Jaipur Engineering College & Research Centre

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Disaster Management
Unit-III
By: Mr. Ankur Gangwar
Mr. Bhoopesh Kumawat
Mr. Naresh Kumar
(Assistant Professors, JECRC) 1
 UNIT-III
Disaster Management
Objectives
 Explain the meaning of the words natural „Hazard‟ and
„Disaster‟.
 Differentiate between hazard and disaster
 Recognize and describe some disaster-prone areas from
each physical division of India.
 Describe some adverse effects of natural disasters.
 Example of some other Naturological disasters.
 Suggest measures to mitigate or reduce the problems and
sufferings arising before, during or after the disaster.

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 NATURAL DISASTERS
A natural disaster is a sudden event that causes
widespread destruction, major collateral damage or loss of
life, brought about by forces other than the acts of human
beings. A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes,
flooding, volcanic eruption, landslide, hurricanes etc.

There are so many natural disaster which can not be

controlled by human intervention. Human intervention in
natural process is believed to be the major reason behind
the occurrence of natural disasters and also resulting in
considerable increase in frequency and power of
destruction.
Man can only save Man

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 Facts and Statistics
 According to UN statistics, natural disasters kill 1,00,000
persons on an average and cause property damage of Rs
20,000 corers world wide per year.
 Among the top ten natural disaster-prone countries, India
stands second after China.
 Over the past decade, over 300 natural disasters occur yearly
around the world affecting millions and cost billions.
 In recent years, there have been a series of major natural
disasters including earthquakes in Haiti (2010), Japan (2011)
and Nepal (2015).
 tsunami in Indian Ocean (2004), Japan (2011) and Nepal
(2015).
 Floods in Pakistan (2013 and 2010) and India (2013).
 Hurricanes in the United States (2005 and 2012) and
typhoons in Philippines (2011 and 2013).
Hydrometeorology
 NATURAL DISASTERS
1. FLOOD
The inundation of an area by water is called a flood. In other
words, when a river over flows its banks and water spreads in the
surrounding areas is a flood.

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 Causes of Flood
(i) Heavy Rainfall: Heavy rain in the catchment area of a river
causes water to over flow its banks, which results in the flooding
of nearby areas.
(ii) Sediment Deposition: River beds become shallow due to
sedimentation. The water carrying capacity of such river is
reduced. As a result the heavy rain water over flows the river
banks.
(iii) Deforestation: Vegetation hampers the flow of water and
forces it to percolate in the ground. As a result of deforestation,
the land becomes obstruction free and water flows with greater
speed into the rivers and causes flood.
(iv) Cyclone: Cyclone generated sea-waves of abnormal height
spreads the water in the adjoining coastal areas. In October 1994
Orissa cyclone generated severe floods and caused
unprecedented loss of life and property.
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 Causes of Flood
(v) Interference in Drainage System: Drainage congestion
caused by badly planned construction of bridges, roads, railway
tracks, canals etc. hampers the flow of water and the result is
flood.
(vi) Change in the Course of the River: Meanders and change
in the course of the river cause floods.
(vii) Tsunami: Large coastal areas are flooded by rising sea
water, when a tsunami strikes the coast.

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 Losses by Flood
 Humans and animals both are affected by flood. People
are rendered homeless. Houses are damaged or collapse.
Industries are crippled. Crops are submerged in flood
water. Domestic as well as wild animals die. Boats and
fishing nets etc. are lost or damaged in coastal areas. Out
break of epidemics like malaria and diarrhea etc. are
common after flood. Potable water is contaminated and
sometimes becomes scarce. Food grains are lost or
spoiled, their supplies from outside become difficult.
 The basins of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers are
the most flood prone areas.
 According to an estimate on an-average property worth
Rs. 210 Crores is lost in floods every year. Flood affects
about 6 Crores people and crops of one Crore hectare are
damaged.
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 Flood Control Measures
 Reservoirs: By constructing reservoirs in the courses of rivers
could stores extra water at the time of flood. Such measures
adopted till now however, have not been successful. Dams
built to control floods of Damodar could not control the flood.
 Embankments: By building flood protection embankments,
floods water can be controlled from overflowing the banks
and spreading in near by areas. Building of embankments on
Yamuna, near Delhi, has been successful in controlling the
flood.
 Afforestation: The furry of flood could be minimized by
planting trees in catchment areas of rivers.
 Restoration of original drainage system: Drainage system
is generally choked by the construction of roads, canals
railway tracks etc. Floods could be checked if the original form
of drainage system is restored.
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 Dos and Don‟ts
before, during and after the Flood

 Listen to the radio for advance information and advise.

