 0
Hence, (3x2 ă 4x + 5) > 0  x  R
Thus, Domain is R
Now, y = loge (3x2 ă 4x + 5)
We have 3x2 ă 4x + 5 = ey
or 3x2 ă 4x + (5 ă ey) = 0
Since, x is real thus, discriminant  0
 12 ey  44

 11 
So, y  log  
 3 

  11  
Hence, range is  log   ,  
  3  

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 30 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 5


Find the range of the function f (x) =  ln sin

1
 
x 2  x  1  , where [.] denotes the greatest


integer function.
Solution :


Given, f (x) =  log e sin

1
x2  x  1 

 .... (1)

Domain of f :
For f (x) to be defined,
(i) x2 + x + 1  0  ă < x<  ... (A)

x2 + x + 1  1  x  x  1  0 
2
(ii) 1 x2  x  1  1 

 x2 + x + 1  1  x2 + x  0
 ă 1  x  0 ... (B)

(iii) sin 1 x2  x  1  0

 sin 1 x2  x  1  sin 1 0

ă1
 x2  x  1  0 [ sin x is an increasing function]

 x2 + x + 1 > 0
 ă < x<  ... (C)
From (A), (B) and (C), ă 1  x  0
 Domain f = [ă 1, 0]
Range of f :

2
 1 3 3 1
Least value of x + x + 1 =  x    
2 at x 
 2  4 4 2

3
 least value of x2  x  1 
2

Since sin 1 x2  x  1 should be defined 

Also x2  x  1  1 ,  

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 QUIZRR 31

3
Thus  x2  x  1  1
2

 3
 sin 1    sin
1
x2  x  1  sin 1 1
 2 
[ sină1 x is an increasing function]
 
  sin 1 x2  x  1 
3 2




log e    log e sin 1
3
 
x2  x  1  log e  
2

 
0  log e sin 1  
x2  x  1  1  log e

     
   1 &  log e  0 
 
2   3 



e 
 log sin1 x2  x  1   0
 
 f (x) = 0 for all x  [ă 1, 0]
Hence range f = {0}
Note : Here f is a many-one function.

Illustration 1 6

1
Find the range of f  x   log e  cos x    sin x  where [x] denotes the integral part of x.

Solution :

1
Given, f  x  log e cos x  sin x
    ... (1)

Domain of f :
>

For f (x) to be defined, [cos x] = 0, [sin x] = 1

[cos x] ă [sin x] > 0 [cos x] = ă 1 [cos x] = 0
[sin x] = 0 [sin x] = 0
 [cos x] > [sin x] [cos x] = ă 1, [sin x] = 0 [cos x] = 1, [sin x] = 0
>

   x0 [cos x] = ă 1 [cos x] = 0
2
  
Domain =   , 0  [sin x] = ă 1 [sin x] = ă 1
 2 
[cos x] = 0, [sin x] = ă 1

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32 QUIZRR

  
Range of f : In   , 0  , [cos x] ă [sin x] = 1
 2 
 from (1), f (x) = loge1 = 0
Hence range f = {0}
Note : Here f is a many-one function.

Illustration 1 7
Find the range of the following functions :

 
(i) f  x   ln x2  4x  5 (ii) f ( x )  3 sin x  8 cos  x    5
 3

1  1 2 2x  2
(iii) f  x   sin   x  (iv) f x  2
 2  x  2x  3
([.] denotes the greatest integer function)
Solution :

(i) Here f(x) = ln x2  4 x  5  ln  x  2 2 1

i.e. x2 + 4x + 5 takes all values in [1, )  f(x) will take all values in [0, ).
Hence range of f (x) is [0, ).

 
(ii) Here f (x) = 3 sin x + 8 cos  x    5
 3 

= 3 sin x + 4 (cos x + 3 sin x) + 5 = (3 + 4 3 ) sin x + cos x + 5.

Put 3 + 4 3 = r cos  and 4 = r sin  so that

1 4
r  73  24 3 and   tan 3  4 3  f  x   73  24 3 sin (x + ) + 5

 
 Range of f(x) is 5  73  24 3 , 5  73  24 3 
 

1  1 2
(iii) Here f  x   sin   x 
2 

1 2
For any value of x,   x  is a non-negative integer and sină1 x is defined only for two
 2 
non-negative integers 0 and 1.

 
 the range of f  0, 
 2

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 33

2x  2
(iv) Here f  x  2
x  2x  3
2x  2
Let y = f (x) i.e. y =  yx2 ă 2 (y + 1) x + 3y + 2 = 0
2
x  2x  3
which is a quadratic in x. For above quadratic to have real roots   0
 4(y + 1)2 ă 4y (3y + 2)  0
1 1
 y2  y 
2 2

 1 1 
Hence the range of f(x) is   , .
 2 2

N a t u r e o f Fu n c t i o n
Wo r k i n g Ru l e :
1. (a) A function f (x) is odd if f (ă x) = ă f (x) i.e. f (ă x) + f (x) = 0
(b) A function f (x) is even if f (ă x) i.e. f (ă x) ă f (x) = 0
(c) Graph of an even function is symmetrical about y-axis.
(d) Graph of an odd function has the property that its part in first and third quadrants are
symmetric about the origin and its part in second and fourth quadrants are symmetrical
about the origin.
2. Properties of odd and even functions.
(a) a constant function is an even function
(b) a zero function is both an odd and an even function.
(c) For two functions, the following are the rules for their respective operations.
Functions Sum Difference Product Division
even ă even even even even even
even ă odd neither even neither even odd odd
nor odd nor odd
odd ă even neither even neither even odd odd
nor odd nor odd
odd ă odd odd odd even even
(d) (i) if f (x) + f (ă x) = 0  f is odd function.
(ii) if f (x) ă f (ă x) = 0  f is odd function.
(e) The derivative of an odd function is an even function and derivative of an even function is
an odd function.
(f) The square of even or an odd Function is always an even Function.
(g) Any function y = f (x) can written as y = f (x) = [odd part of f (x)] + [even part of f (x)]

 f  x   f   x   f  x  f   x  
i.e. y  f  x    
 2   2 
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 34 QUIZRR

Illustration 1 8

t t
If f  t   t
  1 , show that f (t) is an even function.
e 1 2
Solution :
1 t
Since f  t  t
 1 ... (i)
e 1 2

t t
Now, f   t  t
 1
e 1 2

tet t
 t
 1 ... (ii)
e 1 2
Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get

f  t  f   t  1  e   t
t t

 e  1
t

= ă t+ t= 0
 f (ă t) ă f (t) = 0. Hence f (t) is an even function.

Illustration 1 9
Find out whether the given function is even, odd or neither even nor odd.

x x , x  1 
 
where, f  x   1  x   1  x  ,  1  x  1
 
 x x , x 1 
where || and [ ] represents modulus & greatest integer function.
Solution : The given function can be written as :

  x2 , x  1 
 
f  x   2   x    x ,  1  x  1
 2 
  x , x1 

 x2 , x  1 
 
2  1  0 , 1  x 0
 
f  x   2 , x0 
2  0  1 , 0  x  1
 
 x2 , x  1 


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 QUIZRR 35

  x2 , x 1 
 
1 , 1  x  0
 
f  x   2 , x0 
1 , 0  x  1
 
 x2 , x  1 


which is clearly even as if f (ă x) = f (x)

Thus, f (x) is even.

Illustration 20
Find out whether the given function is even or odd function, where
x  sin x  tan x 
f x 
 x   1 , where x  n
    2
 
[ ] denotes greatest integer function.
Solution :
x  sin x  tan x x  sin x  tan x 
f  x  
 x    1  x 1
   2   1 2
   

x  sin x  tan x 
f  x 
 x
    0.5
 

 x  sin   x  tan   x 
f   x 
  x
    0.5
 

 x  sin x  tan x  
 , x  n 
  x 
f   x     1     0.5 
  
0 , x  n 

 
 x  sin x  tan x  
f   x    
  x 1 
   2 
   
f(ă x) = ă f(x)
 It is an odd function (if x  n)

FUNCTIONS
 36 QUIZRR

Ident ic al func t ion

Two functions f and g are identical if
(i) domain f = domain g
(ii) f(n) = g(n)  n  domain f or domain g.

