ASSIGNMENT#2

Laboratory Organization,
Management and Safety
Methods
Course code: 8629

B.Ed (1.5 years)

LAIBA ATHER

ROLL No. CA636587

Semester: Autumn, 2020

Table of Contents
Q.1 Write the ways how aims and objectives for laboratories are generated? ......................................................... 2
Q.2 What is mastery learning? Judge the role of mastery learning for achieving laboratory goals........................... 5
Q.3 Give a detailed description of principles of sequencing. ..................................................................................... 8
Q.4 Develop evaluative feedback sheet for following practical’s: ............................................................................ 10
i. Study the effect of the length of simple pendulum on its time period and hence find “g” by calculation. ...... 10
ii. Prepare 100 cm3 of 0.01M oxalic acid solution from the given 0.1 M Solution. .............................................. 13
Q.5 Discuss general safety techniques for laboratory. ............................................................................................. 13
Q.1 Write the ways how aims and objectives for laboratories are generated?
The lab-work addressed here is the one that implies working with real objects. In order to define the role of
laboratory work in the teaching of physics it may be useful to adopt two perspectives. The first one looks at it
from the viewpoint of the Physics discipline, an experimental science. The second perspective considers the
laboratory work as a didactical tool for the understanding of the discipline as far as its structure, laws, models,
concepts are concerned. From the mere meaning of these two viewpoints it follows that the discussion of the
epistemological aspect in which experiments are related to phenomena, models and theories, should precede
the discussion of the didactical aspect. Firstly our view of the role of laboratory work in Physics is presented,
then we discuss its didactical role.
Physics is an experimental science whose aim is the observation, description, modeling and understanding of
the natural world in which we live. Since Galileo this understanding takes advantage of the reproduction of
phenomena in a laboratory setting with the help of apparatuses that enable the scientists to study, in
quantitative details, some of the aspects of a specific phenomena. A crucial role is played by neglecting what
may be deemed secondary. As Galileo says: ―neglect all that is considered contingent and accessory in order
to be able to generalize and quantify‖.
Let’s imagine to enter in a Physics laboratory1 while an experiment is being performed: there are people and
objects. The persons may be busy in controlling and optimizing features and
functioning of the apparatuses, in reading instruments or computer displays, in exchanging ideas and
comments, in getting feedback from data and literature, in writing a careful logbook of what is going on,
etc.... The real objects present in this laboratory may be totally unfamiliar to someone used to the common
every-day experience in the natural world. There, in the scenario we are imagining, are also many objects
invisible to human sight but well present and real in the mind of the physicists: theories, models, the
knowledge shared by the scientific community and also expectations and goals aimed at by many individuals.
These invisible objects are the basis, on one side, of the development and performance of the concrete objects
which have been chosen and organized for the conduction of the experiment and, on another side, of the
questions that the scientists-experimenters have chosen for searching answers throughout the experiment, its
results, its success or failure. These research questions may be of different kinds. For instance, one may:
investigate about the validity and/or the verification of a theory or theoretical hypothesis; try to get
quantitative information on some new phenomenon; try to see changes in a known phenomenology due to the
advances in technology; try to reproduce a measurement done elsewhere and with other techniques or to
confute an experiment thought to be inaccurate or affected by errors, and so on… In all cases there is a
research question that has triggered both the design of the apparatuses present in the laboratory we imagine to
visit, and the methodology of data collection and analysis. To clarify the interplay between the theoretical
knowledge and the experimental activity2 it may be useful to present a schematic view of experimental
research.
From an educational viewpoint, the lab-work can aim at different objectives. A first one is connected to the
epistemological perspective where the laboratory is seen as the place appropriate to communicate the
experimental game, in its relation to formalization, models, theories and the
like. The scheme proposed previously demands that lab activities should involve the students in all the four
phases, from the identification of the research question or problem to be addressed to the design and
construction of the apparatus, to data collection and analysis. The interpretations of lab-work can be rather
different in different situations; the EU project ―Lab-work in Science Education‖ (LSE Project, 1998) has
shown that lab-work is widely acknowledged as a significant teaching/learning activity, but it is proposed in
different degrees in current class practice. Roughly the same type of Lab-work is proposed across countries
and disciplines – small groups of students working with real objects or materials following precise and
detailed instructions given directly by the teacher or written on a worksheet; open-ended projects are rarely
addressed. Assessment is usually done by grading lab-work reports. Usually in the traditional interpretation of
lab-work, both at University and school, what is proposed to the students is the mere collection of data using
an apparatus already designed and prepared in all its details, with little or no explication of the research
question or why it is addressed via an experiment. These types of lab-work activities are aimed mainly at have
the students manipulate measuring tools, collect data and analyze them in the light of a known, already
studied model. In other words the students are required to focus essentially only the third phase, while in the
fourth one they do not have to search for a theoretical interpretation. This kind of activity may be of some
help for the training of young researchers if performed with up-to-date measuring tools but is of scarce or no
help for understanding the role of experimental work and its relationships with the processes of modeling and
formalization. In the following some didactical activities, focusing on the communication of the interplay
theory-experiment, are briefly discussed.
Another use of the laboratory has to do with the possibility of a better understanding, with respect to the
verbal communication, of concepts, models, laws and theories. The axiom, ―if I do I understand‖ is very often
quoted to affirm a link between manual and mental activities. This viewpoint is one of the basis of the so-
called ―hands-on‖ approaches that are becoming more and more popular. However it should not be taken for
granted that being engaged in a manual activity will stimulate by itself the mind and assure sound and long
lasting learning. The trap that ―doing‖ something is sufficient warranty to understand what has been done is
an old one, linked with naïve forms of empiricism. Unfortunately, still nowadays the emphasis on a mere
―doing‖ is present, often in the framework of ―discovery‖ approaches as, again naively, if it was possible with
some school experiments to re-walk the complex process of building crucial aspects of the disciplinary
structure of physics. To improve the positive features of the ―hands on‖ strategy, the more complete keyword
―hands and minds on‖ should be used and practiced to stress the need of a careful and synergic mix of manual
work and mental reflection.