 During forecast of flood, disconnect all electrical
appliances, move all valuable household goods and
clothing out of reach of flood water.
 Move vehicles, farm animals and moveable goods to the
higher ground.
 Prevent dangerous pollution, keep all insecticides,
pesticides etc. out of the reach of flood water.
 Do not enter flood water on foot or in a vehicle as far as
possible and never wander in the flooded area on your
own.
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 Tools to Measure Intensity of Flood
 Rain Gauges: Rain gauge acts like a measuring cup to measure the
amount of precipitation in a certain area. Using a rain gauge allows
meteorologists to know exactly how much rain has fallen, allowing
them to gauge exactly how much moisture is within the soil.
 Airborne LASER: Meteorologists scan targeted areas with lasers in
order to predict flash floods. The LiDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) laser scanner is secured to an aircraft. As the aircraft flies
over, the laser gathers information about the area below including
changes in the shoreline. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration and NASA are using the data to determine these
changes and predict possible flooding.
 Satellites: European Space Agency launched the Soil Moisture and
Salinity (SMOS) satellite. It measures moisture levels of the soil, rate of
plant growth and salt levels in the ocean over the entire planet. It sends
the gathered measurements back to Earth where scientists use the data
to predict possible flooding or extreme dry conditions. NASA is also
using the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) to measure
the amount of moisture within the Earth's soil.
 2. TSUNAMI
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu
meaning 'Harbor' and Nami meaning „Waves'.
Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually have
nothing to do with the tides.
These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by rapid
displacement of water from the lake or the sea either by seismic
activity, landslides, volcanic eruptions or large meteoroid impacts.
What ever the cause may be, the sea water is displaced with a
violent motion and swells up, ultimately surging over land with
great destructive power.
The effects of a tsunami can be unnoticeable or even destructive.

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 Causes of Tsunami
The geological movements that cause tsunamis are:
 Earthquake: Movements on the sea floor, accompanied by an
earth-quake. They release huge amount of energy and have
the capacity to cross oceans. The degree of movement
depends on how fast the earthquake occurs and how much
water is displaced.
 Landslides: The largest tsunami ever produced by a
landslide was in Lituya Bay, Alaska 1958. The massive rock
slide produced a wave that reached a high water mark of 50-
150 meters above the shoreline.
 Volcanic Activity: The flank (side) of a volcano located near
the shore or underwater may be uplifted or, the volcano may
actually explode. In 1883, the violent explosion of the famous
volcano, Krakotoa in Indonesia, produced tsunami
measuring 40 meters which crushed upon Java and Sumatra.
 Prediction of Tsunami
International Tsunami Warning Systems
The PTWC (Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre) is able to alert
countries several hours before the tsunami strikes. The warning
includes predicted arrival time at selected coastal communities
where the tsunami could travel in few hours. A tsunami watch is
issued with subsequent arrival time to other geographic areas.
Regional Warning Systems
In this system we use seismic data about nearby earthquakes to
determine if there is a possible local threat of a tsunami. Such
systems are capable enough to provide warnings to the general
public in less than 15 minutes.
Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami can be detected with the help of
radars. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, recorded data from four
radars and recorded the height of tsunami waves two hours after the
earthquake.
In future it is possible that the space-based observation might play a
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direct role in tsunami warning.
 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
 Tsunami walls
In Japan which is highly prone to this type of disaster, in order to
reduce the risk they built up walls of 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of
populated coastal areas.
 Flood gates and Channels
To redirect the water from incoming tsunamis.
 Site Planning and Land Management
Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet
of the coastline as these areas are more likely to experience
damage from tsunamis.
 Engineering structures
Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to
mean sea level

