Waites - Critique of Sexual Orientation' and Gender Identity'

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Contemporary Politics
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Critique of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’

in human rights discourse: global queer politics
beyond the Yogyakarta Principles
a
Matthew Waites
a
University of Glasgow , UK
Published online: 09 Mar 2009.
To cite this article: Matthew Waites (2009) Critique of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ in human rights
discourse: global queer politics beyond the Yogyakarta Principles, Contemporary Politics, 15:1, 137-156, DOI:
10.1080/13569770802709604
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Contemporary Politics
Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2009, 137 –156
Critique of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ in human rights

discourse: global queer politics beyond the Yogyakarta Principles
Matthew Waites
University of Glasgow, UK
This article presents a critique of the concepts ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’, which are
being employed to contest global human rights discourses by prevailing international lesbian,
gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) and human rights activist networks – notably in the
Declaration of Montreal (2006) and, especially, the Yogyakarta Principles (2007). Theoretical
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 08:59 01 January 2015
analysis, informed by social theory and queer theory, is presented of these key concepts
shaping human rights debates, particularly in relation to the United Nations. Relationships
between the discourses used by international governmental and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), academics and activists are analysed to discern the conceptions of subjectivity and
identity operating. With reference to Judith Butler’s ‘heterosexual matrix’, it is proposed that the
entry of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ into human rights discourse can be interpreted
as installing a distinctive gender and sexuality matrix, but also that definitions of ‘sexual
orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ in the Yogyakarta Principles facilitate contestation of these
concepts. It is argued that LGBT, queer and allied NGOs and activists should systematically
contest these concepts’ dominant meanings.
Keywords: sexual orientation; gender identity; human rights; Yogyakarta Principles; queer
Introduction
The categories ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ have emerged as pivotal in the contesta-
tion of human rights discourses and global governance by prevailing international lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender (LGBT) and human rights non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
and activist networks. They are central in the Yogyakarta Principles on the Application of Inter-
national Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (Corrêa and
Muntarbhorn 2007), and are also used in the Declaration of Montreal (International Conference
on LGBT Human Rights 2006a; see Kollman and Waites, and Swiebel, this volume). These
declarations have in turn influenced developments such as the groundbreaking ‘Statement on
Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity’, read by Argentina on behalf of 66
states at the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) on 18 December 2008 (Secrétariat
d’État 2008, United Nations General Assembly 2008a). Furthermore, and in part consequently,
‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ have become important concepts in contemporary
global politics more broadly, including conflicts over cultural diversity, identities, religion
and globalization, in which sexual politics is a crucial element.

Matthew Waites is lecturer in sociology in the Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Applied Social
Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK. He researched and lectured at London South Bank University
(1999–2002), and then lectured at Sheffield Hallam University (2002–6) prior to joining the University
of Glasgow in 2006. He is the author of The Age of Consent: Young People, Sexuality and Citizenship
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) and co-editor, with Jeffrey Weeks and Janet Holland, of Sexualities and
Society: A Reader (Polity Press, 2003). He is on the editorial boards of Sociology, Sexualities, Journal of
Gender Studies and Journal of LGBT Youth, and has authored articles in Sociology, Sexualities, Social
and Legal Studies, Parliamentary Affairs and Sociological Research Online. Email: [email protected]
ISSN 1356-9775 print/ISSN 1469-3631 online

# 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13569770802709604
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138 Matthew Waites
This contribution presents a systematic analysis of the implications of the concepts ‘sexual
orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ entering human rights discourses, drawing upon social con-
structionist, post-structuralist, feminist, transgender and queer theories. I argue that rather
than viewing this emergence as signalling the eradication of the normative privileging of particu-
lar genders and sexualities, it can usefully be interpreted as a reconfiguration of what Judith
Butler calls the ‘heterosexual matrix’: ‘that grid of cultural intelligibility through which
bodies, genders and desires are naturalized’ (Butler 1990, p. 151). I argue that the emergent
grid of intelligibility continues to be subject to dominant interpretations which privilege a
binary model of gender, and sexual behaviours, identities and desires that are defined exclusively
in relation to a single gender within this binary. Hence, this new matrix needs to be contested.