Illustration 21
Find for what values of x the following functions are identical

(i) f (x) = x and g  x   x2

x2
(ii) f x  , gx  x
x

Solution :
(i) Domain of g = ] ă , [
Domain of f = ] ă , [

g  x 
2
x2 = positive square root of x = |x| = x, if x  0

and f (x) = x
 f (x) and g (x) are identical  x  [0, [

(ii) Domain of f = R ă {0} = ] ă , 0 [] 0, [

Domain of g = ] ă ,  [= R

x2
f  x   x, when x  0
x

 f (x) and g (x) are identical  x  0

Ex p l i c i t Fu n c t i o n
If x and y are two variables connected by a relation such that y is expressed explicitly in terms
of x or x is expressed explicitly in terms of y, i.e., y = f(x) or f(x) = y. Such functions are known as explicit
functions.
For examples y = x + 2, xy + y ă 5 = 0, x2 + y2 = 5 are explicit functions.

I m p l i c i t Fu n c t i o n
If the variables x and y are connected by a relation such that neither y is expressed explicitly as
a function of x nor x is expressed explicitly as a function of y. Such functions are known as implicit
functions. These functions are expressed in the form
f (x, y) = 0
For example, x3 + y3 + 3axy = 0, tan (x2 + y2) + cos (x + y) = ex are implicit functions, of x, y.

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 37
y
PERI ODI C FU N CT I ON
A function f : D  R is said to be a periodic
function if there exists a positive real number p
such that
f (x + p) = f (x) for all x D. The least of all x
0
such positive numbers p is called the principal ă2 ă1 1 2 3
period of f. In general, the principal period is called
the period of the function e.g. sin x and cos x are
periodic functions, each having period 2.
{x} = x ă [x] is a periodic function, the period being 1. The graph of x ă [x] is as shown in the figure.

Ru l e s f o r f i n d i n g t h e p e r io d o f t h e p e r io d i c f u n c t i o n s :
(i) If f (x) is periodic with period p, then a f (x)  b, where a, b  R (a  0) is also a periodic
function with period p.

(ii) If f (x) is periodic with period p, then f (ax  b), where a  R ă {0} and b R, is also periodic

p
with period a .

(iii) Let us suppose that f (x) is periodic with period p and g (x) is periodic with period q. Let r
be the LCM of p and q, if it exists.

(a) If f (x) and g (x) cannot be interchanged by adding a least positive number k, then
r is the period of f (x) + g(x).

(b) f (x) and g (x) can be interchanged by adding a least positive number k and if k < r,
then k is the period of f (x) + g (x). Otherwise r is the period.

(iv) If f (x), g (x) are periodic functions with periods T1, T2 respectively then; we have,

h (x) = a f (x)  b g (x) has period as,

LCM of T1 , T2  ; if h  x  is not an even function


1
 LCM of T1 , T2  ; if h  x  is an even function
2

 a c e  LCM of  a, c, e
Note : (1) LCM of  , ,  
 b d f  HCF of  b, d, f 

(2) LCM of rational with rational is possible

LCM of irrational with irrational is possible
But LCM of rational and irrational is not possible.

FUNCTIONS
 38 QUIZRR

Fo l lo w i n g r e s u l t s m a y b e d i r e c t ly u s e d
(i) sin x, cos x, sec x and cosec x are periodic functions with period 2.
(ii) tan x and cot x are periodic functions with period .
(iii) |sin x|, |cos x|, |tan x|, |cot x|, |sec x|, |cosec x| are periodic functions with period .
(iv) sinnx, cosnx, secnx and cosecnx are periodic functions with period 2 and  according as n is
odd or even respectively.
(v) tannx and cotnx are periodic functions with period , whether n is odd or even.

Illustration 22

1  sin x cos x 
Find the period of the function f  x     
2  cos x sin x 

Solution : Period of |sin x|, |cos x| = 

Period of sin x, cos x = 2

sin x
Period of = L.C.M. of  and 2 = 2
cos x

cos x
Period of = L.C.M. of  and 2 = 2
sin x

1  sin x cos x 
Period of 2  cos x  sin x  = L.C.M. 2 and 2 = 2
 

Illustration 23
Find the period of the following functions :

x
(i) f (x) = sin x + {x} (ii) f  x   tan  sin 2 x
3
(iii) f (x) = |sin x| + |cos x|
Solution :
(i) Here f (x) = sin x + {x}
Period of sin x is 2 and that of {x} is 1. But the L.C.M. of 2 and 1 does not exist. Hence
sin x + {x} is not periodic.
(ii) Here f (x) = tan x/3 + sin 2x. Here tan (x/3) is periodic with period 3  and and sin 2x is
periodic with period . Hence f (x) will be periodic with period 3 .

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 39

(iii) Here f (x) = |sin x|+ |cos x|.

2 1  cos2 x
Now, sin x  sin x  , which is periodic with period .
2

Similarly, |cos x| is periodic with period .

Hence, according to rule of LCM, period of f (x) must be .

   
But sin   x   cos x and cos   x   sin x [see rule (3) part (b)]
 2   2 

Since /2 < , period of f (x) is /2.

Illustration 24
Which of the following functions are periodic ? Also find the period if function is periodic.
(i) f (x) = 10 sin3x (ii) f (x) = a sinx + b cosx (iii) f (x) = sin3x

(iv) f (x) = cosx 2 (v) f (x) = sin x (vi) f x  tan x

(vii) f (x) = x ă [x] (viii) f (x) = xcosx

where x is integral part of x
Solution :
(i) f (x) = 10sin3x
Let f (T + x) = f (x)
 10sin {3T + 3x)} = 10 sin3x  sin (3T + 3x) = sin3x
 3T + 3x = n + (ă 1)n3x, where n = 0,  1,  2, .......
The positive values of T independent of x are given by
3T = n, where n = 2, 4, 6, .......

2
 least positive value of T 
3

2
Hence f (x) is a periodic function with period
3

(ii) f (x) = asinx + bcosx

 a b 
= a 2  b2  sin x  cos x 
 a2  b2 a2  b2 
 

b
= a 2  b2  cos  sin  x  sin  cos  x , where tan  
a

FUNCTIONS
40 QUIZRR

= a2  b2 sin  x   

2
Which is a periodic function of period 

3sin x  sin 3 x 3 1
(iii) f(x) = sin3x =  sin  sin 3 x
4 4 4

2
Sin x is a periodic function of period 2  and sin 3x is a periodic function of period .
3

2 2 L.C.M. of 2 and 2
Now L.C.M. of and 3  H.C.F. of 1 and 3
1

2
=  2
1
Hence f (x) is a periodic function of 2.

(iv) f (x) = cosx2

Let f (T + x) = f (x)  cos (T + x)2 = cosx2
 (T + x)2 = 2n  x2
From this no positive value of T independent of x is possible because x2 on R.H.S. can be
cancelled out only when T = 0
 f (x) is a non periodic function.

(v) f (x) = sin x

Let f (T + x) = f (x)             sin T  x  sin x

n
 T  x  n    1  x

This will give no positive value of T independent of x because x on R.H.S. can be cancelled
out only when T = 0.
 f (x) is a non periodic function.

(vi) f  x  tan x

Let (T + x) = f(x)  tan  T  x   tan x

 tan (T + x) = tan x
 T + x = n + x, = 0,  1,  2, .....

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 41

From this positive values of T independent of x are given by

T = n, n = 1, 2, 3
 least positive value of T independent of x is .
 f (x) is a periodic function of period .

(vii) f (x) = x ă [x], where [x] is the integral part of x.

Let f (T + x) = f (x)
 (T + x) ă [T + x] = x ă [x]
 T = [T + x] ă [x] = an integer
Hence, least positive value of T independent of x is 1.
Hence f (x) is a periodic function of period 1.