Q.2 What is mastery learning? Judge the role of mastery learning for achieving
laboratory goals.
Mastery learning (or, as it was initially called, "learning for mastery") is an instructional strategy and
educational philosophy, first formally proposed by Benjamin Bloom in 1968. Mastery learning maintains that
students must achieve a level of mastery (e.g., 90% on a knowledge test) in prerequisite knowledge before
moving forward to learn subsequent information. If a student does not achieve mastery on the test, they are
given additional support in learning and reviewing the information and then tested again. This cycle continues
until the learner accomplishes mastery, and they may then move on to the next stage.
Mastery learning methods suggest that the focus of instruction should be the time required for different
students to learn the same material and achieve the same level of mastery. This is very much in contrast with
classic models of teaching, which focus more on differences in students' ability and where all students are
given approximately the same amount of time to learn and the same set of instructions.
In mastery learning, there is a shift in responsibilities, so that student's failure is more due to the instruction
and not necessarily lack of ability on his or her part. Therefore, in a mastery learning environment, the
challenge becomes providing enough time and employing instructional strategies so that all students can
achieve the same level of learning.
The motivation for mastery learning comes from trying to reduce achievement gaps for students in average
school classrooms. During the 1960s John B. Carroll and Benjamin S. Bloom pointed out that, if students are
normally distributed with respect to aptitude for a subject and if they are provided uniform instruction (in
terms of quality and learning time), then achievement level at completion of the subject is also expected to be
normally distributed.
Mastery Learning approaches propose that, if each learner were to receive optimal quality of instruction and
as much learning time as they require, then a majority of students could be expected to attain mastery. This
situation would be represented as follows:
In many situations educators preemptively use the normal curve for grading students. Bloom was critical of
this usage, condemning it because it creates expectation by the teachers that some students will naturally be
successful while others will not. Bloom defended that, if educators are
effective, the distribution of achievement could and should be very different from the normal curve. Bloom
proposed Mastery Learning as a way to address this. He believed that by using his approach, the majority of
students (more than 90 percent) would achieve successful and rewarding learning. As an added advantage,
Mastery Learning was also thought to create more positive interest and attitude towards the subject learned if
compared with usual classroom methods.
The mastery approach suggests that every student is on his own track. So how can this possibly work in a
classroom? Education would have to be personalized, you’d have to have private tutors and different
worksheets for every student.
It sounds really new and impractical, but the truth is, that 100 years ago, there already were experiments
where they did mastery-based learning and saw great results. They also said it would never scale because it
was logistically difficult and impractical.
But that’s not an argument that holds anymore. We live in a digital age where everything is possible because
of new technologies.
Students can see an explanation at their own time and pace because of on-demand video. When a student
needs to practice and get feedback, you can use adaptive exercises like the ones you make with BookWidgets.
We now having learning dashboards that help teachers see patterns and flaws in the learning material, or
identify which students are struggling and falling behind. I’m convinced that future advances in artificial
intelligence will support teachers even more and turn personalized learning into ―the new normal‖.
Because of this, students can finally master the concepts while building a growth mindset, grit, perseverance
and taking agency over their learning. The classroom changes too. Students don’t have to focus anymore on
the lecture. They can now interact with each other and get a deeper mastery over the material.