As social research on gender and sexuality increasingly addresses global change and globa-
lization (Adam et al. 1999, Altman 2001, Weeks et al. 2003, Binnie 2004), including socio-legal
and politics literature (Stychin and Herman 2000, Buss and Herman 2003, Stychin 2003), and
interdisciplinary work on sexuality, gender and human rights develops (Petchesky 2000,
Gruskin et al. 2004, Graupner and Tahmindjis 2005, Corrêa et al. 2008), it is necessary to
consider the relationship of marginalized sexual and gender minorities to human rights, global
politics and governance, in light of related debates over global citizenship (Delanty 2000) and
‘global civil society’ (Kaldor 2003, Keane 2003). In this contribution, I employ interdisciplinary
gender and sexuality research and theory to illuminate contemporary processes through which
human rights, particularly as defined by the United Nations, are contested in relation to sexuality
and transgenderism by transnational social movements and international NGOs.
Using documentary sources, particularly key human rights conventions and legal statutes, I
trace and critically analyse the historical emergence of the key concepts ‘sexual orientation’ and
‘gender identity’ in law and human rights discourses. Even the most impressive recent global
scholarship on sexuality, gender and human rights, despite consistently deploying a critical
social analysis, lacks a focus on ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ as crucial elements
in the emerging conceptual architecture of global human rights discourses (Corrêa et al.
2008). Yet these concepts are central, and particularly important given that they translate
quite directly into various languages used most commonly in international organizations
where English does not predominate (for example, in French ‘l’orientation sexuelle et l’identité
de genre’; in Spanish, ‘la orientación sexual y la identitad de género’: Secrétariat d’État 2008).
In the analysis that follows, I contribute to answering all three of the questions posed in the
introduction to this volume. Question 1 asks, ‘How can recent global developments related to
LGBT human rights advocacy and organizing be explained by political and sociological
theories?’ In response, I demonstrate how the recent ascendance of the concepts ‘sexual orien-
tation’ and ‘gender identity’ in human rights organizing can be partly explained with reference
to sociological theories, including social constructionist and post-structuralist theories concern-
ing sexual and gender identities, which identify the concepts’ specifically Western origins and
hence explain their growing prominence in global governance and global civil society. Question
2 asks, ‘What is at stake in focusing on “human rights” rather than concepts such as “equality”,
“justice”, “liberation”, “self-determination” or “queer politics”?’ By identifying and analysing
the specific categories being employed to attempt reformulations of human rights discourses,
and by contrasting use of these particularly with the approach of ‘queer politics’, I illuminate
key issues at stake in a focus on ‘human rights’. Finally, question 3 asks, ‘How do transnational
human rights networks and global norms of LGBT rights affect domestic politics in both the
global North and global South?’ The analysis reveals ways in which international LGBT and
human rights NGOs, and associated transnational sexuality and gender rights networks, are
shaping global politics. It also illuminates some culturally specific implications of global
human rights discourses in both ‘global North’ and ‘global South’ contexts. While relationships
Contemporary Politics 139
between global and local levels are complex, mediated and considerably indeterminate, it is
suggested that the consolidation of the categories ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ as
pivotal elements in emerging global human rights discourses signals the establishment of a
new discursive framework, in tension with what can be called a simultaneously emergent
‘global queer politics’. The concept ‘queer politics’, while Anglo-American in origin (Warner
1993, Seidman 1996), is legitimate to use in a global context where it has become adopted
for its flexibility in some significant activist organizing in the global South – for example, in
India (Narrain and Bhan 2005), where Aravani, known by others as hijras, are a prominent ‘third
gender’ (Herdt 1994, Patel 2006), and where sexuality and gender forms elude Western
categories (Boyce 2007), problematizing the Western gender/sexuality distinction itself. In light
of such politics (and works cited here), sexuality and gender must be conceptualized as intertwined
in their relations to social structures, but without an assumption that they are distinguishable in
subjectivity or identity; the distinction between sexual orientation and gender identity is to be
approached as itself a product of a Western sexuality/gender distinction (Jackson 2000).

The discussion takes the following structure. The first section, ‘Gender, sexuality and human
rights’, offers a brief historical overview of the place of gender and sexuality in human rights
discourses, moving to focus on how issues of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ have
been dealt with in international human rights law and at the United Nations. The next section,
‘Orienting human rights: the politics of “sexual orientation”’, turns more specifically to the
concept of sexual orientation. It notes critiques of gay identity politics and ‘LGBT human
rights’ and then examines the emergence of ‘sexual orientation’ in national and international
laws, before discussing academic problematizations of this concept, from sociology, history,
post-structuralism and queer theory. Existing applications of these perspectives in law and
socio-legal studies are discussed. The following section, ‘Identifying human rights: the politics
of “gender identity”’, examines how issues of transgenderism and gender diversity relate to
international human rights law and discourses. Some academic discussions of the concept
‘gender identity’ are reviewed and the concept’s emergence in human rights discourses is con-
sidered in this light. The section ‘Queer dis-orientations and dis-identifications’ then examines
how recent queer theory, including the work of Sara Ahmed in her book Queer Phenomenology:
Orientations, Objects, Others (2006), has developed the most sustained critical account of the
concept ‘sexual orientation’, also with implications for conceptualizing ‘gender identity’. It is
argued that the ascendance of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ in human rights
discourses can usefully be interpreted, with reference to the work of Judith Butler (1990), as
marking the installation of the ‘heterosexual matrix’ in human rights discourses in a particular
new form, albeit subject to ongoing shifts and contestation. However, I argue against a queer
strategy of refuting and abandoning concepts of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’.