(viii) f (x) = xcosx

Let f (T + x) = f (x)  (T + x) cos (T + x) = xcosx
 Tcos (T + x) = x [cos x ă cos (T + x)]
From this no value of T independent of x is possible becase on R.H.S. one factor is x which is
an algebraic function and on L.H.S. there is no algebraic function in x and hence x cannot be
cancelled out.
Hence f (x) is a non periodic function.

Illustration 25
Let f (x, y) be a periodic function satisfying f (x, y) = f (2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x) for all x, y. Let g (x)
= f (2x, 0). Show that g (x) is a periodic function with period 12.
Solution : Given, f (x, y) = f(2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x) ... (1)
 f (x, y) = f (2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x)
= f [2(2x + 2y) + 2(2y ă 2x), 2(2y ă 2x) ă 2(2x + 2y)]  putting x = 2x + 2y 
 
= f (8y, ă 8x)  & y = 2y ă 2x 
Thus f (x, y) = f (8y, ă 8x)
= f (ă 64x, ă 64y)
= f [(ă 64) (ă 64x), (ă 64) (ă 64y)]
= f (212x, 212y)
 f (x, 0) = f (212x, 0)
Now, g (x) = f (2x, 0)
= f (212.2x, 0)
= f (2x+12, 0)
= g (x + 12)
Hence g (x) is a periodic function with period 12.
FUNCTIONS
 42 QUIZRR

Illustration 26
Let f be a real valued function defined for all real numbers x such that for some fixed

1
f  x    f  x   for all real x. Show that f (x) is a periodic function. Also
2
a > 0, f  x  a   
2

find its period.

1
f  x   f  x  x  R
2
Solution : Given, f  x  a    ... (1)
2

2
 1
 f  x  a     f  x   f  x
2

 2

2
 1 1
=   f  x   
 2 4

2 2
 1  1 1
  f  x  a      f  x    ... (2)
 2  2 4

2 2
 1  1 1
  f  x  2a      f  x  a     ... (3)
 2  2 4

2 2
 1  1
(3) ă (2)   f  x  2a      f  x     0
 2  2

1 1
 f  x  2a    f  x 
2 2

1
[ from (1), f (x + a) ă  0  x R
2

1 1
 f (x ă a + a) ă  0 or, f (x) ă  0  x R
2 2

 f (x + 2a) = f (x)  x  R and fixed a > 0

Hence f (x) is a periodic function with period 2a.

Find the range of the following functions

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 43

T RA N SFORMA T I ON S
Transform at ion 1 :
Drawing the graph of y = f (x)  a, from the graph of y = f(x)
(a) To draw the graph of y = f (x) + a,
shift the graph of y = f (x), a units in upward direction.
(b) To draw the graph of y = f (x) ă a
shift the graph of y = f (x), units in downward direction.
Logic : The graph can be taken as
y  a = f (x), so we are just changing the value of y here.

Illustration 27
Plot the following :
(a) y = |x| ă 2 (b) y = sină1 x ă 1
Solution :
(a) y = |x| ă 2
we know the graph of y = |x| (i.e. modulus function) and the given function can be written
as y + 2 = |x| also.
applying the transformation for y = f (x) + a
shift the curve of y = |x| by 2 unit downward.

y = |x|

y = |x|–2

ă2

(b) y = sină1x – 1
or we can write y + 1 = sină1x
put y+ 1  y
now, y = sină1x
Y Y
2

2
ă1
applying
x x
transformation
ă1
2
ă1
2

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44 QUIZRR

Illustration 28
Plot the following :
(a) y = sin x + 5 (b) y = cos2x
Solution :
(a) y = sin x + 5
writing it as y ă 5 = sin x
applying y–5  y
 y = sin x

y y
6

5
O yă5 y
4
x
O
y = sinx

(b) y = cos2x
we dont know the graph of cos2x but we do know the graph of cos x.
since cos 2x = 2 cos2x ă 1
 2 cos2x = cos2x + 1

cos 2 x  1
 cos2x =
2

cos 2 x  1
 y=
2

1 cos 2 x
 y 
2 2

1 cos 2 x
 y 
2 2
applying transformation yă1/2  y

cos 2 x
 y
2

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 45

cos 2 x
here have half the period of cos x & also half of amplitude.
2
y y
1
2 1
ă  ă 
2 2 x y ă 1/2 y 2 2
O  1
4 2 x
ă1 O
2

T ra n s f o r m a t i o n 2 :
To draw the graph of y = f (x  a) from y = f (x)
(a) To draw y = f (x + a) from y = f (x) shift the graph of f (x) in ÂaÊ units to left.
(b) To draw y = f (x ă a) from y = f (x) shift the graph of f (x) by ÂaÊ units to right.

–a a
y = f(x - a)
y = f(x + a)

y = f(x)

Illustration 29
Plot
 z
(a) y = |x + 2| (b) y  sin  x   (c) y = 4.2x
 4

Solution : (a) for y = |x + 2|

by putting x  x + 2
y = |x|

x x+2
O ă2 0

y = |x+2|
y = |x|

FUNCTIONS
46 QUIZRR

 
(b) y = sin  x  
 4 

here we will draw the above graph from y = sin x

putting x for x ă /4

y = sinx

0 x x /4 O /4

(c) y = 4.2x
or we can write this as
y = 22.2x = 2x+2
we know the curve of 2x, so

1 4

1
O x x +2

Transform at ion 3
To plot the curve of y = f (ă x) from y = f (x)
1. Draw the graph y = f (x)
2. Then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in y-axis or we can say, turn the graph of f (x) by
180Ĉ about y-axis.

Illustration 30
Draw the graph of the following :
(a) y = eăx (b) y = log (ă x)

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 47

Solution :
(a) We will go stepwise for solving these curves.
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
so here putting ă x as x
 y = ex

1 stepă2 (0, 1)
x x
taking mirror
image

(b) y = log (ă x)
ă x x
drawing the graph of y = log x

x x
(0, 1) mirror
image

y = log x

Transform at ion 4
To draw the graph of y = ă f (x) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
Step 2 : Then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in x-axis.

Illustration 31
Plot the graph of the following curve :

1
(a) y = ă ex (b) y  log  
x

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48 QUIZRR

Solution :
(a) y = ă ex
we know the curve of y = ex

step ă1
y

(0, 1) STEP
x
–f(x) f(x)
(0,ă1)
taking mirror
image
x
y=ăe

1
(b) y  log  
 x

this can be written as y = log xă1

or y = ă log x {by log properties}
now we have y = ă log x

y y

x x
(0, 1) taking mirror (ă1, 0)
image

Transform at ion 5
To plot y = f (|x|) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : plot y = f (x) curve
Step 2 : Remove the left portion of the graph
Step 3 : Take the reflection of right portion in y-axis (including right part also)

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 49

Illustration 32
Plot the curves of the following :
(a) y = log |x| (b) y = x 2 ă 2 |x| + 3
1
(c) y
x 1
Solution :
(a) given y = log |x|
Step 1 : draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : remove left part already there is no left part here

STEP 3

|x| x

(ă1, 0) (1, 0)

y = log x

(b) y = x2 ă 2 |x| + 3
This is transformation of |x|  x
Step 1 : putting |x|  x
 y = x2 = 2x + 3 drawing the curve
Step 2 : Remove the left part
Step 3 : taking reflection

(0, 3)
(0, 3)

y = x2 - 2x + 3 y = x2- 2|x|+ 3

FUNCTIONS
50 QUIZRR

1
(c) y
x 1
This one includes 2 transformations
1
1. |x|  x  y
x1

1
2. x+ 1  x  y
x

1
So first drawing the curve y 
x

applying
transformation
'2'

y = ă1 applying
y = 1/x
transformation
'1' now

1
y= removing the left part
|x| + 1

Note : The order of applying the transformations is very important, otherwise we will get wrong
answer.