Q.3 Give a detailed description of principles of sequencing.

The purpose of sequencing is to determine the order of the nucleotides of a gene. For sequencing, we don't
start from gDNA (like in PCR) but mostly from PCR fragments or cloned genes.
The sequencing reaction :
There are three major steps in a sequencing reaction (like in PCR), which are repeated for 30 or 40 cycles.
Denaturation at 94°C :
During the denaturation, the double strand melts open to single stranded DNA, all enzymatic reactions stop
(for example : the extension from a previous cycle).
Annealing at 50°C :
In sequencing reactions, only one primer is used, so there is only one strand copied (in PCR : two primers are
used, so two strands are copied). The primer is jiggling around, caused by the Brownian motion. Ionic bonds
are constantly formed and broken between the single stranded primer and the single stranded template. The
more stable bonds last a little bit longer (primers that fit exactly) and on that little piece of double stranded
DNA (template and primer), the polymerase can attach and
starts copying the template. Once there are a few bases built in, the ionic bond is so strong between the
template and the primer, that it does not break anymore.
extension at 60°C :
This is the ideal working temperature for the polymerase (normally it is 72 °C, but because it has to
incorporate ddNTP's which are chemically modified with a fluorescent label, the temperature is lowered so it
has time to incorporate the 'strange' molecules. The primers, where there are a few bases built in, already have
a stronger ionic attraction to the template than the forces breaking these attractions. Primers that are on
positions with no exact match, come loose again and don't give an extension of the fragment.
The bases (complementary to the template) are coupled to the primer on the 3'side (adding dNTP's or ddNTP's
from 5' to 3', reading from the template from 3' to 5' side, bases are added complementary to the template)
When a ddNTP is incorporated, the extension reaction stops because a ddNTP contains a H-atom on the 3rd
carbon atom (dNTP's contain a OH-atom on that position). Since the ddNTP's are fluorescently labeled, it is
possible to detect the color of the last base of this fragment on an automated sequencer.
Because only one primer is used, only one strand is copied during sequencing, there is a linear increase of the
number of copies of one strand of the gene. Therefore, there has to be a large amount of copies of the gene in
the starting mixture for sequencing. Suppose there are 1000 copies of the wanted gene before the cycling
starts, after one cycle, there will be 2000 copies : the 1000 original templates and 1000 complementary
strands with each one fluorescent label on the last base, after
two cycles, there will be 2000 complementary strands, three cycles will result in 3000 complementary strands
and so on.
After the sequencing reactions, the mixture of strands, all of different length and all ending on a fluorescently
labelled ddNTP have to be separated; This is done on an acrylamide gel, which is capable of separating a
molecule of 30 bases from one of 31 bases, but also a molecule of 750 bases from one of 751 bases. All this is
done with gel electrophoresis. DNA has a negative charge and migrates to the positive side. Smaller
fragments migrate faster, so the DNA molecules are separated on their size.
The fluorescently labelled fragments that migrate trough the gel, are passing a laser beam at the bottom of the
gel. The laser exites the fluorescent molecule, which sends out light of a distinct color. That light is collected
and focused by lenses into a spectrograph. Based on the wavelength, the spectrograph separates the light
across a CCD camera (charge coupled device). Each base has its own color, so the sequencer can detect the
order of the bases in the sequenced gene.
For publication purposes, each sequence of a gene has to be confirmed in both directions. To accomplish this,
the gene has to be sequenced with forward and reverse primers. Since it is only possible to sequence a part of
750 till 800 bases in one run, a gene of, for example 1800 bases, has to be sequenced with internal primers.
When all these fragments are sequenced, a computer program tries to fit the different parts together and
assembles the total gene sequence.