Instead I argue for the necessity of utilizing but contesting such categories. I conclude by
suggesting how LGBT, queer and allied NGOs, and related movements and networks might
advance this process.
Gender, sexuality and human rights

To understand the relationship of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ to human rights, it is
useful to begin by outlining the historically shifting relationship of gender and sexuality to
human rights, focusing on the United Nations human rights conventions. As discussed in the
introduction (Kollman and Waites, this volume), feminist commentators such as Ros Petchesky
(2000) have demonstrated the ways in which gendered assumptions have permeated human
rights conventions, and the related historical absence of ‘sexuality’ from these conventions.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations 1948), like other major human
140 Matthew Waites
rights conventions, such as the European Convention on Human Rights signed in 1950
(Council of Europe 2003), was formulated with rights to ‘privacy’, ‘family’ and ‘marriage’,
and the assumption of a binary model of sex and gender involving only ‘men’ and ‘women’,
but without mention of sexuality, revealing a patriarchal inheritance:
Article 12.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspon-
dence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation.
Article 16.
(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the
right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during
marriage and at its dissolution.
(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by
society and the State.
Since the emergence of feminist movements from the 1960s, feminists have problematized
key concepts used in the declaration such as ‘marriage’ and ‘the family’ – described by Millett
(1971) as ‘patriarchy’s chief institution’ – and have identified the public/private distinction
as culturally specific and central to women’s subordination in the domestic realm (Pateman
1988).
In light of feminist and queer theory, it can be suggested that the Universal Declaration has
been shaped by heterosexuality and ‘heteronormativity’, defined by queer theorists Lauren
Berlant and Michael Warner as ‘the institutions, structures of understanding and practical orien-
tations that make heterosexuality seem not only coherent – that is, organized as a sexuality – but
also privileged’ (Berlant and Warner 1998, p. 548). Yet it is also possible to recognize possibi-
lities for redefinition: for example, the concepts ‘family’ and ‘marriage’ are not explicitly
defined as involving male/female partnerships, so are potentially subject to imaginative reinter-
pretation. It is thus from a context of implicit assumptions about sex, gender and sexuality that
feminist attempts to address women’s rights, gender and sexuality as human rights issues have
emerged, as in the United Nations (1979) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (in force from 1981; Lockwood 2006).
‘Sexual rights’ has been described by Ros Petchesky as ‘the newest kid on the block’ in inter-
national debates about human rights (Petchesky 2000). The years since the early 1990s have seen
a variety of strategies of legal and political engagement with, and reinterpretation of, existing
human rights conventions in relation to sexuality. As Petchesky has documented, international
feminist activism led to references to sexuality emerging, first in relation to ‘health’ and ‘repro-
duction’, and then ‘rights’, in declarations from international conferences in Cairo (1994), and
Beijing (1995) following struggles with Christian and Islamic state delegations and international
organizations (Petchesky 2000, Girard 2007). These strategies have achieved considerable
extensions of the scope of ‘human rights’ (Corrêa et al. 2008).
The most important development in the contestation of United Nations human rights conven-
tions with respect to same-sex sexualities was the landmark ruling by the United Nations Human
Rights Committee in Toonen vs. Australia 1994 (Morgan 2000, p. 211). This found that non-
discrimination provisions concerning ‘sex’ in Article 2(1) of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (United Nations 1966, in force 1976) could be interpreted as also pro-
hibiting discrimination on grounds of ‘sexual orientation’, thus rendering discrimination against
same-sex sexual behaviour illegal when considered in conjunction with Article 17’s right to
privacy (ILGA 1997, Wintemute and Andenaes 2001). The significance of this ruling is
limited by the fact that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is only
legally enforceable in states which have signed the Covenant’s Optional Protocol; nevertheless,
this was a hugely important development. However, subsequent cases such as Juliet Joslin et al.
vs. New Zealand (1999), which upheld exclusion from civil marriage, and Young vs. Australia
(2003), which successfully challenged pensions available only to married and unmarried
heterosexual couples, but did not face opposing arguments, show that the Human Rights
Committee has not interpreted the Covenant as requiring non-discrimination with respect to
marriage or partnership rights when ‘protection of the family’ may be at issue (Saiz 2004,
p. 54, Wintemute 2005, pp. 195– 197).