Transform at ion 6
To plot y = |f(x)| from the curve of y = f(x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Take mirror image of portion below x-axis in x-axis. (removing the lower portion).

Illustration 33
Plot the graph of the following curves
(a) y = |log x| (b) y = |x 2 ă 3x + 2|

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 QUIZRR 51

Solution :
(a) given y = |f(x)| = |log x|
where f (x) = log x

STEP 1 y STEP 2

x Mirror
(1, 0) image of
lower portion

(b) y = |x2 ă 3x + 2|
 y = |(x ă 1) (x ă 2)
applying transformation |f(x)|  f (x)
 f (x) = (x ă 1) (x ă 2)

(0, 2) (0, 2)
|f(x)|
(1, 0) (2, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0)

Transform at ion 7
To plot the graph of |y| = f (x) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Remove the lower portion i.e. below x-axis.
Step 3 : Take mirror image of upper part in lower part, keeping the upper part also.

Illustration 34
Draw the graph of the following :
(a) |y| = (x ă 2) (x ă 3)
(b) |y| = log x

FUNCTIONS
52 QUIZRR

Solution :
(a) given |y| = (x ă 2) (x ă 3)
applying the 3 steps
STEP ă 1 STEP ă 2 STEP ă3

(0, 6)

(2, 0) (3, 0)
removing
lower part
& taking
mirror image
(b) |y| = log x

STEP 2

removing
this taking mirror
y = log x |y| log x
image

Transform at ion 8
To plot x = f (y) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Take reflection in line y = x, also called reflection about origin.

Illustration 35
Plot the graph of the following :
(a) x = log y (b) x = |y|
Solution :
(a) now here x & y are interchanged original function was y = log x

taking
mirror image
in y = x line
y = log x x = log y

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 53

(b) we have x = |y| & we know the graph of y = |x|, which we get by replacing x by y & y by x.

(y = |x|) (x = |y|)

Transform at ion 9
To plot x = |f(y)| from the graph x = f(y)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of x = f(y), using transformation 8.
Step 1 : Take reflection of Left portion in y axis.

Illustration 36
Plot the graph of the following :
(a) x = |log y|
Solution :
Firstly drawing the graph of x = log y from y = log x

(0, 1)

(1, 0)

y = log x
now applying step 2 for modulus function

x = |log y|

Note : This transformation is not valid for g(x) = |f(y)| i.e. on L.H.S. only x should be there &
no other function.

FUNCTIONS
 54 QUIZRR

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 0
To plot the graph of y = [f (x)] from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw horizontal lines after every unit distance i.e. y  k, where k integers.
Step 3 : From the point of intersection (as obtained from step 2), draw vertical lines.
Step 4 : From the intersection points draw horizontal lines upto the nearest vertical line (towards
right). The line drawn should be below the curve for that region.
We will understand the steps with the help of examples.

Illustration 37
Draw the graph of following curves :
(i) y = [x] (ii) y = [x 3] (iii) y = [2sinx]
Solution :
(a) We will go stepwise, so as to understand the procedure.
we have y = [x]
Step 1 : draw y = x Step 2

4
3
drawing 2
horizontal
lines 1

ă1 1 2 3 4

ă2
ă3

Step 3 y

drawing x
final lines

drawing vertical lines downward to x-axis final graph of y = [x]

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 55

(b) y = [x3]
Step 1 Step 2 & 3 Step 4

y=[ ]

(c) y = [2 sin x]
drawing first 2 sin x, which is almost same curve as sin x but has an amplitude of 2 rather
than 1.

applying step 2 & 3

y
2
2
1
1  5 7 11
0 6 6 6
ă1 x
ă2 ă1
y = 2 sin x ă2

applying step 2 & 3

applying step

2
1

0
ă1
ă2

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 1
To plot y = f ([x]) from the graph of y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw vertical lines on every integral point of x i.e. x = k where k  I (integers)
Step 3 : Draw horizontal lines from point of intersection to the nearest right vertical line.

FUNCTIONS
56 QUIZRR

Illustration 38
Plot the following curves :
(a) y = e[x] (b) y = sin [x]
Solution :
(a) given y = e[x]
we know the graph of y =ex

Step 1

(0, 1)
Step 2
ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 1 2 3 4 ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 1 2 3 4

ă2 ă1 1 2 3

(b) y = sin [x]

here we know the graph of y = sin x

ă3
O Step 2 2 1 23 4

ă1

y = sin x

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 57

In step 2 we have marked lines for x = k (where k  integers)

Note here that  has a value 3.14 (approx.), so now we can understand that we will get point
x = 1, 2, 3 between 0 and .

sin2
sin1
3 2 sin3 5
ă1 1 2 3 4

Note here that the figure in step 2 has parts above and below x-axis in (3, 4) but in final
graph the graph between (3, 4) is above x axis.
This is so because, for 3  x < 4, [x] = 3 only, so the value will be sin 3.
Also do not get confuse in values sin 1, sin 2 & sin 3.
for 1  x < 2; sin [x] = sin 1 ~ .84
2  x < 3; sin [x] = sin 2 ~ .909
3  x < 4; sin [x] = sin 3 ~ .14
& 1, 2 & 3 are in radians.

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 2
To plot [y] = f (x), from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw horizontal lines at a unit distance i.e. y = k (k belongs to set of integers)
Step 3 : Draw vertical lines from the point of intersection up till next upper horizontal line
Include only the lower point.

Illustration 39
Plot the following graph :
(a) [y] = x 3
(b) [y] = x 2 ă 2

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58 QUIZRR

Solution :
(a) given [y] = x3, we known the graph of y = x3
Step 1 & 2
y
3

x
ă1

ă2

ă3

ă1

ă2

(b) [y] = x2 ă 2
This one includes two transformations :
1. [y]  y   y = x2 ă 2
2. y + 2  2  y = x2
drawing first y = x2 y=2
y=1

applying y = ă1
transformation
(0, ă2)

So, you can note here that

upper points on the vertical ă1

lines are not included. ă2

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 59

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 3
To plot x = [f (y)] from x = f (y)
Step 1 : draw x = f (y) by using transformation 8.
Step 2 : draw vertical lines at a unit distance
i.e. x = k (k  integers)
Step 3 : draw vertical lines from the point of intersection uptil the above intersection point.

Illustration 40

Draw the graph of x =  y 

Solution :

Given x =  y 

first we will draw the graph of x = y

for x = y , y  0 (as it is a property of under root function)

squaring  x 0
 x2 = y
here we will draw in the region where x  0 as stated by (1)

16

9
4
1

1 2 3 4 1 2 3

x= y [ x]= y

Note : This transformation is not valid for functions of form g (x) = [f (y)]

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 4
Plot the graph of y = f ({x}) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : draw the graph of y = f(x) in the interval [0, 1]
Step 2 : Repeat the same graph as in step 1, with a period of 1.

FUNCTIONS
 60 QUIZRR

Illustration 41
Plot the graph of the following :

2x
(a) y = sin (x ă [x]) (b) y
2[ x ]
Solution :
(a) given y = sin (x ă [x])
& we know that x ă [x] = {x}
 we have to draw y = sin x in [0, 1]

sin 1
sin 1

1 1 2 3
2 ă1

2x
(b) y
2
 x

this could be written as y = 2x ă [x]

 y = 2{x}
for this we will draw y = ax with a > 0
for {x} graph we will only check for the output between 0 and 1.

2
x
1 y= 2
1 [x]
2

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 5
To draw the graph of y = {f (x)} from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
Step 2 : Transfer the graph between the interval
y= 0& y= 1

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 61

Illustration 42
Plot the graph of the following :

(a) 
y  e x 1  (b) y = {2sinx}
Solution :

(a) given that y  e  

x1

1. {f (x)}  f (x)  y = exă1

2. xă 1  x  y = ex

3
2
1
(0, 1) eă1
applying

x transformation 2 1 x -1
y=e y=e

1 log2+1 log3+1

(b) y = {2sinx}
We know the graph of y = 2 sin x, as we have done that earlier also.