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 3. CYCLONE
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high
atmospheric pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance
accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction
in the Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the
Southern Hemisphere. They occur mainly in the tropical and
temperate regions of the world.
General Characteristics are:
1. Strong winds 2. Exceptional rain and 3. Storm surge
Cyclones are known by different names in different parts of the
world:
♦ Typhoons in Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline ♦
Hurricanes in North Atlantic Ocean. ♦ Tropical cyclones in
Southwest Pacific Ocean and Southeast Indian Ocean. ♦ Severe
cyclonic storm in North Indian Ocean ♦ Tropical cyclone in
Southwest Indian Ocean) ♦ Willie-Willie in Australia ♦ Tornado in
South America 18
 Cyclone Stages
Stage 1: Formation or Initial Development State
Four atmospheric/ oceanic conditions are necessary for the formation
of a cyclone namely:
 A Warm Sea, temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a
depth of 60 meters, which provides abundant water vapor in the air
by evaporation.
 High Relative Humid Water Vapour of the atmosphere to a height
of about 7000 meters, facilitates condensation of water vapor into
droplets and clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in
pressure.
 Atmospheric Instability (an above average decrease of
temperature with altitude) encourages considerable vertical
cumulus cloud convection when condensation of rising air occurs.
 A location of at least 4-5 Latitude degrees from Equator allow the
influence of the force due to the earth‟s rotation (Coriolis force) to
take effect in inducing cyclonic wind circulation around low
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pressure centers(degree to which the air is saturated).
 Cyclone Stages
Stage 2: Fully Matured
The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a spiral pattern
of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands. These bands
spiral inwards and form a dense highly active central cloud core
which raps around a relatively calm zone. This is called the “Eye” of
a cyclone. The eye looks like a black hole or a dot surrounded by
thick clouds. The outer circumference of the thick cloud is called the
„Eye Wall‟.

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 Cyclone Stages
Stage 3: Weakening or Decay
A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as its source of warm
moist air is abruptly cut off. This is possible when the cyclone hits
the land, Or the cyclone moves to a higher altitude or when there is
the interference of another low pressure.

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 Adverse Effects of Cyclone
Physical Damage: structures will be damaged or destroyed by the
wind force, flooding and storm surge. Light pitched roofs of most
structures especially the ones fitted on to industrial buildings will
suffer severe damage.
Casualties and Public Health: caused by flooding and flying
elements, contamination of water supplies may lead to viral
outbreaks, diarrhea, and malaria.
Water Supplies: Ground and pipe water supply may get
contaminated by flood waters.
Crops and Food Supplies: high winds and rains ruin the standing
crop and food stock lying in low lying areas. Plantation type crops
such as banana and coconut are extremely vulnerable. Salt from
the sea water may get deposited on the agricultural land and
increase the salinity. The loss of the crop may lead to acute food
shortage.
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 Adverse Effects of Cyclone
Communication: severe disruption in the communication links as
the wind may bring down the electricity and communication
towers, telephone poles, telephone lines, antennas and satellite
disk and broadcasting services. Transport lines (road and rail)
may be curtailed, Lack of proper communication affects effective
distribution of relief materials.

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 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
 Coastal-Belt Plantation: Green belt plantation along the coastal
line in a scientific interweaving pattern can reduce the effect of
the hazard.
 Hazard Mapping: Meteorological records of the wind speed and
the directions give the probability of the winds in the region.
Cyclones can be predicted several days in advance.
 Land-Use Control: Designed so that least critical activities are
placed in vulnerable areas.
 Engineered Structures: Structures need to be built to withstand
wind forces. Good site selection is also important. Buildings
should be wind and water resistant.
 River-Embankment Protection: Communication lines should be
installed underground. Provide strong halls for community
shelter in vulnerable locations.
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 4. DROUGHT
A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given
region, resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply,
whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water.
It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of
the affected region and harm to the local economy.
Diminished crop growth or yield productions and carrying capacity
for livestock.

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 Drought
• It is a Slow On-Set Disaster and it is difficult to demarcate the
time of its onset and the end.
• Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage of useful
water.
• Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. Climate is
expected to show some aberrations and drought is just a part
of it.
• Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain in time and
space, and not just by its amount.
• Drought is negative balance between precipitation and water
use (through evaporation, transpiration by plants, domestic
and industrial uses etc.) in a geographical region.

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 Causes of Drought
 Deficit rainfall, which is a meteorological phenomenon, it
manifests into different spheres because of various
vulnerability factors associated with them.
 Some of these factors are human induced.
 Though drought is a natural disaster, its effects are made
worst in developing countries by over population, over
grazing, deforestation, soil erosion, excessive use of ground
and surface water for growing crops, loss of biodiversity.

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 Facts about Water on Earth
 Approximately 80 per cent of earth‟s surface is covered with
water but only 1% of it is fresh water that we can use.
 About 2.7 per cent of the total water available on the earth is
fresh water of which about 75.2 per cent lies frozen in Polar
Regions and another 22.6 per cent is present as ground
water. The rest is available in lakes, rivers, atmosphere,
moisture, soil and vegetation. This 1% of water is now
threatened by pollution!
 Today, we have approximately the same amount of water as
when the Earth was formed. Earth will not get/generate any
more water.
 We are using up the fresh water faster than we are
recharging our groundwater.

