Semiconductor Devices and Circuits

Unit 2

Dr. Pramod Kumar Tiwari

Associate Professor
EE, IIT Patna
 Course Content

• Transport Phenomena: Drift and Diffusion of Carriers, Einstein

Equation, generation, recombination and injection of carriers and
lifetime, transient response, Deby length, continuity equations;

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 References

• S. M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology, Wiley

• S. M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Wiley
• D. A. Neamen, Semiconductor Physics and Devices, Mc Graw Hill
• Streetman, and Banerjee, Solid State Electronic Devices, Pearson

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 Random Thermal Motion of Carriers
 Both electron and holes move rapidly in all direction
S
 Carriers scatter from collisions with lattice atoms,
A impurity atoms, and other scattering centers

 Over a sufficiently long period of the time, net

e A displacement of carriers is zero.
S
D
 The average distance between collision is called
mean free path
A
Random walk of a carrier in the lattice  The average time between the collision is called
mean free time 𝜏

 The order of mean free time is pico-second

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 Random Thermal Motion of Carriers
 Theorem of Equipartition of Energy: The average thermal kinetic
-
energy of a conduction electron is 𝑘𝑇 units of energy per
degree of freedom, where 𝑘 is Boltzmann’s constant and T is the
absolute temperature
n-type semiconductor

 Electrons in a semiconductor have 3 degrees of freedom, they

can move about in a three-dimensional space. Thus, the average
thermal energy is 𝑘𝑇

 The average thermal velocity (𝑣 ) of electron can be given by

following equations

𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑣 = = 1.12 × 10 𝑚/𝑠 ≈ 10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠

Random motion of carriers under

thermal equilibrium 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10 𝑚 . 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 .𝐾

𝑚 = 1.08 × 𝑚 = 1.08 × 9.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔

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 Drift Velocity
 Carriers (electrons) will experience a force −𝑞𝐸 from the field
-
and will be accelerated in the opposite direction of the field
during the time between collision
n-type semiconductor
 An additional velocity component (𝑣 ) “drift velocity” will be
superimposed on the “thermal velocity”

 Momentum i.e. force×time applied to electrons during the free

flight = momentum gained by the electron in the same period

−𝑞𝐸𝜏 = 𝑚 𝑣 𝑣 =𝜇 𝐸

𝜇 =1360 cm2/V.s and

𝑞𝜏 𝜇 =460 cm2/V.s
𝑣 =− 𝐸
𝑚
At 300K and impurity level
Combined displacement of electron due to 𝑣 = −𝜇 𝐸 1014 /cm3
random thermal motion and drift of the
carriers 𝜇 and 𝜇 are called electron and hole mobility (cm2/V-s)
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 Mobility
Lattice Scattering:
Electron mobility can be given as:

𝑞𝜏
𝜇 =
𝑚

The mobility is directly proportional to mean free

time between collisions. T>0K

The mean free time is determined by various

scattering mechanism e.g lattice scattering and
impurity scattering.

The average number of collision taking place per

unit time is sum of collisions due to various
scattering mechanism Lattice scattering dominates at high temperature

1 1 1
= + 𝜇 ∝𝑇
𝜏 𝜏 , 𝜏 ,

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 Mobility
• Impurity Scattering Thus, the mobility is determined by incorporating the
effects of various scattering events. The mobility is
Si Mathieson’s Rule expressed as:
Si Si Si
1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
Si P Si Si 𝑇
𝜇 ∝
𝑁
Calculate the mean free time of an electron having a
Si B Si mobility 1000cm2/V-s at 300K, also calculate the mean
Si
free path. Assume 𝑚 = 0.26𝑚
𝑚 𝜇
𝜏 =
Si Si Si Si 𝑞
10 𝑚
0.26 × 9.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔 × 1000 × .𝑠
= 𝑉
 The deflection is due to Coulomb force interaction 1.6 × 10 𝐶
= .148 𝑝𝑠
 More significant with high impurity doping
𝑐𝑚
 Less significant at high temperature 𝑙 = 𝑣 𝜏 = 10 × 0.148𝑝𝑠 = 14.8𝑛𝑚
𝑠
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 Mobility