ă1
ă2

FUNCTIONS
 62 QUIZRR

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 5
y = f (x)  {y} = f (x)
To draw {y} = f (x). Draw the graph of y = f (x) then retain the graph of y = f (x) which lies between
y  [0, 1) and neglect the graph for other values. Also repeat this graph in the same interval for x,
but for all intervals y  [n, n + 1).

Illustration 43
Plot the graph of {y} = eăx
Solution :

(i)  y  e x 
y   y
y  e x

Y Y
4
y ă 4 = ex
3 y ă 3 = ex
1 y ă 2 = ex
2
X 1 y ă 1 = ex
0 X
0 y = ex
y+1= x
ă1 e
ă2 y + 2 = ex
ă3 y+3= x
e
Graph of y = ex
Graph of y = e x

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 6
x  f  y  x   f  y
To draw x = { f (y)}. Draw x = f (y). Draw vertical lines corresponding to integral values of x.
Transfer the graph between two consecutive vertical lines to the region lying between x = 0 & x = 1.
DonÊt include the points lying on x = 1.

Illustration 44
Plot (i) x = {2y}
x = {2y} x = 2y Y
Solution : f(y) = f{y} 6
Y 5
ă5 4
ă4 3
ă3
ă2 2
ă1 1 X
X 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 ă1
ă2
ă3
ă4
ă5
Graph of x = {2y}
Graph of x = 2y
Note : This transformation is not valid for drawing g (x) = {f (y)} from g (x) = f (y)
FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 63

T r a n s f o r m a t io n 1 7

y  f  x   y  sgn  f  x  

To Draw y = sgn (f (x)). Draw y = f (x). Then draw y = 1 for which f (x) > 0 and y = ă 1 for which
f (x) < 0 and y = 0 for which f (x) = 0.

Illustration 45
Plot the graph of y = sgn (log x)
Solution :

y  sgn  log x   y  log x

y   y

Y Y

X X
O 1 O 1
ă1

Graph of y = logex Graph of y = sgn (logx)

COM POSI T E FU N CT I ON S
Let us consider two functions, f : X  Y1 and g : Y1  Y. We define function h : X  Y such that
h (x) = g(f(x)). To obtain h(x), we first take the f-image of an element x X so that f (x)  Y1, which
is the domain of g (x). Then take g-image of f(x), i.e. g(f(x) i.e. g (f(x)) which would be an element of
Y. The adjacent figure clearly shows the steps to be taken.

f g

x f(x) g(f(x))

X Y1 Y
h = gof

The function ÂhÊ defined above is called the composition of f and g and is denoted by gof.
Thus (gof)x = g(f(x). Clearly Domain (gof) = {x : x Domain (f), f(x)  Domain (g)} Similarly we
can define, (fog)x = f (g(x)) and Domain (fog) = {x : x  Domain (g), g (x) Domain (f)}. In general
fog  g of.

FUNCTIONS
 64 QUIZRR

Ex p l a n a t i o n :
(i) To understand the concept of complete function consider fog (x) :

x g(x) fog(x)
g f
Ist IInd

in the above diagram for Ist block ÂxÊ is the independent variable and corresponding g(x) is
the dependent variable. But for IIrd block f (x) i.e. the dependent variable of Ist block is
independent variable of the IInd block and corresponding fog (x) is the dependent variable
of IInd block.

x f(x) fof(x)
(ii) fof(x) is f f
Ist IInd

x f(x) g gof(x)
(iii) gof(x) is f
Ist IInd

x g(x) g gog(x)
(iv) gog(x) is g
Ist IInd

Ge n e r a l s t e p s f o r d e t e rm i n i n g c o m p o s i t e f u n c t i o n s
Step 1 : Find critical points
(a) Draw graph of first block.
(b) Draw y = k (horizontal lines)
k critical pt(s) for second block
(c) Make pt(s) of intersection & find corresponding values of x.
(d) Critical pt(s) of first block & values obtained in c are critical pt(s) of composite
function.
Step 2 : Divide interval about critical point.
Step 3 : In each and every interval find appropriate definition of the function.

Illustration 46
Consider the function as defined as under

1  x , 0  x  2
f x  
3  x ; 2  x  3

Evaluate f [f (x)]

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 65

Solution :
Here we have to evaluate fof (x)

x f(x) fof
f f

According to the rules that we have mentioned above,

Step 1 : It says draw the graph of first block.
i.e. f (x)

1  x ; 0  x  2 3
we know f  x   
3  x ; 2  x  3 2

1 2 3

(b) Now we have to y = k where k  critical points of the above function which is 2 in this
question.
 draw y = 2 line & find the point of intersection, which comes out to be 1

2 y=2

1 2 3

(c) now the critical point found will be the critical point of the composite function. Also the critical
point of first block will add to the critical points of composite function.
Step 2 : For composite function; now
the interval will be divided as follows
0  f (x)  2 & y
2 < f (x)  3
3
& now seeing for values, for these values. 3ăf(x)
2

1 1+f(x)

x
1 2 3

FUNCTIONS
 66 QUIZRR

Step 3 : Now finding appropriate values for their intervals

1  f  x  0  x  1 
 
f  f  x   3  f  x 1  x  2 
 
1  f  x  2  x  3 

as can be seen in the above graph.

Now put values of f (x) corresponding to the interval of x.

1  1  x 0  x  1 
 
fof  3  1  x  1  x  2 
 
1   3  x  2  x  3 

2  x 0  x  1 
 
fof   2  x 1  x  2 

4  x 2  x  3
 

Illustration 47
Evaluate and draw the graph of following functions :
(a) f (x) = sină1 (sin x) (b) f (x) = sin (sină1 x)
Solution :
(a) f (x) = sină1 (sin x)
This can be considered a composite function with f (g (x)) as sină1 (sin (x))
It is clear that Df R, since sin x is valid for all values of x & it value ranges from ă 1 to + 1 which
satisfies sină1 function also.

 3
We know the graph of y = sin x from we get critical points as , ...  2n  1   (We will cover
2 2 2

critical points later also).

3
2

2
2

For now you can say that in such curves the points on which the tangent is parallel to x-axis are
the critical points.

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 67


for 0  x  sină1 (sin x) = x
2

 3
for  x  sină1 (sin x) =  ă x
2 2

Now this is important to understand this point, whenever we use inverse functions we represent
them in their principal value branch.

     3 
& sină1 x principal value branch is   ,  so for value between  ,  we have to convert
 2 2 2 2 

them into principal values, which we do by subtracting it from .

3 5
So similarly for interval x , we will subtract them by 2 and so on.
2 2
So the final graph becomes

y=x
  
x ;   x
2 2
 3 2 5
 3
 sin x    x
2
f  x   sin 1 2 2 2
;  x
 2 2
y=xă2
 3 5 y= –x
 x  2 ;  x
 2 2

(b) f (x) = sin (sină1 x)

first of all we will find the domain of the function for sină1 x, x can only take values
between ă 1 & 1
 Df  [ă 1, 1]
 
& since values between ă 1 & 1 lie between & (i.e. the principal value branch)
2 2
sin (sină1 x) = x
y
 f (x) = sin (sină1 x) = x; ă 1  x  1

ă1
x
1

ă1

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68 QUIZRR

Illustration 48
Draw the following graphs :
(a) y = tană1 (tan x)
(b) y = sec (secă1 x)
Solution :
(a) given y = tană1 (tan x)
Again here, first of all we will try to find out the domain of the function
We know tană1 x will be valid for all x  R


& tan x returns real values for x  R ă (2n + 1)
2

 D f  R   2n  1
2
& Range will be according to the outer function which is tană1 here

