Practical Research Reviewer

Qualitative Research
1. Observation and types of Observation

- Explanation: Observation involves systematically watching and recording phenomena as they
occur in natural settings.
- Types:
- Participant Observation: The researcher actively engages in the observed group's activities.
- Non-participant Observation: Researcher observes without direct involvement in the
observed group's activities.
2. Interview Method and Kinds of Interview Method with examples and Types of Interviews
based on the Purpose of Interview and Approaches to Interview
- Explanation: The interview method involves direct communication between the researcher
and participants to gather information.
- Kinds:
- Structured Interviews: Questions are pre-determined and standardized.
Example: Surveys with fixed-choice questions.
- Semi-Structured Interviews: Blend of predetermined and open-ended questions.
Example: In-depth interviews exploring participant experiences.
- Unstructured Interviews: No predetermined questions, allowing for flexibility.
Example: Ethnographic interviews for deep cultural understanding.
- Types based on Purpose:
- Informational Interviews: Gather factual data.
- Diagnostic Interviews: Identify problems or issues.
- Therapeutic Interviews: Aim to support or counsel participants.
- Approaches:
- Positivist Approach: Emphasizes objectivity and standardization.
- Phenomenological Approach: Focuses on understanding lived experiences subjectively.
3. Focus Group Discussion and types of questions for FGD

- Explanation: Focus group discussions involve a small group of participants discussing a
specific topic guided by a moderator.
- Types of Questions:
- Icebreaker Questions: Warm-up questions to ease participants into the discussion.
- Exploratory Questions: Broad questions to initiate conversation.
- Specific Questions: Targeted queries to delve deeper into particular aspects.
- Probing Questions: Follow-up questions to elicit more detailed responses.
- Summary Questions: Wrap-up questions to consolidate discussion points.
4. Document Review Method/Content Analysis and Approaches to Content Analysis

- Explanation: Document review involves examining existing documents or texts to extract
relevant data.
- Approaches to Content Analysis:
- Quantitative Content Analysis: Systematic counting and categorization of content for
numerical analysis.
- Qualitative Content Analysis: In-depth interpretation of content to identify themes, patterns,
and meanings.
5. Audio, Visual, and Electronic (AVE) Materials

- Explanation: AVE materials refer to various forms of multimedia data sources.
- Audio: Recordings of interviews, focus groups, or natural sounds.
- Visual: Photographs, videos, or drawings capturing visual data.
- Electronic: Digital documents, emails, or online discussions.
Qualitative Research
1. Observation
- Explanation: Observation involves systematically watching and recording phenomena as they
occur in natural settings. Researchers can be participant or non-participant observers, depending
on their level of involvement in the observed group's activities.
2. Interview Method
- Explanation: The interview method involves direct communication between the researcher
and participants to gather information. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured, depending on the level of pre-determined questions. They can serve various
purposes such as gathering factual data, identifying issues, or providing support.
3. Content Analysis
- Explanation: Content analysis involves examining existing documents or texts to extract
relevant data. This approach can be quantitative, involving systematic counting and
categorization of content, or qualitative, focusing on interpreting themes, patterns, and meanings
within the content.
4. Survey
- Explanation: Surveys are a data collection method that involves asking a series of questions
to participants. Surveys can be conducted through various mediums such as paper-based forms,
online platforms, or telephone interviews. They are useful for gathering large amounts of
standardized data from a diverse population.
5. Experiment and types of experiments

- Explanation: Experiments involve manipulating variables to observe their effect on other
variables. Types of experiments include:
- True experiments: Participants are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups.
- Quasi-experiments: Lack of random assignment to groups due to practical or ethical
constraints.
- Natural experiments: Occur naturally in real-life settings without researcher manipulation.
6. Standardized Tests and all of its kinds

- Explanation: Standardized tests are assessments administered and scored consistently. They
include:
- Achievement tests: Measure knowledge or skills acquired in a specific domain.
- Aptitude tests: Assess innate abilities or potential for future performance.
- Intelligence tests: Measure cognitive abilities such as reasoning, memory, and problem-
solving.
- Personality tests: Evaluate individual traits, behaviors, and characteristics.
7. Pencil-and-paper Data Gathering Tools (Questionnaire, Rating Scale, & Checklist)

- Explanation: Pencil-and-paper data-gathering tools are traditional methods for collecting data.
They include:
- Questionnaires: A set of questions administered to participants to gather information on
various topics.
- Rating scales: Instruments used to assess the degree of agreement, frequency, or intensity of
responses.
- Checklists: Lists of items to be checked or marked as present or absent, completed by the
researcher or participants.
Pilot Study and Reliability Test

Pilot Study:
- The pilot study is a small-scale preliminary investigation conducted before the main study. It
helps researchers identify potential issues, refine research methods, and assess the feasibility of
the study design.
- Lessons:
- Purpose of a Pilot Study: Understand the research process, test procedures, and gather
feedback.
- Sample Size: Typically smaller than the main study, but sufficient to detect potential problems.
- Data Analysis: Preliminary analysis can provide insights into the effectiveness of data
collection instruments.
- Iterative Process: Findings from the pilot study may lead to adjustments in the research
design.
Understanding Reliability and Cronbach’s Alpha:

- Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurement tools. It indicates the extent to
which a measure produces consistent results over time and across different conditions.
- Cronbach’s Alpha is a statistical measure used to assess the internal consistency of a scale or set
of items. It quantifies how closely related a set of items are as a group.
- Lessons:
- Importance of Reliability: Ensures that the research instrument consistently measures what it
intends to measure.
- Cronbach’s Alpha Interpretation: Values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating
greater internal consistency.
- Reliability vs. Validity: Reliability assesses consistency, while validity evaluates the accuracy
of measurement.
Steps to Calculate Cronbach’s Alpha:

1. Decide on the items or questions to be included in the scale.
2. Administer the scale to a sample of participants.
3. Calculate the correlation coefficient between each pair of items.
4. Average the correlations to obtain an overall correlation for the scale.
5. Use the formula for Cronbach’s Alpha to compute the coefficient.
Determining the Number of Respondents for a Pilot Study:

- The sample size for a pilot study is typically smaller than for the main study.
- It should be sufficient to detect potential problems and provide meaningful feedback.
- Considerations include the research objectives, resources available, and feasibility of
recruitment.
Who Are the Respondents?

- Respondents are individuals or entities who participate in a research study by providing data or
information.
- They may belong to specific demographic groups, professions, or communities relevant to the
research topic.
- Examples of respondents:
- Patients in a medical study
- Students in an educational survey
- Employees in a workplace assessment
- Customers in a market research study
Examples of Respondents:
- Medical Research: Patients diagnosed with a specific condition.
- Educational Research: Teachers or students from a particular school or grade level.
- Business Research: Managers or employees in a specific industry or organization.
- Social Science Research: Individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds or cultural
groups.

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Qualitative Research

1. Observation and types of Observation

3. Focus Group Discussion and types of questions for FGD

4. Document Review Method/Content Analysis and Approaches to Content Analysis

5. Audio, Visual, and Electronic (AVE) Materials

5. Experiment and types of experiments

6. Standardized Tests and all of its kinds

7. Pencil-and-paper Data Gathering Tools (Questionnaire, Rating Scale, & Checklist)

Pilot Study and Reliability Test

Understanding Reliability and Cronbach’s Alpha:

Steps to Calculate Cronbach’s Alpha:

Determining the Number of Respondents for a Pilot Study:

Who Are the Respondents?

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