As Ignacio Saiz has commented, ‘sexuality remains a battleground within the UN human
rights system’ (Saiz 2004, p. 50). Human rights relating to sexual orientation continue to be
opposed with reference to heteronormative understandings of cultural tradition, national identity
and religious belief (Buss and Herman 2003, Rothschild 2005, Corrêa et al. 2008). A resolution
in the former UN Commission on Human Rights (CHR) on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary
executions (EJEs) in 2000 first mentioned ‘sexual orientation’, but UN world conferences,
including that in Beijing, have refused to address the issue (Girard 2007, pp. 340, 342).
Similarly, in the former CHR, a Brazilian resolution, ‘Human Rights and Sexual Orientation’,
was refused in 2003 and 2004, and dropped in 2005, after fierce opposition from members of
the Organization of The Islamic Conference (OIC) and the Holy See representing the Vatican
(Saiz 2004, pp. 51, 57, Girard 2007, O’Flaherty and Fisher 2008, pp. 229 – 230). Interestingly,
opponents criticized ‘sexual orientation’ as an ‘undefined term’ that, if defined as a human
right, could prevent protection of children (Saiz 2004, pp. 56– 57, Girard 2007, pp. 344– 346;
for relevant discussion, see Gamson 1997, Waites 2005a).
Transgender issues have been even more starkly absent from UN human rights debates,
despite the formulation of claims by transgender people into a suggested Bill of Gender Rights
in the USA in 1991, revised several times by the International Conference of Transgender
Law and Employment Policy into the International Bill of Gender Rights agreed in 1996
(Frye 2006; see also Graupner and Tahmindjis 2005, Stryker and Whittle 2006, Hines this
volume). ‘Gender mainstreaming’ policies at the UN, which might have opened new possibilities,
have understood ‘gender’ as a synonym for biological sex and hence have not prompted new
policy initiatives on sexuality or ‘gender identity’ (Charlesworth 2005, Secretary General
2005). ‘Gender identity’ is a controversial and highly marginal category.
Since the Commission on Human Rights was abolished in June 2006, UN reforms have replaced
it with a permanent standing Human Rights Council, which has yet to grasp the issues, despite
Norway’s groundbreaking statement to the council on ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’
at the end of 2006 (see Kollman and Waites this volume). However, initiatives such as the
Declaration of Montreal (International Conference on LGBT Human Rights 2006), and particularly
the launch at the Human Rights Council of the Yogyakarta Principles on the Application of Inter-
national Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (Corrêa and
Muntarbhorn 2007, Corrêa et al. 2008, p. 29, O’Flaherty and Fisher 2008) have assisted in
pushing ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ onto the international agenda. The Yogyakarta
Principles have been invoked successfully in court cases in states such as Nepal (Roy 2007).
Most recently, the issues have been raised, at last, in the United Nations General Assembly.
The NGO International Day Against Homophobia (IDAHO) inspired an initiative by France and
the Netherlands to develop a groundbreaking statement, read to the Assembly on 18 December
2008 by Argentina on behalf of 66 states (including six in Africa, but not the USA: Secrétariat
d’État 2008, United Nations General Assembly 2008a). This was met by an opposing statement
by 57 states, promoted by the OIC and read by Syria, which again argued against ‘so-called
notions’ of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’, suggesting that these notions ‘have no
legal foundation’, and expressing concern that ‘the notion of orientation spans a wide range
of personal choices that expand way beyond the individual’s sexual interest in copulatory
142 Matthew Waites
behaviour with normal consenting adult human beings, thereby ushering in the social normali-
zation, and possibly legitimization of many deplorable acts including paedophilia’; this state-
ment conflated paedophile subjectivity and behaviour (United Nations General Assembly
2008b). Similarly, the Holy See argued that ‘the categories “sexual orientation” and “gender
identity”, used in the text, find no recognition or clear and agreed definition in international
law’ (Archbishop Celestino Migliore quoted in Spero News 2008). A press release jointly
issued after the statements reveals a crucial international network of 10 NGOs working to
advance human rights irrespective of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’: Amnesty Inter-
national, ARC International, the Center for Women’s Global Leadership, COC Netherlands,
Global Rights, Human Rights Watch, ILGA, Inter-LGBT France, the International Day Against
Homophobia, and the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (see Inter-
national Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission 2008).