   
 Rf   , 
 2 2
We know the graph of y = tan x

Which is discontinuous at x   2n  1  
2

so  2n  1  for n = 0, 1, 2 ...
2
0 3
become its critical points. 2 2

 
so for  x tană1 (tan x) = x
2 2

 3
& for  x tană1 (tan x) = x ă 
2 2

   
again according to principal value branch which  ,  for tană1 x.
 2 2
Y

  3   2
x   2
 x
2 
 
  
 y  tan 1  tan x   x
  x  3 3
X
 2 2  2
2 2 2
  3 
x    x
2  2
 2

Note :  2n  1  points are not included as they are not part of domain.
2

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 69

(b) y = sec (secă1 x)

we know the graph of secă1 x
Df  (ă , ă 1]  [1, )

2

Rf  [0, ] ă  
2 
y = sec x
and for this range the sec function is also valid.
 Df  (ă , ă 1]  [1, )
& Rf  (ă , ă 1]  [1, ) (as equal to the range of normal sec x function)
 y = sec (secă1 x) = x (for the given domain)
Note : The funda of principal value branch comes only when the outer function is an inverse
function because it is the property of inverse functions only.
So, drawing the graph now

ă1
1

ă1

Illustration 49
Draw the following graphs :

 2x   1  x2 
y  sin 1  y  cos 1 
(a)  1  x 2  (b)  1  x 2 
   

1  2 x 
Solution : (a) given, y  sin  
2
1  x 

   
These kind of problems are solved by substitution by putting x = tan  &    ,  the principal
 2 2
branch value for tan

1  2 tan    2 tan  
we get sin  2 
 sin ce  sin 2 
 1  tan    1  tan2  
= sină1 (sin 2)

FUNCTIONS
70 QUIZRR

So, now the function becomes

y = sină1 (sin 2)
2

  3  
 x   2
 x
2 
 
   
but we know the graph of sină1 (sin x) i.e. y   x  x  replacing x by 2
 2 2 
  3 
  x  x
2 
 2

replacing x by 2

  3  
  2   ;
2
 2 
2 
 
   
y  2 ;  2  
 2 2 
  3 
   2 ;  2 
2 
 2

  3  
  2   ;
4

4 
 
 y  2 ;  /4    /4 
  3 
   2 ;  
 4 4 

and we substitute x = tan 

   
           = tană1 x & also    , 
 2 2
replacing the value of  in above values

 1   
  2 tan x   ;   tan 1 x 
2 4 
 
   
 y  2 tan 1 x ;   tan 1 x  
 4 4 
 1   
   2 tan x ;  tan1 x 
 4 2 

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 71

 1     
 2 tan x   ; tan     x  tan    
  2  4 
      
 y  2 tan 1 x ; tan    x  tan   
  4  4 
    
   2 tan 1 x ; tan  x  tan   
 4  2  

  2 tan 1 x   ;    x   1
 
 y  2 tan 1 x ; 1  x1 
 
  2 tan 1 x ; 1 x 
 

Now we will draw the graph of the final function we know the graph of tană1 x, so drawing the
final graph from it.

2
y = tană1x y = ă2tană1x

so the final graph is


2

ă1
0 1
ă
2

FUNCTIONS
72 QUIZRR

 1  x2 
y  cos 1 
(b)  1  x2 
 

here putting x = tan 

   
&    ,  {make a rule to write down constraint as they come
 2 2

1  tan2 
 cos 2
1  tan 2 

 y = cosă1 (cos 2) 2

 x ,    x  0
y  cos1  cos x    2
x , 0 x 

for those who do not know this graph, try to solve it on your own.

 2 ;    2  0
 y  cos1  cos  2    
2 ; 0  2  

  
  2 ;
2
   0

y  
  2  
; 0
 2 

replacing  by tană1 x

 1  
 2 tan x ;   tan 1 x  0 
2 
  
 2 tan 1 x ; 
0  tan 1 x  
 2 

  2 tan 1 x ;    x  0 
y ă2tană1x 2tană1x
 1

 2 tan x ; 0  x   
O
 Final graph is

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 73

Note :

Ć If f (x) & g (x) are even  fog is an even function.

Ć If f (x) & g (x) are odd  fog is an odd function.

Ć If f (x) is even & g (x) is odd  fog is an even function.

Ć If f (x) is odd & g (x) is even  fog is an even function.

M APPIN G
Definition : Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. A subset f of X ï Y is called a function from X
t o Y iff t o each x  X, there exists a unique y in Y such that (x, y)  f.
The other terms used for functions are „mappings‰, transformations‰ and „operators‰. We denote
this mapping by

f
f : X  Y or X  Y
It follows from the above definition that a relation X to Y is a function from X to Y iff
(i) to each x  X there exists a y  Y such that (x, y)  f,
(ii) (x, y1)  f and (x, y2)  f   y1 = y2.
The condition (i) ensures that to each x in X, f associates an element y in Y and condition (ii)
guarantees that y is unique.
We call X, the domain of f and Y the co-domain of f. The unique element y in Y assigned to x 
X is called the image of x under f or the value of f at x and is denoted by f (x). Also x is called a pre-
image (or inverse image) of y. Note that there may be more than one pre-images of y. The graph
of f is the subset of X ï Y defined by {(x, f (x)) : x X} The range of f is the set of all images under
f and is denoted by f [X]. Thus
f [X] = {y  Y : y = f (x) for some x  X}
= {f (x) : x  X}.
If A  X, then the set {f (x) : x  A} is called the image of A under f and is denoted by f [A].
If B Y; then the set {x  X : f (x)  B} is called the inverse image of B under f and is denoted by
fă1 [B].

M a n y -o n e , o n e -o n e o n t o a n d i n t o m a p p i n g s .
Let f : X  Y.
The mapping f is said to be many-one iff two or more different elements in X have the same f-
image in Y. The mapping f is said to be one-one iff different elements in X have different f-images
in Y i.e. if x1  x2  f (x1)  f (x2) or equivalently, f (x1) = f (x2)  x1 = x2. One-one mappings are also
called injection. The mapping f is said to be into if there is at least one element in Y which is not
the f-image of any element in X. Note that in this case the range of f is a proper subset of Y, that is

FUNCTIONS
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f [X]  Y and f [X]  Y. The mapping f is said to be onto if every element in Y is the f-image of at
least one element in X. In this case, the range of f is euqal to Y, that is f [X] = Y. Onto mapping are
also called surjection. One-one and onto mappings are called bijection.

I l lu s t ra t i o n a n d i n t ro d u c t io n o f w o rd s , ‘o n e -o n e ’, ‘m a n y o n e ’ ‘o n t o a n d i n t o ’.
Let A be the set of books in a Library and B be the set of certain natural numbers. Let a, b, c,
d, .... denote different books and let 240, 320, 108, 50 etc. denote some elements of the set B which
correspond to the number of pages in the books.
Now choose f to be the correspondence which assigns to each book the number of pages contained
in it ie. f : A  B.
The following points should be clearly understood.
1. Each book A is associated to some number B (ie. the number of pages in that book). This
number will be the image of the corresponding book.
2. Two or more books may be associated to the same number B (i.e. Two or more of books may
have the same number of pages).
In this case it will be termed as many one function or mapping as two or more elements
A will have the same image B or an element B will have more than one pre-image in A.
3. No book can be associated to different elements of B, i.e. the same book cannot have different
number of pages in it i.e. each book is associated to a unique number  B i.e. the image of
each and every book is unique.
4. If all the books A are associated to different numbers B i.e. all the books have different
number of pages i.e. all the elements of A have different f images in B or an element of B
has only one pre-image in A then this mapping is said to be one-one mapping.
5. There may be certain numbers in B which do not represent the number of pages of any of
the books A then the mapping is said to be into mapping i.e. f is a mapping of A into B.
In other words there is at least one element B which is not the image of any element A
then f is a mapping from A into B. In this case the set of images i.e. range of f is a subset
of B.
6. Now suppose each number  B represents the number of pages of at least one book  to A
then the mapping f is said to be onto mapping i.e. f : A ÂontoÊ B. In this case each and every
element of set B is the image of at least one element in A. The set B i.e. co-domain is
completely covered by the f images of the domain A and consequently f (A) i.e. the set of
images = B.
7. Many-one onto mapping. When two or more
A B
books  A have the same number of pages i.e.
a 240
the same image  B (i.e. many-one) and also
b
each and every number  B represent the 320
c
number of pages of at least one book (i.e. onto)
d 108
then f : A  B is a many-one onto mapping.