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 Band Bending
p n Band bending is the variation in band energies with position when an electric field exist inside
E the material
E

KE Potential Energy (PE) of an Electron

EC
−𝑞𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐸
PE
where, V is the electrostatic potential
EV
1
𝑉=− 𝐸 −𝐸
𝑞
Eref
As, 𝐸 = − , the electric field can be written as
V
1 𝑑𝐸 1 𝑑𝐸 1 𝑑𝐸
𝐸= = =
𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑥

x
E  By simply inverting 𝐸 𝑥 , one can obtain 𝑉 𝑥
x

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 Band Bending and Drift

Electrons in conduction band move to the

right side

Holes in the valance band moves to the

left side

When an electron/hole undergoes a

collision, it loses some of its kinetic
energy to the lattice and drops towards its
thermal equilibrium position.

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 Drift Current
V Considering charge on the hole to be positive
𝐽 = 𝑝𝑞𝜇 𝐸
Where, 𝑝 is the hole concentration density

Thus, as the total current is sum of both electron and hole

components
E
The drift component of the current
𝐽 = 𝐽 + 𝐽 = 𝑞 𝑛𝜇 + 𝑝𝜇 𝐸
𝐼 =

where, 𝑄 is the total charge in the sample.

Comparing the above equation with Ohms’ law equation

𝜏 is the average transit time 𝜏 = 𝜎 = 𝑞 𝑛𝜇 + 𝑝𝜇 : Conductivity (Ω-cm)-1

1 1
Thus, 𝐼 =− = −𝑛𝑞𝑣 𝐴 𝜌= =
𝜎 𝑞 𝑛𝜇 + 𝑝𝜇

:Resistivity (Ω-cm)
The current density 𝐽 = = −𝑛𝑞𝑣 𝐽 = −𝑛𝑞𝑣 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇 𝐸
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Resistivity Measurement (Four-Point Probe Method)

𝑉
𝜌= . 𝑊. 𝐶𝐹 Ω-cm
𝐼
𝐶𝐹 is a correction factor, depends
upon the ratio . When > 20, 𝐶𝐹
approaches to 4.54.
9/5/2022 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 13
 Diffusion of Carriers
Carriers tend to move from a region of high
Electrons at 𝑥 = ±𝑙 have equal chances of moving left or right,
concentration to a region of low concentration
and in a mean free time 𝜏 , one half of them will move across
the plane 𝑥 = 0.

The electron flux at 𝑥 = 0, from left to right

1
2 𝑛 −𝑙 . 𝑙 1
𝐹 = = 𝑛 −𝑙 𝑣
𝜏 2
Similarly, the electron flux at 𝑥 = 0, from right to left
1
2 𝑛 𝑙 .𝑙 1
𝐹 = = 𝑛 𝑙 𝑣
𝜏 2

Because of the temperature, the electrons Net flux from left to right
have a random thermal motion with a
thermal velocity 𝑣 , mean free path 𝑙, and 𝐹 =𝐹 −𝐹 = 𝑣 (𝑛 −𝑙 − 𝑛 𝑙 )
mean free time 𝜏
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 Diffusion of Carriers
Taylor series expansion (first two terms) of function
Each electron carries a charge −𝑞, the diffusion
𝑛 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑛 current density is given as
𝑛 𝑥 =𝑛 0 +𝑥 𝑑𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝐽 = −𝑞𝐹 = 𝑞𝐷
𝑑𝑥
Thus,
𝑑𝑛
𝑛 ±𝑙 = 𝑛 0 ± 𝑙
𝑑𝑥  Diffusion current is proportional to the spatial
Using the above equation in net flux equation derivative of electron density

1  Diffusion current is the result of random thermal

𝐹= 𝑣 (𝑛 −𝑙 − 𝑛 𝑙 )
2 motion of carriers in a concentration gradient
= 𝑣 𝑛 0 −𝑙 − (𝑛 0 + 𝑙 )
 For an electron density that increases with x, the
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛 gradient is positive, and electrons will diffuse
= −𝑣 𝑙 = −𝐷 towards negative x-direction
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 The current is positive and flows in the direction
Where, 𝐷 = 𝑣 𝑙 : Diffusion Constant or Diffusivity opposite to that of electrons

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 Einstein Relation
• let us say that carriers movement is restricted only in
one direction
1 1
𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇
2 2

Further 𝐷 = 𝑣 𝑙 = 𝑣 .𝑣 𝜏 = 𝑣

Thus , using 𝑣 = in the above equation

𝐷 =

𝑘𝑇
𝐷 = 𝜇
𝑞

The Einstein relation relates diffusivity and mobility of

carriers. A similar relation can also be written for holes.