How can these developments be analysed with reference to social theories concerning gender
and sexuality? A questioning of how sexual and gender identities are socially constituted is
central to contemporary gender and sexuality theory, as social constructionist and queer
theory gain influence (Foucault 1981, Plummer 1981, Butler 1990, 2004, Warner 1993,
Seidman 1996), including research on the diverse organization of sexualities and genders in
non-Western cultures which has demonstrated the structuring of sexual relations along multiple
axes, including biological sex, gender and age, as well as the existence of more than two genders
in many cultures (Herdt 1994, 1997, Drucker 2000). Yet, this is in tension with the emphasis on
fixed adult sexual and gender identities (Waites 2005b, 2006), as apparent particularly in the
impact of the globalization of ‘lesbian’ and ‘gay’ identities on international lesbian and gay
politics (Drucker 1996, 2000, Adam et al. 1999, Phillips 2000, Altman 2001, Binnie 2004).
The relationship between essentialist and/or fixed conceptions of sexual and gender identity
and the political discourses and strategies employed by LGBT movements in global human
rights struggles is therefore a vital topic of academic and political debate.
There has been growing academic debate over the appropriate relationship of human rights to
‘sexual orientation’ (e.g. Heinze 1995) and, more recently, to transgenderism (Currah et al. 2006).
These issues have become a key focus of debate for feminist, lesbian, gay and queer theorists,
including Judith Butler (2005). The discussion here surveys, synthesizes and engages with exist-
ing work on ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ from various activist and disciplinary
perspectives to develop particular themes, first analysing the increasingly pervasive concept of
‘sexual orientation’.
Orienting human rights: the politics of ‘sexual orientation’

There has been a strong focus on seeking inclusion of ‘sexual orientation’ in human rights
discourses by LGBT international organizations and legal scholars since the 1990s (Heinze
1995, Wintemute 1995). This would parallel the inclusion of ‘sexual orientation’ in some state
laws, such as in South Africa’s constitution (Palmberg 1999). However, proposals by scholars
such as Heinze and Wintemute for protection against ‘sexual orientation’ discrimination to be a
human right have been critiqued by Morgan (2000), who demonstrates that human rights law is
shaped by ‘heteronormativity’ (Warner 1993, Berlant and Warner 1998). Morgan has convincingly
argued that such claims by Heinze and Wintemute tend to assume essentialist understandings of
sexual identity and ‘the naturalness of the homo-hetero binary’ (p. 215), and hence do not challenge
many aspects of ‘heteronormativity’ in human rights law and discourse. Drawing upon broader
critical and post-structuralist approaches, Morgan’s work also challenges Heinze’s legal positivism,
whereby Heinze claimed (methodologically and philosophically) to derive the principle of
‘sexual orientation’ as a human right from existing human rights. However, Morgan does not
focus closely on the restrictive implications of ‘sexual orientation’ as a concept in itself. How
should we critically evaluate this concept, as it is employed in attempts to redefine human rights?
Concerns have been expressed by many commentators over the years about employing the
concepts ‘homosexual’, ‘gay’, ‘LGBT rights’ and ‘LGBT human rights’ rather than less cultu-
rally specific concepts such as ‘sexual rights’. For example, Peter Drucker has discussed the
problematic relationship of LGBT identities to the global South (Drucker 2000). Dennis
Altman has commented that international LGBT organizations such as the International Gay
and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (IGLHRC) and the International Gay and Lesbian
Association (ILGA) ‘promote a universal language of identity politics’ (Altman 2001,
p. 126). Ignacio Saiz has drawn attention to the problematic ways in which an exaggerated
emphasis on ‘LGBT rights’ can unhelpfully detach some issues from other sexuality and
gender rights issues (Saiz 2004). So the critical questioning of the concept of ‘LGBT rights’
is well established in legal and human rights scholarship and activism – as suggested by this
volume’s title, The Global Politics of LGBT Human Rights (see also Seckinelgin this volume).
However, the concept ‘sexual orientation’ – like ‘gender identity’, to be addressed later –
has been subject to less critical scrutiny in relation to human rights. Typically, even commenta-
tors who problematize the relationships of identity labels such as ‘lesbian’ or ‘gay’ to
anti-discrimination and human rights law regard ‘sexual orientation’ as entirely unproblematic.
For example, in a recent human rights text, Bamforth has commented on the problematic nature
of ‘the idea of LGBT rights’; he discusses the criticism that ‘it is artificial to explain rights claims
in terms of a person’s lesbian or gay sexual orientation’, but there is no critical comment on the
inclusiveness of ‘sexual orientation’ as a category in itself (Bamforth 2005, pp. 226 –229; see
also Graupner and Tahmindjis 2005).