FUNCTIONS
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8. Many-one into mapping. When two or more books A have the same number of pages i.e.
the same image B (i.e. many-one) and there are certain numbers B which do not represent
the number of pages of any of the books  A i.e. (into) then f : A  B is a many-one into
mapping.
A B
a 240
b 320
c 108
d 50
70

9. One-one into mapping. When all the books  A are having different number of pages i.e.
they are associated to different numbers  B (one-one) and there are certain numbers  B
which do not represent the number of pages of any of the books  A i.e. (into) then f :
A  B is a one-one into mapping.

A B
a 240
b 320
108
c 50
d 90
70

10. One-one onto mapping. When all the books  A are having different number of pages i.e.
they are associated to diferent numbers B (one-one) and there is no number B which does
not represent the number of pages of a book A i.e. each and every number B represents
the number of pages of a certain book A (onto) then f : A  B is a one-one onto mapping.
This is also called Bijection.

A B
a 240
b 320
c 108
d 60

H o w t o De c i d e T h a t a Re l a t io n i s a m a p p i n g ?
(1) Draw graph of y = f (x)
(2) Draw vertical lines in domain
(3) Make pt(s) of intersection b/w vertical lines and graph.

FUNCTIONS
 76 QUIZRR

(4) If every vertical line has exactly one pt. of intersection then f (x) is a mapping.
e.g. y = log x (R  R)
not a mapping.

Type of Mappings :
(1) Injective mapping = one-one mapping ă Non- (many-one mapping).
(2) Surjective mapping = onto mapping ă Non (into mapping).
(3) Bijective mapping = inverse mapping (invertible)

I n j e c t iv e M a p p i n g :
Every element in co-domain should have at most one pre-image.
Checking injective mapping :
(1) By inspection
eg. y = x2 = 1, y = 0 at x =  1
non-injective (many one mapping)
(2) Graphical Approach :
Steps : (i) Draw graph of f (x) in domain and co-domain.
(ii) Draw horizontal lines in co-domain.
(iii) Mark pts. of intersection b/w graph.
(iv) If every horizontal line has atmost one pt. of intersection (0 or 1) with the graph then
mapping is injetive or else many one mapping.

  
eg. y = tan x  2, 2  R y = x2
 

one-one
many-one

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 77

(3) Derivative method. (for continuous functions)

If f (x) has no pt. of (l max. or l-min) in domain i.e. either increasing/decreasing in domain then
mapping is injective (one-one).
eg. y = log (log x) [1, )  R

dy 1 1
 is > 0 for x  (1, ) one-one mapping (increasing function)
dx log x x

e.g y = log (log (logx) (e, )  R

dy 1 1 1
  x  (e, )
dx log  log x  log x x > 0

Su r je c t iv e M a p p i n g :
Every element is co-domain is a paired element or every element in co-domain has at least one pre
image.
or (codomain = Range)

B i j e c t io n M a p p i n g :
For bijection, function has to be both injective and surjective

Met hod t o find no. of m appings

(1) Number of one-one mappings
If A & B are 2 finite sets having m & n elements
respectively then, the number of one-one functions from x1 f y1
A to B areă y2
There are m elements in set A & n in set B. For
one-one mapping to occur n  m
Now, x1 can take n images
x2 can take (n ă 1) images, removing the xm yn
one used by x1 already.
Similarly x3 A B

xn can take (n ă m + 1) images

 Total number of mappings = n ï (n ă 1) (n ă 2) ..... (n ă m + 1)
= nPm

 n Pm ; if n  m
Mapping possible 
 0 ; if n  m

FUNCTIONS
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2. Number of onto functions

For this case you can just remember the formula or see a simple example given in your package.
For surjection from A to B, where A contains m and B contains n elements

n
n r n m
The formula is    1 Cr  r 
r 1

3. Number of bijection mappings

For a mapping to be bijective, it must be both,
one-one & onto.
i.e. both sets should have same number of elements
 x1 can take (n) images x1 f y1
x2 can ...... (n ă 1) images x2 y2

xn can take 1 image

 Total number of mappings
= n (n ă 1) (n ă 2) ... 1
xn yn
= n!

A B

Illustration 50
Let A = {x : ă 1  x  1} = B be a mapping f : A  B. For each of the following functions
from A to B, find whether it is surjective or bijective.
(a) f (x) = |x| (b) f (x) = |x| (c) f (x) = x 3

x
(d) f (x) = [x] (e) f  x   sin
2

Solution :
(a) f (x) = |x|
Graphically;
Which shows many one, as the straight line is parallel to x-axis and Y
cuts at two points. Here range for f (x)  [0, 1]
Which is clearly subset of co-domain.
i.e. [0, 1]  [ă 1, 1]
Thus, into
Hence, function is many-one-into. X
ă1 O 1
 neither injective nor surjective.

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 79

(b) f(x) = x |x|, Y

Graphically, 1
The graph shows f (x) is one-one,
as the straight line parallel to x-axis cuts only at one point. X
ă1 O 1
Here, range
f(x)  [ă 1, 1]
Thus, range = co-domain ă1

Hence, onto.
Therefore, f(x) is one-one onto or (bijective).

(c) f(x) = x3, Y

Graphically; 1
Graph shows f(x) is one-one onto
(i.e. bijective). X
ă1 O 1
[as explained in above example].

ă1

(d) f(x) = [x], Y

2
Graphically;
which shows f(x) is many-one, as the straight line 1

parallel to x-axis meets at more than one point. ă2 ă1

X
O 1 3
Here, range ă1
f(x)  {ă 1, 0, 1}
ă2
which shows into as range co-domain.
Hence, many-one-into.

x
(e) f  x   sin Y
2
1
Graphically,
which shows f(x) is one-one and onto as range.
ă1
= co-domain. X
O 1
Therefore, f(x) is bijective.

ă1

FUNCTIONS
 80 QUIZRR

Illustration 51
Find number of surjections from A to B where
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a , b} [IIT 2000]
Solution :
Number of surjection from A to B

2
2 r 2
   1 Cr  r 
4
=
r 1

= (ă 1)2 ă 1 2
C1 (1)4 + (ă 1)2ă 2 2
C2(2)4
= ă 2 + 16
= 14
Therefore, number of onto mapping from A to B = 14.
Alter : Total number of mapping from A to B is 24 of which two function f(x) = a for all x  A
and g(x) = b for all x  A are not surjective.
Thus, total number of surjection from A to B = 24 ă 2
= 14

I N V ERSE OF FU N CT I ON
Let f : A  B be a one-one and onto function then there exists a unique function.

A B B A
f f ă1
1 2 2 1

2 4 4 2

3 6 6 3

4 8 8 4

g : B  A such that f (x) = y  g (y) = x,  x  A and y  B.

Then g is said to be inverse of f.
Thus, g = fă1 : B  A = {(f(x), x)] (x, f(x))  f}
Let us consider one-one function with domain A and range B.
Where A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and f : A  B is given by f(x) = 2x, then write f
and fă1 as a set of ordered pairs.
Here, member y  B arises from one and only one member x  A.

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 81

So, f = {(1, 2,) (2, 4) (3, 6) (4, 8)}

and f ă1 = {(2, 1) (4, 2) (6, 3) (8, 4)}
Note in above function
Domain of f = {1, 2, 3, 4} = range of fă1
Range of f = (2, 4, 6, 8} = domain of fă1.
Which represents for a function to have its inverse it must be one-one onto or (bijective).