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 Example
• Minority carriers (holes) are injected into a homogeneous n-type samples at one point.
An electric field of 50V/cm is applied across the sample, and the field moves these
minority carriers a distance of 1cm in 100μs. Find the drift velocity and diffusivity of the
minority carriers.

The drift Velocity, 𝑣 = = 10 cm/s

/
Hole mobility, 𝜇 = = = 200 cm /Vs
/

Diffusivity, 𝐷 = 𝜇 = 0.0259 × 200 = 5.18 𝑐𝑚 /𝑠

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 Current Density Equation
In a semiconductor if concentration gradient (positive in x=direction) and electric fields (in x- direction) are
present at the same time.

Total electron current density : 𝐽 = 𝑞𝜇 𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑞𝐷

Total hole current density: 𝐽 = 𝑞𝜇 𝑝 𝐸 − 𝑞𝐷

The total current density: 𝐽 =𝐽 +𝐽

The above equations are valid under low field condition.

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Thermal Equilibrium, Steady State, and Transient State

• No external stimuli except constant

Equilibrium temperature , carrier density does not
-
change with time

Electric Field Steady • External stimuli should be constant in

time, each process is constant in time,
State current does not change with time

Stimuli
• Stimuli can change with time. Charge
Heat
Optical
illumination
Transient density and current flow can be
function of time

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 Generation and Recombination Process

Thermal generation process is balanced by

recombination process to establish equilibrium
Ec
Electron-hole Electron-hole
Generation
generation recombination

EV Photogeneration
Phonon Impact
generation Ionization

At a finite temperature, there is certain thermal

energy in the system, that is responsible for
Recombination
exciting electrons from the valance band to
conduction band
Indirect
Direct Surface Auger
(SRH)

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 Generation

1. Photogeneration
Ec
ℎ𝜈 > 𝐸 ℎ𝜈 > 𝐸

EV

A  When the frequency of the incident light is greater than critical

frequency (𝜈 = ), the light is absorbed by the semiconductor and
I1 electrons are excited to conduction band
I2
I I3  If the frequency of light is less than the critical frequency, material will
I4 let the light pass through it

 Current will remain constant at higher frequency. Current will increase

only if the intensity of light is increased.
νc ν
9/5/2022 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 21
 Generation
2. Phonon Generation 3. Impact Ionization

Under thermal excitation a lot of phonons are

generated, these phonons break the covalent
bonds and generate electron hole pairs
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 Recombination
1. Direct Recombination Heat
(Band to Band)

𝐺 : Generation rate in thermal equilibrium (number of EHPs/cm3.s )

ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸
𝑅 : Recombination rate in thermal equilibrium (number of EHPs/cm3.s )

Under thermal equilibrium 𝐺 =𝑅 = 𝛽𝑛𝑝 = 𝛽 𝑛 𝑝

𝛽 is a constant
Equilibrium
𝑛 is electron concentration in n-type semiconductor under thermal equilibrium (TE)
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛
𝑝 is hole concentration in n-type semiconductor under TE

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 Recombination
• Excess minority carriers under steady state and transient
𝑝 𝑡 : Total minority carrier concentration
𝑝 : Minority carrier concentration under thermal equilibrium
𝜏 : Average life time of excess minority carriers
𝐺 ∶EHP generation rate only due to optical illumination

Total minority carrier concentration under light:

𝑝 =𝑝 +𝜏 𝐺

When light is shut-off, excess minority carrier concentration

decreases exponentially as they recombine with majority
carriers
( )
𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝑝 +𝜏 𝐺 𝑒