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 Types of Droughts
Drought proceeds in sequential manner. Its impacts are spread
across different domains as listed below.
Meteorological drought
Meteorological drought is simple absence/deficit of rainfall
from the normal. It is the least severe form of drought and is
often identified by sunny days and hot weather.
Hydrological drought
Hydrological drought often leads to reduction of natural stream
flows or ground water levels, plus stored water supplies. The
main impact is on water resource systems

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 Types of Droughts
Agricultural drought
This form of drought occurs when moisture level in soil is
insufficient to maintain average crop yields. Initial
consequences are in the reduced seasonal output of crops and
other related production. An extreme agricultural drought can
lead to a famine, which is a prolonged shortage of food in a
restricted region causing widespread disease and death from
starvation.
Socio-economic drought
Socio-economic drought correlates the supply and demand of
goods and services with the three above-mentioned types of
drought. When the supply of some goods or services such as
water and electricity are weather dependent then drought may
cause shortages in supply of these economic goods.
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 Vulnerability Factors to Drought
 Low soil moisture holding capacity
 Absence of irrigation facilities
 Livestock without adequate fodder storage facilities
 Poor water management
 Deforestation
 Over grazing
 Water consuming cropping patterns
 Excessive ground water draft
 Soil erosion
 Population growth and urbanization
 Industrialization
 Global warming

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 Drought Measurement
 Measuring Drought: Elements at Risk In general, all those
elements that are primarily dependent on water are most
affected. It affects the rained crops and then slowly creeps into
the irrigated crops. People who are dependent on agriculture
and areas where the other livelihood opportunities are least
developed are greatly affected. The herdsman, landless
laborer, subsistence farmers, women, children and farm
animals are the most vulnerable groups.
 The following criteria have been set by the Indian
Meteorological Division (IMD) for identifying the drought.
 Onset of Drought: Deficiency of a particular year‟s rainfall
exceeding 25 per cent of normal.
 Moderate Drought: Deficit of rainfall between 26-50 per
cent of normal.
 Severe Drought: Deficit of rainfall more than 50 per cent of
normal. 32
 Adverse Effects of Drought
 Drought, different from any other natural disaster, does not
cause any structural damages.
 As the meteorological drought turns into hydrological
drought, the impacts start appearing first in agriculture which
is most dependent on the soil moisture.
 Irrigated areas are affected much later than the rain-fed areas.
However, regions surrounding perennial rivers tend to
continue normal life even when drought conditions are
prevailing around.
 The impacts slowly spread into social fabric as the availability
of drinking water diminishes, reduction in energy production,
ground water depletion, food shortage, health reduction and
loss of life, increased poverty, reduced quality of life and social
unrest leading to migration.

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 Facts on Drought in India
 Around 68 per cent of India‟s total area is drought prone to
drought.
 315 out of a total of 725 Talukas in 99 districts are drought
prone.
 50 million people are annually affected by drought. In 2001
more than eight states suffered the impact of severe drought.
 In 2003 most parts of Rajasthan experienced the fourth
consecutive year of drought.

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 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
 Public Awareness and Education: If the community is aware
of the do‟s and don‟ts, then half of the problem is solved.
This includes awareness on the availability of safe drinking
water, water conservation techniques, agricultural drought
management strategies like crop contingency plans,
construction of rain water harvesting structure. Awareness
can be generated by the print, electronic and folk media.
 Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of the
rainfall situation, availability of water in the reservoirs,
lakes, rivers etc. and comparing with the existing water
needs in various sectors of the society.
 Water supply augmentation and conservation through
rainwater harvesting in houses and farmers‟ fields increases
the content of water available. Water harvesting by either
allowing the runoff water from all the fields to a common …
35
 … point (e.g. Farm ponds, see the picture) or allowing it to
infiltrate into the soil where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g. contour
bunds, contour cultivation, raised bed planting etc.) helps
increase water availability for sustained agricultural
production.
 Expansion of irrigation facilities reduces the drought
vulnerability. Land use based on its capability helps in
optimum use of land and water and can avoid the undue
demand created due to their misuse.
 Livelihood planning identifies those livelihoods which are
least affected by the drought. Some of such livelihoods
include increased off-farm employment opportunities,
collection of non-timber forest produce from the community
forests, raising goats, carpentry etc.
 Drought planning: the basic goal of drought planning is to
improve the effectiveness of preparedness and response
efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation and response
measures. 36
 Planning would help in effective coordination among state
and national agencies in dealing with the drought.
 Components of drought plan include establishing drought
taskforce which is a team of specialists who can advise the
government in taking decision to deal with drought
situation, establishing coordination mechanism among
various agencies which deal with the droughts, providing
crop insurance schemes to the farmers to cope with the
drought related crop losses, and public awareness
generation.