An important example of this is the work of the legal scholar Robert Wintemute, in which
there is reflection on the distinction between symbolic and instrumental uses of law in relation
to ‘LGBT’ categories, yet in which the category ‘sexual orientation’ is foregrounded as a foun-
dational category without problematization (Wintemute 1995, 1997, 2005). Wintemute favours
an expansive understanding of human rights, in which same-sex partnership rights are human
rights (Wintemute and Andenas 2001, Wintemute 2005), and has argued that sex discrimination
provisions in human rights law should be invoked to encompass ‘sexual orientation’ discrimi-
nation (Wintemute 1997). Wintemute contributed to advancing the Declaration of Montreal
from the International Conference on LGBT Human Rights (2006a), of which he was
co-president with Joke Swiebel when this was held in Canada in July 2006 (Swiebel this
volume). The Declaration uses the categories ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ to
formulate its proposals for worldwide government policies against discrimination, although it
also uses ‘LGBT’ and the concept ‘LGBT human rights’ extensively. The concept ‘homosexu-
ality’ is also used without clarification of whether this refers to identity or behaviour, therefore
conflating these: for example, section 1, ‘Essential Rights’, states that ‘Nine countries punish
homosexuality with the Death Penalty’ (p. 1) (for a critique of such conflations of identity
and behaviour via analysis of ‘homosexual act’ in the history of English law, see Moran 1996).
But while the implications of using ‘homosexual’ and ‘LGBT’ have been widely criticized, it
is the concept ‘sexual orientation’ above all which is now being advanced for incorporation in
global human rights law and discourse. It is therefore necessary to focus on this concept and critically
evaluate the costs and benefits of its use. Just as Moran (1996) has investigated ‘the homosexual(ity)
of law’, we need to investigate the ‘sexual orientation’ of human rights discourses. It has been argued
since the emergence of gay liberation (Wittmann 1969–70, p. 381) that the concept implies undesir-
able restrictions upon forms of sexual subjectivity, identity and ‘ways of being’ (Bech 1997).
It is first useful to examine the history of ‘sexual orientation’ in national and international
laws. The federal state of Quebec in Canada was the first government in the world (other than
144 Matthew Waites
a city) to include ‘sexual orientation’ in its anti-discrimination legislation in 1977 (International

Conference on LGBT Human Rights 2006b, p. 27). In Canada, it has been ruled by the Supreme
Court since the early 1990s that ‘sexual orientation’ discrimination is prohibited (Stychin 1995,
p. 109). South Africa, however, was the first state explicitly to prohibit ‘sexual orientation’
discrimination, in 1994, in its constitution (Louw 1998, p. 141, Palmberg 1999).
In Europe, the European Court of Human Rights has come to rule all sexual orientation
discrimination unacceptable (Council of Europe 2003, Graupner 2005, p. 117). The European
Union (EU)’s Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) included an anti-discrimination clause, which
included ‘sexual orientation’, Article 6a, following lobbying by the International Lesbian and
Gay Association (Bell 1998, p. 65). Subsequent measures included European Council Directive
2000/78/EC, requiring all EU states to prohibit ‘sexual orientation’ discrimination in public and
private sector employment and vocational training (Wintemute 2005, p. 190). In the UK, the
concept ‘sexual orientation’ tended initially to emerge in law via rulings of the European
Court (and former Commission) of Human Rights (e.g. Waites 2005a, p. 160) but later also
via EU law, and has now been written into the Equality Act 2006, which created a new
Commission for Equality and Human Rights from 2007. The novelty of ‘sexual orientation’
acquiring this centrality in UK law and policy is apparent in its absence from the index of
Moran’s authoritative The Homosexual(ity) of Law (Moran 1996).
At the international level, ‘sexual orientation’ is the concept now mobilized in claims for
reinterpretation and reform of human rights, as, for example, by Human Rights Watch
(2005). In the Yogyakarta Principles, ‘sexual orientation’ is utilized, defined as follows:
Sexual Orientation is understood to refer to each person’s capacity for profound emotional,
affectional and sexual attraction to, and intimate and sexual relations with, individuals of a different
gender or the same gender or more than one gender. (Corrêa and Muntarbhorn 2007, p. 6, footnote 1)
‘Sexual orientation’ is thus defined by footnote to encompass both subjectivity (‘attraction to’)
and behaviour/action (‘relations with’), in a manner which could implicitly include bisexuality
(‘with individuals . . . of more than one gender’). But, interestingly, the Introduction to the
Yogyakarta Principles states in its opening paragraph that ‘Sexual orientation and gender
identity are integral to every person’s dignity and humanity’ – a universalist claim which can
be questioned, for example, in light of groups defining themselves as ‘asexual’ (Scherrer
2008). Interestingly, with respect to sexuality, ‘identity’ is now generally avoided in favour of
‘orientation’ in the human rights claims of key groups, whereas ‘gender identity’ has become
standard in relation to transgenderism (Wintemute 1995, p. 188, Human Rights Watch 2005).