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 Excess minority carriers under light (Steady State)
𝐺 ∶EHP generation rate in the presence of optical illumination

𝐺 = 𝐺 + 𝐺 : Net generation rate

𝑅: Net recombination rate= 𝛽𝑛 𝑝 = 𝛽 𝑛 + ∆𝑛 𝑝 + ∆𝑝

∆𝑛 and∆𝑝 are excess carrier concentration

𝑈: Net recombination rate of excess minority carriers (holes) =𝑅 − 𝑅 =𝑅 − 𝐺

The net rate of change of hole concentration:

𝑑𝑝
=𝐺−𝑅 =𝐺 +𝐺 −𝑅
𝑑𝑡

In steady state: 𝐺 +𝐺 − 𝑅=0 Assumption 1: Steady state =0

𝐺 =𝑅−𝐺 =U
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 Excess minority carriers under light (Steady State)

𝑈 =𝑅−𝐺

𝑈=𝛽 𝑛 + ∆𝑛 𝑝 + ∆𝑝 - 𝛽 𝑛 𝑝

𝑈=𝛽 𝑛 +𝑝 + ∆𝑝 ∆𝑝

Under low level injection Aassumption 2: Low level injection ∆𝑝, 𝑝 ≪𝑛

𝑝 −𝑝 ∆𝑝
𝑈= = 1
1 𝜏 𝜏 : Life time of excess minority carriers =
𝛽𝑛 𝛽𝑛

𝑝 =𝑝 +𝜏 𝑈=𝑝 +𝜏 𝐺

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 Excess Minority Carriers when Light is Shut-off

=𝐺−𝑅 =𝐺 −𝑅 as 𝐺 =0

∆
=- =−

Boundary conditions:

1. 𝑝 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑝 + 𝜏 𝐺
2. 𝑝 (𝑡 = ∞) = 𝑝

Solving the above differential equation

( )
𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝑝 +𝜏 𝐺 𝑒

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 Recombination
2. Indirect Recombination  Indirect recombination is a dominant process in indirect band gap
( Intermediate Level Assisted) materials, like Si. After recombination energy is released in form of heat

 The recombination process is assisted by localized energy states (traps)

(Energy Et) in the forbidden energy gap

 These traps are generated because of imperfection in the lattice or

deliberate doping of materials like Au, Cu (𝑁 is the concentration of
recombination center)

 When an electron or hole comes near the trap center (within the
capture cross section 𝜎), they will be captured by trap centers

 Recombination may happen at (1) trap center, or in (2) Valance Band

∆ ∆
Recombination rate 𝑈 = = 𝑣 𝜎𝑁

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 Recombination
3. Surface Recombination
 Abrupt discontinuity at the surface leads to unsaturated
covalent bonds

 These unsaturated bonds give rise to localized energy states

(generation/recombination center) near the crystal
surfaces

 These energy states, known as surface states, increase the

recombination rate near surface

Recombination rate 𝑈 =𝑣 𝜎 𝑁 𝑝 −𝑝

𝑝 hole concentration near surface,

𝑁 Recombination Center Density/Area

𝑆 = 𝑣 𝜎 𝑁 : Low injection surface recombination Velocity

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 Recombination
4. Auger Recombination
 When an EHP annihilates, the energy is
transferred to an electron or hole

 The electron/hole becomes energetic and losses

energy after several collisions

 Auger recombination is more likely if the carrier

concentration is very high

 Auger recombination is the reverse process of

impact ionization-induced generation

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Generation-Recombination (GR) Momentum Consideration

Phonon carry small Momentum to Phonon Momentum Change is

energy, but large not required
momentum Heat
generation Photons are generated
when EHP recombines
Large momentum Photons carry very small
change is possible momentum
because of phonon

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 Continuity Equation
The continuity equation governs the overall effect of drift, diffusion, and generation-
recombination process.
One-Dimensional Continuity Equation for Electrons

The overall rate of change in the number of electrons in

the slice of length 𝑑𝑥 is

𝜕𝑛 𝐽 𝑥 𝐴 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝐴
𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = − + 𝐺 − 𝑅 𝐴𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡 −𝑞 −𝑞