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 5. LANDSLIDES
The term “Landslide” includes all varieties of mass movements of
hill slopes and can be defined as the downward and outward
movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks, soils,
artificial fills or combination of all these materials along surfaces
of separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either slowly or
quickly from one place to another.
Although the landslides are primarily associated with
mountainous terrains, these can also occur in areas where an
activity such as surface excavations for highways, buildings and
open pit mines takes place.

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 Causes of Landslide
 Geological Weak Material: Weakness in the composition and
structure of rock or soil may also cause landslides.
 Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of
vegetation, construction of roads might increase the
vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.
 Intense Rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for
periods as short as several hours or have a more moderate
intensity lasting several days have triggered abundant
landslides. Heavy melting of snow in the hilly terrains also
results in landslide.
 Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe,
draw down in reservoir, mining, deforestation, irrigation,
vibration/blast, Water leakage from services.

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 Causes of Landslide
 Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many
different topographic and geologic settings. Rock falls, soil
slides and rockslides from steep slopes involving relatively
thin or shallow dis-aggregated soils or rock, or both have
been the most abundant types of landslides triggered by
historical earthquakes.
 Volcanic Eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on
hillsides commonly is followed by accelerated erosion and
frequent mud or debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.

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 Types of Landslide
 Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become detached
from steep slopes or cliffs, moving by free-fall, bouncing, and
rolling.
 Flows: General term including many types of mass movement,
such as debris flow, debris avalanche, lahar, and mudflow.
 Creep: Slow, steady downslope movement of soil or rock, often
indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls,
tilted poles or fences.
 Debris-Flow Rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks,
and organic matter combine with entrained air and water to
form slurry that then flows down slope, usually associated with
steep gullies.

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 Types of Landslide
 Lateral Spreads Often occur on very gentle slopes and result in
nearly horizontal movement of earth materials. Lateral spreads
usually are caused by liquefaction, where saturated sediments
(usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a
liquefied state, usually triggered by an earthquake.
 Slides Many types of mass movement are included in the
general term “landslide.” The two major types of landslides are
rotational slides and translational landslides.

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 Adverse Effects of Landslides
 The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on
the steep slopes, built at the toe and those built at the mouth of
the streams emerging from the mountain valley.
 All those buildings constructed without appropriate
foundation for a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at risk.
 Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.

A Fact: One of the worst tragedies took place at Malpa

Uttarkhand (UP) on 11th and 17th August 1998 when nearly
380 people were killed when massive landslides washed away
the entire village. This included 60 pilgrims going to Lake
Mansarovar in Tibet.

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 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
 Hazard Mapping locates areas prone to slope failures. This
will help to avoid building settlements in such areas. These
maps will also serve as a tool for mitigation planning.
 Land-use Practices: Areas covered by degraded natural
vegetation in upper slopes are to be afforested with suitable
species. Any developmental activity initiated in the area
should be taken up only after a detailed study of the region
has been carried out.
 Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these
walls are commonly seen along roads in hill stations). These
are constructed to prevent smaller sized and secondary
landslides that often occur along the toe portion of the larger
landslides.

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 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
 Surface Drainage Control Works The surface drainage
control works are implemented to control the movement of
landslides accompanied by infiltration of rain water and
spring flows.
 Engineered Structures with strong foundations can withstand
or take the ground movement forces. Underground
installations (pipes, cables, etc.)
 Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are likely to be
damaged by landslides or by any other natural hazards

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 6. EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard.
They may occur at any time of the year, day or night, with sudden
impact and little warning.
It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust.
The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is hardly any
warning, making it impossible to predict.