Having outlined the emergence of the concept ‘sexual orientation’, it is now useful to examine
academic analyses of the concept in sociology and queer theory, and their influence on some critical
scholarship in law. The concept has been debated in sexuality studies, including legal and political
studies, and also within LGBT and queer social and political movements, but perhaps not as much as
many scholars in sexuality studies might think. In general, the concept is more used in biomedical
and psychological literature (e.g. Herek 1998, Whitehead and Whitehead 2009) than in the social
sciences. A review finds the concept of ‘orientation’ absent, for example, from the title of any
article in the international journal Sexualities (which has a social focus), and also from a surprising
number of core texts for the social study of sexuality, lesbian and gay studies and queer theory (e.g.
Butler 1990, Beasley 2005), despite exceptional examples of greater attention to this ‘fragile and
tendentious construct’, implicated in ‘orientationalist accounts’ (Wilton 2004, pp. 21, 75).
The concept has become increasingly used in biomedical and psychological research and
sexological texts since the 1980s. Wilson and Rahman (2005, p. 9) provide an overview of
research on the ‘psychobiology of sex orientation’, including the ‘gay gene’, which exemplifies
how this approach views sexual orientation as ‘a fundamental aspect of our underlying human
nature’. As Wilton commented in a sociological review of such biomedical science approaches

and ‘discourses of orientation’, ‘They produce a strong construct of something called sexual
orientation, a taxonomic tool by which human beings are subdivided’ (Wilton 2004, p. 20).
Related to the influence of the natural sciences, the concept has been emerging to increasing
prominence in legal and policy literature and statutes, as previously described. Given that
‘sexual orientation’ was employed in anti-discrimination law from the late 1970s, the lack of
earlier detailed critical attention to the concept in politics and law research is perhaps surprising.
However, the concept ‘sexual orientation’ was first problematized in the sociological litera-
ture. Ken Plummer’s foundational social constructionist text The Making of the Modern Homo-
sexual (1981) distinguished ‘two broad ways of approaching the problem of building a
homosexual identity: the sexual orientation model and the identity construct model’. Plummer
stated that ‘the orientation model is found among geneticists, clinicians and behaviourists
alike and suggests that a person’s sexual orientation is firmly established by mid childhood’
(Plummer 1981, p. 68). The alternative ‘identity-construct view’ in this account was that of
symbolic interactionists. Plummer proposed a synthesis of these two approaches, but in general
he supported the interactionist critique (1981, p. 71).
The important point in the present context is that critical accounts such as Plummer’s have
associated the concept ‘sexual orientation’ with medical and psychological theories in which
‘sexual orientation’ is conceptualized as a fixed and given characteristic of an individual, at
least after a given period of childhood. Existing research has shown how medical and psycho-
logical perspectives on sexuality inform and structure political debates: for example, in the
UK, the concept ‘sexual orientation’ was foregrounded by the British Medical Association
(BMA), and also (with explicit reference to the BMA) by the leading UK lesbian and gay organ-
ization Stonewall, in support for equalization of the age of consent for sex between men (British
Medical Association 1994, Waites 2003, 2005a, 2005b). Such analysis, together with work
demonstrating the international power of health and medicine discourses (Corrêa et al. 2008,
29 –33) also influenced by the legacy of Foucault (1981), suggests the value of examining the
extent to which biomedical and psychological expertise concerning ‘sexual orientation’ is
implicated in global configurations of power.