Q.4 Develop evaluative feedback sheet for following practical’s:

i. Study the effect of the length of simple pendulum on its time period and hence find
“g” by calculation.
We see that a simple pendulum has a small-diameter bob and a string that has a very small mass but is strong
enough not to stretch appreciably. The linear displacement from equilibrium is s, the length of the arc. Also
shown are the forces on the bob, which result in a net force of −mg sinθ toward the equilibrium position—that
is, a restoring force.
Pendulums are in common usage. Some have crucial uses, such as in clocks; some are for fun, such as a
child’s swing; and some are just there, such as the sinker on a fishing line. For small displacements, a
pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator. A simple pendulum is defined to have an object that has a small
mass, also known as the pendulum bob, which is suspended from a light wire or string, such as shown in
Figure 1. Exploring the simple pendulum a bit further, we can
discover the conditions under which it performs simple harmonic motion, and we can derive an interesting
expression for its period.
We begin by defining the displacement to be the arc length s. We see from Figure 1 that the net force on the
bob is tangent to the arc and equals −mg sinθ. (The weight mg has components mg cosθ along the string and
mg sinθ tangent to the arc.) Tension in the string exactly cancels the component mg cosθ parallel to the string.
This leaves a net restoring force back toward the equilibrium position at θ = 0.
Now, if we can show that the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, then we have a
simple harmonic oscillator. In trying to determine if we have a simple harmonic oscillator, we should note
that for small angles (less than about 15º), sinθ ≈ θ (sinθ and θ differ by about 1% or less at smaller angles).
Thus, for angles less than about 15º, the restoring force F is
F ≈ −mgθ.
The displacement s is directly proportional to θ. When θ is expressed in radians, the arc length in a circle is
related to its radius (L in this instance) by s = Lθ, so that
θ=sLθ=sL.
For small angles, then, the expression for the restoring force is:
F≈−mgLs
For small angles, then, the expression for the restoring force is:
F≈−mgLsF≈−mgLs.
This expression is of the form: F = −kx, where the force constant is given by k=mgLk=mgL and the
displacement is given by x = s. For angles less than about 15º, the restoring force is directly proportional to
the displacement, and the simple pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator.
Using this equation, we can find the period of a pendulum for amplitudes less than about 15º. For the simple
pendulum:
T=2π√mk=2π√mmgLT=2πmk=2πmmgL
Thus, T=2π√LgT=2πLg for the period of a simple pendulum. This result is interesting because of its
simplicity. The only things that affect the period of a simple pendulum are its length and the acceleration due
to gravity. The period is completely independent of other factors, such as mass. As with simple harmonic
oscillators, the period T for a pendulum is nearly independent of amplitude, especially if θ is less than about
15º. Even simple pendulum clocks can be finely adjusted and accurate.
What is the acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple pendulum having a length 75.000 cm has a
period of 1.7357 s?
Strategy
We are asked to find g given the period T and the length L of a pendulum. We can solve T=2π√LgT=2πLg for
g, assuming only that the angle of deflection is less than 15º.
Solution
Square T=2π√LgT=2πLg and solve for g:
g=4π2LT2g=4π2LT2.
Substitute known values into the new equation:
g=4π20.750000 m(1.7357 s)2g=4π20.750000 m(1.7357 s)2.
Calculate to find g:
g = 9.8281 m/s2.
Discussion
This method for determining g can be very accurate. This is why length and period are given to five digits in
this example. For the precision of the approximation sinθ ≈ θ to be better than the precision of the pendulum
length and period, the maximum displacement angle should be kept below about 0.5º.

ii. Prepare 100 cm3 of 0.01M oxalic acid solution from the given 0.1 M Solution.
Practical 6.8 (Prepare 100 cm3 of 0.01 M oxalic acid solution from the given 0.1M solution)
Post Lab Activities:
1. How will you prepare 250 cm3 0.001 M oxalic acid solution from the given 0.2M solution.
Answer: Given solution = Required solution
M1V1 = M2V2
0.2×V1 = 0.001× 250
V1 = 0.001 × 250/0.2 = 1.25 cm3
Take 1.25 cm3 of 0.2 M oxalic acid in 250 cm3 measuring flask and fill with water upto mark.
2. Hydrogen peroxide is available in the market as 3.0% solution in water. How will you prepare 2.0%
solution from this?
Answer: Given solution = Required solution
M1V1 = M2V2
3 × V1 = 2× 100
V1 = 2 × 100 / 3
= 66.6 cm3
Add 66.6 cm3 in 100 cm3 measuring flask and fill it upto mark.

