LESSON 3: GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE,

HEALTH, AND POLITICS

Genetic engineering – has been with the human society since selective breeding was
introduced to humankind and when the animals were domesticated. Yet, the process of genetic
alterations is all but natural.
Genetic engineering – was coined by Jack Williamson, author of the science book fiction Novel
Dragon’s Island (Stableford 2004). This was year before actual research findings on the DNA’s
role in heredity and its structure, the double-helix of Watson and Crick, were published. Through
continuous search for development, genetic engineering no longer stayed in science fiction
novel. It became a reality in science laboratories. The general process of genetic engineering is
the deliberate manipulation if the organism’s gene’s, where it may involve transfer of genes from
other organism.
An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973.
Genetically modified organism (GMO)- is the term used for an organism created through
genetic engineering. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defines GMO as an
“organism, either plant, animal, or microorganism, in which the genetic material (DNA) has been
altered in a way does not occur naturally by mating or animal recombination.

GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The Center for Eco-genetics and Environmental Health (CEEH, 2013) identified the following
roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries.

1. Pest resistance: Genetically modified plants are engineered to resist certain pests,
such as Bt corn, which has a gene from a soil bacterium that produces proteins toxic to
corn borers.
2. Virus resistance: GM plants are modified to resist specific viruses, such as the GM
papaya or rainbow papaya, which was developed using the protein of the papaya
ringspot virus (PRSV), making it resistant to the virus.
3. Herbicide tolerance: GMOs are modified to tolerate certain herbicides, like the
Roundup Ready soybean, which can withstand glyphosate, a common herbicide for
weeds.
4. Fortification: Genetically modified plants, like Golden Rice, are fortified with certain
minerals or vitamins, such as beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, which is
introduced to the rice to make it fortified with vitamin A.
5. Cosmetic preservation: GMOs can be modified to resist natural discoloration, like the
Arctic Apple, which is genetically modified to suppress browning due to superficial
damage.
6. Increase growth rate: Genetically modified organisms, like the AquaAdvantage
salmon, can have a higher yield in growth than normal species, as a gene from an
ocean pout, an eel-like fish, was introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making it grow
faster than its normal rate.
 GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms
Genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) in non-food crops and some microorganism
involve the following:

1. Flower production: GMOs can modify flower color and extend vase life. An example is
the Blue Rose, which is genetically modified to produce delphinidin, resulting in a blue
hue.
2. Paper production: GMOs can modify tree characteristics to improve paper production.
An example is the use of polar trees with modified lignin structures, which can be
broken down more easily during the craft process.
3. Pharmaceutical productions: GMOs can produce pharmaceutical products. For
example, bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle plant to enhance the production
of vinblastine, an alkaloid used for cancer treatments.
4. Bioremediation: GMOs can be used for bioremediation. For example, shrub tobacco
genetically modified with phytochelatin TaPSCI1 shows high accumulation of heavy
metals, making it useful for cleaning up polluted sites.
5. Enzyme and drug production: GMOs can produce enzymes for food processing and
medicines. For example, a bacterium was genetically modified to produce CGTase, an
enzyme used as a food flavor enhancer.
6. Medical field: GMOs can help in the production of drugs, gene therapy, and laboratory
researches. A classic example is the use of genetically engineered insulin (Humulin) for
Type 1 diabetes patients.

Benefits of GMOs

Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:

 Higher efficiency in farming- with the use of pesticide resistant/herbicide-
tolerant GMO crops, there will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and
lower cost for labor and cultivation.
 Increase in harvest- GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means
increase in potential growth and harvest.
 Control in fertility- controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds)
ensures higher yields.
 Increase in food processing- altered characteristics of GMO crops help
ease food processing.
 Improvement of desirable characteristics- GMOs offer longer shelf life,
enhanced color and taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes, and
other modified characteristics of plants, animals, and microorganism.
 Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement- GMO crops like maize
fortified with lysine and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron. There
are now vaccines for viral and diarrheal diseases.
 Reduces the use of fertilizers and pesticides.
GMO farmlands are widespread globally, with over 400 million acres cultivated. The top
five countries growing GMO crops are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and
Canada. Approved GMO crops for public consumption include alfalfa, corn, papaya,
soya bean, sugar beets, and squash, primarily engineered for pest resistance. Common
food products with GMOs are Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Quaker Chewy Granola Bars, Ultra
Slim Fast, Quaker Yellow Corn Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food. In the animal industry,
research is ongoing, including studies on Pacific salmon that grow twice as fast as native
salmon and chicken resistant to H5N1 bird flu viruses.