The above equation can be simplified as

𝜕𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽
Expansion of 𝐽 𝑥 at 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 is: = + 𝐺 −𝑅
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐽
𝐽 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽
𝜕𝑥 Similarly, for holes =− + 𝐺 −𝑅
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥
9/5/2022 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 32
 Continuity Equation
Substituting drift and diffusion component of
the current in continuity Eq. (under low level
injection for minority carriers)

𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑛 𝜕 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
=𝑛 𝜇 +𝜇 𝐸 +𝐷 +𝐺 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑝 𝑝 −𝑝
= −𝑝 𝜇 −𝜇 𝐸 +𝐷 +𝐺 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜏

Poisson’s Equation
𝑑𝐸 𝜌
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
Space charge density 𝜌 = 𝑞 𝑝 − 𝑛 + 𝑁 − 𝑁
𝜖 is Si permittivity
9/5/2022 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 33
 Continuity Equation
Solution of Continuity Equation Under 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑝 𝑛 −𝑛
Steady State Injection From One side 𝜕𝑡
=0=𝐷
𝜕𝑥
−
𝜏
Assumption zero field and zero
generation for x>0
Boundary conditions are
n-type
𝑝 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑝 0 , and 𝑝 𝑥 → 0 = 𝑝

The solution of differential equation:

𝑝 𝑥 =𝑝 + 𝑝 0 −𝑝 𝑒

𝑝 𝑥 =𝑝 + ∆𝑝 𝑒
Diffusion length: 𝐿 = 𝐷 𝜏
Minority carrier concentration decays with characteristic length 𝐿
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 Continuity Equation
𝜕 𝑝 𝑛 −𝑛
𝐷 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜏

Solution to the above equation under modified boundary condition:

𝑊−𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ
𝐿
𝑝 𝑥 =𝑝 + ∆𝑝
𝑊
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ
𝐿

Modified boundary conditions are The diffusion current density at 𝑥 = 𝑊 is given by:

𝑝 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑝 0 , and 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑊 = 𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝐽 = −𝑞𝐷
𝜕𝑥

𝐷 1
𝐽 = 𝑞∆𝑝
𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑊
𝐿
9/5/2022 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 35
 The Haynes-Shockley Experiment
In absence of E (Only Diffusion)

𝑁
In the presence of E 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 +𝑝
(Drift and Diffusion ) 4𝜋𝐷 𝑡

( )
𝑁
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 +𝑝
4𝜋𝐷 𝑡

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 Thermionic Emission Process
If the carriers have sufficient energy, they may be thermionically
emitted into the vacuum

Electron affinity:

Work Function:

The electrons density with energy above electron affinity:

is effective density of states in the conduction band

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 Tunneling Process

(a) The band diagram of two isolated

semiconductors with a distance d. (b) One-
dimensional potential barrier. (c) Schematic
representation of the wave function across the
potential barrier.

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 High-Field Effects
At low electric-field (drift velocity is smaller than thermal velocity),
Drift Velocity (Si) drift velocity is linearly proportional to the applied field.

When electric field strength is increased, the drift velocity does not
linearly vary with electric field

At very high field, the drift velocity approaches a saturation velocity

𝑣
𝑣 =
𝐸
1+ 𝐸

𝐸 is a constant.
𝐸 = 7 × 10 V/cm for electron
𝐸 = 2 × 10 V/cm for holes

𝛾 = 2 and 1 for electrons and hole respectively

9/5/2022 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 39
 High-Field Effects
Drift Velocity (GaAs)

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 Quasi Fermi Levels
Equilibrium Non-Equilibrium
𝐸
𝐸
𝐸
𝐸 Ei
EFp
Ei
𝐸
𝐸
Due to presence of excess carriers, electron and hole
For both n and p-type Semiconductors concentrations are not in equilibrium
( )
( )
𝑛=𝑛𝑒 𝑛=𝑛𝑒
( )
𝑝=𝑛𝑒
( )
𝑝=𝑛𝑒
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛
Same Fermi Level is used to represent electron and hole
𝑛𝑝 ≠ 𝑛
concentrations
Same Fermi Level cant be used for electron and hole
concentrations.
9/5/2022 Dr. P. K. Tiwari 41