M e t h o d t o f i n d I n v e r se
Ć First of all we have to check whether the function is bijective, i.e. one-one & onto both, or not.
Ć If the function is bijective, then for y = f(x) get
1. x = f(y)
2. put x as fă1(y) {as y = f(x)  fă1(y) = x}
3. replace y by x on right hand side
This is your inverse function
We can also use the following formula for finding the inverse.
f [fă1 (x)] = x

Illustration 52

1
If f : [1, )  [2, ) is given by f  x   x  then find f ă1(x). (assume bijective).
x
Solution :
Let y = f(x)

x2  1
 y =  x2 ă xy + 1 = 0
x

y y2  4
 x =
2

y y2  4
 fă1(y) = {as f(x) = y  x = fă1(y)}
2

x y2  4
 fă1(x) =
2

Since, range of inverse function is [1, ), therefore, neglecting negative sign, we have,

x x2  4
f 1  x  
2
FUNCTIONS
 82 QUIZRR

Illustration 53

e x  e x
Let f : R  R be defined by f  x   . Is f(x) invertible? If so, find its inverse.
2

Solution : Let us check for invertibility of f(x) :

ex  e x
(a) One-one : Here, f   x  
2

e2 x  1
 f   x  which is strictly increasing as e2x > 0 for all x.
2ex

Thus, one-one.
(b) Onto : Let y = f(x)

ex  e x
 y where y is strictly monotonic.
2

Hence, range of f(x) = (f(ă ), f ())

 range of f(x) = (ă  )
So, range of f(x) = co-domain.
Hence, f(x) is one-one and onto.

e2 x  1
(c) To find f ă1 : y
2ex

2 y  4 y2  4
 e2x ă 2exy ă 1 = 0  ex 
2

 
x  log y  y2  1 
 fă1(y) = log y y2  1  [as f(x) = y  x = fă1(y)]

Since, ef ă1(x) is always positive.

So, neglecting negative sign.

Hene, 
f 1  x   log x  x2  1 
FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 83

Illustration 54
Let f : [1/2, )  [3/4, ), where f(x) = x 2 ă x + 1. Find the inverse of f(x).

1 3
Hence, solve the equation x 2 ă x + 1 =  x
2 4

Solution :
(a) f(x) = x2 ă x + 1

2
 1 3
 f  x   x    which is clearly one-one and onto in given domain and co-domain.
 2 4

(b) Thus, its inverse can be obtained.

let f(x) = y

2
 1 3
 y= x  2  4
 

1 3
 x =  y
2 4

1 3
 x=  y [f(x) = y  x = fă1 (y)]
2 4

1 3
 fă1(y) =  y [neglecting ă ve sign as always + ve.]
2 4

1 3
 fă1(x) =  x
2 4

1 3
(c) To solve : x2 ă x + 1 =  x , as f(x) = fă1(x) has only one solution.
2 4

i.e. f(x) = x
2
 x ă x+ 1=x
 x2 ă 2x + 1 = 0  (x ă 1)2 = 0
x = 1 is the required solution.

FUNCTIONS
 84 QUIZRR

Properties of inverse of a function

1. The inverse of bijection is unique.
2. The inverse of bijection is also bijection.
3. If f : A  B is bijection and g : B  A is inverse of f.
Then fog = IB and gof = IA.
where, IA and IB are identity functions on the sets A and B respectively.
4. If f : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections, then gof : A  C is bijection and (gof)ă1 =
(f ă1 og ă1).
5. fog  gof but if, fog = gof then either fă1 = g or gă1 = f also.
(fog) (x) = (gof) (x) = (x).

Illustration 55

1
Let g (x) be the inverse of f(x) and f '  x   . Then find g´(x) in terms of g(x).
1  x3
Solution : We know, if g(x) is inverse of f(x)
 g{f(x) = (x)

 g '( f ( x)), f '( x) = 1

1 3
 g '{ f ( x)} = f ' x  1  x
 
 g '{ f ( g ( x))} = 1 + (g(x))3

 g '( x) = 1 + (g(x))3 [ f(g(x)) = x]

SOM E SPECIA L T Y PE OF QU EST ION S

(I) Finding the number of solutions using graph

Illustration 56
Find the number of solutions of :
7|x| (|5 ă |x|) = 1
Solution :
In such type of questions we try to find the number of intersections of 2 curves.
We can write the equation as
(|5 ă |x||) = 7ă|x|
We did this to get 2 curves. Now we will draw LHS & RHS separately.

FUNCTIONS
 QUIZRR 85

for y = |5 ă |x||
using transformations 1. |x|  (x)
2. |f(x) | f(x)
y=5ăx

(0, 5) (0, 5)

(5, 0)
(ă5, 0) (ă5, 0) (5, 0)

y = ă|x| y = 5 ă|x| (A)

now drawing y = 7ă|x|

x
1
using y  & using |x|  x
7

& we know that for ax, 0 < a < 1 the graph is

|x|  x
(0,1)

y = 7 ă|x|
(B)

Combining both graphs (A) & (B)

(0, 5)

(0, 1)

(ă5, 0) (5, 0)

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 86 QUIZRR

Points of intersection = 4
 No. of solutions of the equation = 4
You can see how easy a question becomes if u are comfortable with graphs, solving this question
algebraically could have been a bit confusing.

(II) To find the curve of f(x) = max. {g(x), h(x)....}

In this type we draw the curves of all functions like g(x), h(x) ... and then we choose the part of the
curve which is at top (has max value of y) with respect to all other curves in that region.

Illustration 57
Find the function/curve of f(x) = max. {x 2, (1 ă x)2, 2x (1 ă x)}
Solution :
First we will draw the graphs of each of the function x2, (1 ă x)2, 2x (1 ă x)
for y = x2

(0,0)

y = (1 ă x)2
= (x ă 1)2

(0,1)

(1, 0)

(0,0)

y = 2x (1 ă x)
= ă 2x2 + 2x

(0,0) (1, 0)

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 QUIZRR 87

Now we will combine all the curves in one curve

y = x2
y = (1ăx) 2

Now mark the points which are above other curves

y = x2 y = (1ăx) 2

(A)

(0,0) (1,0)
(B)
y = 2x (1ăx)

We just now have to find the intersection points (A) & (B) for (A) its between
curves y = 2x (1 ă x) & y = x2
equating 2x (1 ă x) = x2
as we know the other point, i.e. x = 0
2 ă 2x = x
 x = 2/3 ... (i)
for B its between y = (1 ă x)2 & y = 2x (1 ă x)
cancelling (1 ă x) from both sides
1 ăx = 2x

1
 x = ... (ii)
3

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 88 QUIZRR

 The required function becomes

 1
1  x 
2
 x
3
 
 1 2 
f  x   2 x  1  x  x 
 3 3 
 2 2 
x  x 
 3 

(III) Function as Series :

In this type, the function is given in the form of a series i.e. it is dependent on the values previous
to it. Or some such relation is given to you.
Let us solve some questions to understand the concept.

Illustration 58
Let f be a function satisfying f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) for all x, y  R. If f (1) = k then find f (n).

Solution :

We are given the value of f (1) = i.e. f (1) = k

& f (x + y) = f(x) + f(y) ... (i)

& we have to find f(n)

putting x = 1 & y = 1 in (i)

f(2) = f(1) + f(1) = 2f(1) = 2k

f(3) = f(2) + f(1) = 2k + k = 3k

f(4) = f(3) + f(1) = 3k + k = 4k

f(n) = f(n ă 1) + f(1) = (n ă 1) k + k = nk

f(n) = nk

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 QUIZRR 89

T RI CK Y ON E

Illustration 59

 1 
If a f  x  1  bf  x  1   x , x  ă 1, a  b then find the value of f(2).
 

Solution :

Given af  x  1   bf  1   x
 
 x  1

rewriting it

 1 
af  x  1   b     x  1  1 ... (i)
 x  1

1
replacing (x + 1) by
x1

 1   1 
 af    bf  x  1    1 ... (ii)
 x  1  x  1

now doing a (i) ă b (ii), we get

a 2
  b 
 b2 f  x  1  a  x  1     b  a 
 x  1

putting x = 1 to get f (2)

b
(a2 ă b2) f (2) = 2a ă  b  a 
2

b
= a
2

2a  b
f  2 
 
2 a2  b2 

FUNCTIONS