Potential Risks of GMOs

There are studies that show links in the adaption of pesticides-resistant GMO crops to
the significant growth of super weeds that became pesticide-resistant, too. This caused
additional problem to more than 12 million acres of farms in the United States.
Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:
1. Since genetic engineering is still young branch of science, there are inadequate
studies of the effects of GMOs to humans and the environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organism which the long term effect is still
unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
 More allergic reactions- GMO food may trigger more allergic reactions,
more so create new ones, as side effect of the gene alternation.
 Gene mutation- GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation, more
than the desired products of the gene alteration.
 Antibiotic resistance- GMO food contains antibiotic resistant genes; this
may cause disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic resistant too,
increasing the possibility of widespread of the disease.
 Nutritional value- GMO food may have damage change in their nutritional
value.
Potential Environmental Risks Caused by GMOs
Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by GMOs.
The identified major risks are the following:
1. Risk in gene flow- there is potential risk of the modified gene to be transferred from
the GMO crop to its wild relative or organism in the soil and human intestine (when
ingested). For example, a decaying GMO plant could possibly transfer the modified
genes to the bacteria and fungi in the soil.
2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed
problems- GMO crops resistant to certain pesticides may trigger new form of pest
resistance while GMO herbicide tolerant crops may lead to the over use of the
herbicides which may trigger new form of weed resistance.
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens- the modified
gene can be transferred and integrated in the bacterial genes which may lead to viral
bacterial gene modification or mutation. This living modified virus and bacteria may
then cause new disease that may affect other organisms including human beings.
Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino & Zucco, 2008):
1. Direct environmental risks are:
 Introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause disruption of
the natural communities through competition or interference;
 The possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environmental if it
escapes its intended use and may post threats or become pest;
 May cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere with the
natural biochemical cycles; and
 The persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause negative
impacts to the consumer of GMO products.
2. Indirect environmental risks are:
 Alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of GMOs
to the environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds that
became resistant to GMO crops;
 May have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural
practices; and
 May have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and release
in the natural environment.
Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs
A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its effect on human beings,
primarily on human health. Some potential human health risks are identified (Akhter,
2001).

 Consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not naturally or

organically produced
 Consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganism in the
human digestive system;
 Production of toxin may be detrimental to human health; and
 Production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.

Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food consumption. They
encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be vigilant in checking if the food
they buy has GMO ingredients. In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against
the use of Bt. eggplant, another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016).

Other potential risks that raise major concern are:

 Human Genome Project (HGP)- Mapping of human genes to provide framework
for research and studies in the field if medicine. It was feared that the ability to
produce human genetic information would create biases and give much power to
people holding the information and to the disadvantage of those who do not have
the genetic information.
 Mutation of genetically engineered microorganism- Genetically modified
bacteria and virus may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may
cause more dreadful disease for human beings.

 Cloning- the asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through

genetic engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from
Scotland, was born through cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of
human cloning. It emerged the ethical issue of man “playing God.”

Genetic engineering holds promise for improving human health with gene therapy and
gene alteration. However, there are three main concerns about GMOs, as reported by
the WHO in 2014. These are the potential risks of allergic reactions, gene transfer/flow,
and outcrossing. The primary issue surrounding GMOs is their unnatural production and
the moral implications of creating new organisms, which some view as a violation of
natural laws. Another concern is the potential harm to the environment and human
health, as there is still much unknown about GMOs.
 Biosafety on GMOs
There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population regarding the issues and
concern about GMOs. International organizations developed principles and treaties that
somehow ensures biosafety of GMOs. Some of these initiatives are as follows:
Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) is an intergovernmental body that develops
standards, codes of practice, and guidelines for food safety, including genetically modified (GM)
food products. The Codex principles for human health risk analysis of GM food include pre-
market assessment of direct and indirect effects of GM food products. However, these principles
are not legally binding on national legislations, but national legislators are encouraged to
consider them through the sanitary and phytosanitary measures of the World Trade
Organization.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Established in 2003, Cartagena Protocol in an international
environmental treaty that regulates the transboundary movement of Living Modified Organisms
(LMOs).
International Trade Agreement of Labeling of GM food and food products. The agreement
requires exporters of GM food and food products to label their products and give rights to
importing parties to reject or accept the GM products.
The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM products that are available in
the international market have passed safety assessment by national authorities. The safety
assessment basically looks at the environmental and health factors and food safety usually the
Codex Food Code.

GMOs in Philippine Context

The GMO concern in the Philippines started in the 1990s with the creation of the NCBP and the
guidelines for releasing GMOs in 1998. The Department of Agriculture released Administrative
Order No.8 in 2002, which allowed the importation and release of GM plants and plant products,
and the approval of GM corn planting for commercial cultivation. From 2002 to present, 70 GMO
applications have been approved by the Department of Agriculture, 62 of which are approved
for food feed and processing while 8 are for propagation.
In 2004, the Philippines was recognized as one of the biotech mega countries with over 50,000
hectares of GMO crops. In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, promoting organic
agriculture over GMO-related agriculture. In 2012, a bill was filed to push for the mandatory
labeling of GM food and food products.
However, in December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered the end to the field testing of GMO Bt
eggplant and declared Administrative Order No.8 series of 2002 as null and void. In March
2016, a joint department circular was passed by five government agencies on rules and
regulations for the research and development of GMOs.
Overall, the Philippines has been active in the adoption and regulation of GMOs with a focus on
promoting biosafety and the development of a national biosafety framework, while also
balancing public concerns and promoting organic agriculture.