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 Cause of Earthquake
The earth‟s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging
from a depth of about 10 kilometers under the sea to 65
kilometers under the continents. The crust is not one piece but
consists of portions called „Plates‟ which vary in size from a few
hundred to thousands of kilometers. The „Theory of Plate
Tectonics‟ holds that the plates ride up on the more mobile
mantle, and are driven by some yet unconfirmed mechanisms,
perhaps thermal convection currents. When these plates contact
each other, stress arises in the crust. These stresses can be
classified according to the type of movement along the plate‟s
boundaries:
 Pulling away from each other
 Pushing against one another
 Sliding sideways relative to each other.
All these movements are associated with Earthquakes.
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 How Earthquake Occurs

The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated

energy by slipping or rupturing are known as „Faults'. The theory
of „Elasticity' says that the crust is continuously stressed by the
movement of the tectonic plates; it eventually reaches a point of
maximum supportable strain. A rupture then occurs along the
fault and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the
strain is relieved. Contd. …
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 How Earthquake Occurs

… The fault rupture generates vibration called Seismic (from the

Greek „Seismos' meaning Shock or earthquake) Waves, which
radiates from the focus in all directions. The point of rupture is
called the „Focus' and may be located near the surface or deep
below it. The point on the surface directly above the focus is
termed as the 'epicenter' of the earthquake.

49
 More about Earthquakes
General characteristics Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety
of frequencies and velocities. The actual rupture process may last
for a few seconds to as long as one minute for a major
earthquake. The ground shaking is caused by „Body Waves‟ and
„Surface Waves‟.
Body waves (P and S waves) penetrate the body of the earth,
vibrating fast. „P‟ waves travel about 6 kilometers per hour and
„S‟ waves travel with a speed of 4 kilometers per hour.
Surface waves vibrate the ground horizontally and vertically.
These long period waves cause swaying of tall buildings and
slight waves motion in bodies of water even at great distances
from the epicenter.

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 Earthquake Types
Earthquakes can be of three types based on their Focal-Depth:
 Deep: 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface
 Medium: 60 to 300 kms
 Shallow: Less than 60 kms

The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the

time the waves reach the surface the impact reduces. Shallow
focus earthquakes are more common and are extremely
damaging because of their proximity to the surface.

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 Measuring Earthquakes
Earthquakes can be described by the use of two distinctively
different scales of measurement demonstrating Magnitude and
Intensity.
1. Magnitude Based
Earthquake magnitude or amount of energy released is
determined by the use of a „Seismograph‟ which is an
instrument that continuously records ground vibration.
The scale was developed by a seismologist named Charles
Richter.
An earthquake with a magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale
releases 30 times the energy than one with 6.5 magnitudes.
An earthquake of magnitude 3 is the smallest normally felt by
humans.
The largest earthquake that has been recorded with this system
is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile, 1960). 52
 Measuring Earthquakes
2. Intensity Based
The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale
measures the effects of an earthquake where it occurs.
The most widely used scale of this type was developed in 1902
by Mercalli an Italian seismologist. The scale was extended and
modified to suit the modern times.
It is called the Modified Mercalli Scale, which expresses the
intensity of earthquake effect on people, structure and the
earth‟s surface in values from I to XII.
With an intensity of VI and below most of the people can feel
the shake and there are cracks on the walls, but with an
intensity of XII there is general panic with buildings collapsing
totally and there is a total disruption in normal life.
Predictability: Although some scientists claim ability to predict
earthquakes, the methods are controversial. Accurate and exact
predictions of such sudden incidents are still not possible. 53
 Adverse Effects of Earthquake
 Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and
infrastructure, especially bridges, elevated roads, railways,
water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities.
 Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides
which may block water ways and also cause flooding.
 Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing
dangerous materials resulting in possible chemical spills.
 There may also be a break down of communication facilities.
 There is also a huge loss to the public health system, transport
and communication and water supply in the affected areas.
On a Note: The effect of an earthquake is diverse. There are large
number of casualties because of the poor engineering design of the
buildings and close proximity of the people. About 95 per cent of
the people who are killed or who are affected by the earthquake is
because of the building collapse. 54
 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
Community Preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for
mitigating earthquake impact. The most effective way to save
you even in a slightest shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.
Planning: Before the buildings are constructed the building
plans have to be checked by the Municipality, according to the
laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline buildings such as
hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with
earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be
upgraded by retrofitting techniques.
Public Education is educating the public on causes and
characteristics of an earthquake and preparedness measures. It
can be created through sensitization and training program for
community, architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers,
government functionaries teachers and students.

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 Possible Risk Reduction Measures
Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and
constructed as per the building by laws to withstand ground
shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need to be put
together to improve building design and construction practices.
The soil type needs to be analyzed before construction. Similar
problems persist in the buildings constructed on the river banks
which have alluvial soil

56