Q.5 Discuss general safety techniques for laboratory.

A standard list of basic laboratory safety rules are given below, and must be followed in every laboratory that
uses hazardous materials or processes. These basic rules provide behavior, hygiene, and safety information to
avoid accidents in the laboratory. Laboratory specific safety rules may be required for specific processes,
equipment, and materials, which should be addressed by laboratory specific SOPs.
Basic Safety Rules
Basic safety rules for laboratory conduct should be observed whenever working in a laboratory. Many of the
most common safety rules are listed below.
• • Know locations of laboratory safety showers, eyewashstations, and fire extinguishers. The safety
equipment may be located in the hallway near the laboratory entrance.
• • Know emergency exit routes.
• • Avoid skin and eye contact with all chemicals.
• • Minimize all chemical exposures.
• • No horseplay will be tolerated.
• • Assume that all chemicals of unknown toxicity are highly toxic.
• • Post warning signs when unusual hazards, hazardous materials, hazardous equipment, or other
special conditions are present.
• • Avoid distracting or startling persons working in the laboratory.
• • Use equipment only for its designated purpose.
• • Combine reagents in their appropriate order, such as adding acid to water.
• • Avoid adding solids to hot liquids.
• • All laboratory personnel should place emphasis on safety and chemical hygiene at all times.
• • Never leave containersof chemicals open.

• • All containersmust have appropriate labels. Unlabeled chemicals should never be used.

• • Do not taste or intentionally sniff chemicals.

• • Never consume and/or store food or beverages or apply cosmetics in areas where hazardous
chemicalsare used or stored.

• • Do not use mouth suction for pipetting or starting a siphon.

• • Wash exposed areas of the skin prior to leaving the laboratory.

• • Long hair and loose clothing must be pulled back and secured from entanglement or potential
capture.

• • No contact lenses should be worn around hazardous chemicals – even when wearing safety glasses.

• • Laboratory safety glasses or goggles should be worn in any area where chemicals are used or stored.
They should also be worn any time there is a chance of splashes or particulates to enter the eye. Closed toe
shoes will be worn at all times in the laboratory. Perforated shoes or sandals are not appropriate.

• • Determine the potential hazards and appropriate safety precautions before beginning any work.

• • Procedures should be developed that minimize the formation and dispersion of aerosols.

• • If an unknown chemical is produced in the laboratory, the material should be considered hazardous.

• • Do not pour chemicals down drains. Do NOT utilize the sewer for chemical waste disposal.

• • Keep all sink traps (including cup sink traps and floor drains) filled with water by running water
down the drain at least monthly.
• • Do not utilize fume hoods for evaporations and disposal of volatile solvents.

• • Perform work with hazardous chemicalsin a properly working fume hoodto reduce potential
exposures.

• • Avoid working alone in a building. Do not work alone in a laboratory if the procedures being
conducted are hazardous.

• • The PEL and the Threshold Limit Values (TLV) will be observed in all areas. If exposure above a
PEL/TLV is suspected for an ongoing process, please contact EHS immediately.

• • Laboratory employees should have access to a chemical inventory list, applicable SDSs, Department
Laboratory Safety Manual, and relevant SOPs.

• • Access to laboratories and support areas such as stockrooms, specialized laboratories, etc. should be
limited to approved personnel only.

• • All equipment should be regularly inspected for wear or deterioration.

• • Equipment should be maintained according to the manufacturer’s requirements and records of

certification, maintenance, or repairs should be maintained for the life of the equipment.

• • Designated and well-marked waste storage locations are necessary.

• • No cell phone or ear phone usage in the active portion of the laboratories, or during experimental
operations.

• • Clothing made of synthetic fibers should not be worn while working with flammable liquids or when
a fire hazard is present as these materials tend to melt and stick to exposed skin.

• • Laboratory coats should not be stored in offices or break rooms as this spreads contaminates to other
areas.
• • Computers and instrumentation should be labeled to indicate whether gloves should be worn or not.
Inconsistent glove use around keyboards/keypads is a source of potential contamination.
• • Avoid wearing jewelry in the lab as this can pose multiple safety hazards.