Following social constructionist interventions from sociologists such as Plummer, the concept
‘sexual orientation’ became subject to critical interrogation during the ‘social constructionist/
essentialist debate’ over the formation of sexual identities (Stein 1992). Increasingly, the notion
of sexual orientation as a universal characteristic defined by desire with respect to gender was
questioned, ever more so with the emergence of what became known as ‘queer theory’, which
challenged gay and lesbian identity politics. In Epistemology of the Closet (1990), widely cited
as one of the founding texts of ‘queer theory’, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick commented:
It is a rather amazing fact that, of the very many dimensions along which the genital activity of one
person can be differentiated from that of another [. . .], precisely one, the gender of object choice,
emerged from the turn of the century, and has remained as the dimension denoted by the now
ubiquitous category of ‘sexual orientation’. (Sedgwick 1990, p. 8)
Here Sedgwick neatly identified a central issue, that ‘orientation’ is overwhelmingly interpreted
as existing in relation to gender. This is clearly limiting from the point of view of a queer sexual
politics concerned with validating forms of sexual desire and practice that do not have this focus
(e.g. Warner 1993, Seidman 1996). On similar lines, the anthropologist Gilbert Herdt has
tellingly commented: ‘Sexual orientation and identity are not the keys to conceptualizing a
third sex and gender across time and space’ (Herdt 1994, p. 47).
A particular concern, which helps illuminate broader issues, is the incompatibility of ‘sexual
orientation’ with ‘bisexuality’, in light of the bisexual politics that has identified a prevailing
146 Matthew Waites
homosexual/heterosexual binary in Western societies as excluding bisexuality (Storr 1999,

Hemmings 2002, Waites 2005b). As Sedgwick noted, ‘sexual orientation’ tends overwhelmingly
to be understood in relation to a particular gender, and this occurs in a context where the
existence of only two genders, men and women, is assumed. In the context of these dominant
understandings of the categories ‘man’ and ‘woman’, in a dichotomous relationship of both
difference and perhaps opposition, the dominant meaning of ‘sexual orientation’ is that it
refers to an individual’s desire towards one gender or the other – man or woman. Within this
framework of understandings, bisexuality is unthinkable and nonsensical as a singular ‘sexual
orientation’, or as multiple simultaneous ‘sexual orientations’ (since the latter would conflict
with dominant Western meanings of sexuality and ‘sexual orientation’ as a single core aspect
of a singular self: Foucault 1981). In this context, it is unsurprising to find that, historically,
‘bisexuality’ has generally not been described in these terms, as indicated by their almost
complete absence from the index of Storr’s edited collection Bisexuality: A Critical Reader,
which encompasses historical and contemporary medical, psychological, psychoanalytic,

sexological and critical social scientific literature (Storr 1999).
The social constructionist and queer theory approaches to ‘sexual orientation’ outlined here
have not been critically focused by many sociologists into applied discussions of law, policy or
human rights – although in her final book Tamsin Wilton commented on the concept’s arrival in
UK law: ‘even the most liberalizing legislation will – inevitably – continue to replicate the
orientationalist discourses of sexuality which attempt to contain desire within restrictive
parameters in the interests of reproducing heteronormativity’ (Wilton 2004, p. 178). Wilton
also productively problematized how ‘Human rights legislation emanating from the European
Union [. . . assumed] an essentialist sexual orientation’ (Wilton 2004, p. 183).
However, some earlier critical academic commentaries from the margins of the discipline of law
have proposed a queer approach to ‘sexual orientation’. Carl Stychin addressed the category in
the concluding chapter of Law’s Desire, in which he proposes the development of a ‘Queer
Legal Theory’ (Stychin 1995, pp. 140–156). In the context of dilemmas posed about identity
in debates over postmodernism and post-structuralism, Stychin commented (via quotation of
Judith Butler):
Thus, sexual orientation as a category underscores the problems of categorical thinking more gen-
erally. Claims that the category warrants legal protection from invidious discrimination demand
that it be understood as coherent, possessing some degree of stability, and also that sexual orientation
is a relatively central aspect of individual identity. In other words, it must be argued that the primary
gender direction of sexual object choice creates a category that matters and that warrants legal pro-
tection. The category is important because it has been historically invested with a meaning which
must be acknowledged and remedied. At the same time, the category must maintain a certain
provisionality in its deployment, so that: ‘as much as identity terms must be used, as much as
“outness” is to be affirmed, these same notions must become subject to a critique of the exclusionary
operations of their own production [Butler 1993, p. 227].’ (quoted from Stychin 1995, p. 155)
He continued:
While the exclusionary forces of political movements should always be recognized, political life
continues, and our efforts must be aimed, not simply at the exclusions performed around identities,
but principally at the exclusions caused by the constitution of the dominant background norm itself.
(Stychin 1995, p. 155)
Stychin thus called attention to the specificity of the label ‘sexual orientation’, and the need to
analyse uses of this category. However, in its context, his final statement can be read as a defence
of installing categories such as ‘sexual orientation’ in law, as a means to contest and challenge
heteronormativity. Here Stychin shares the general emphasis of Michael Warner’s queer theory
on the pervasive power of heteronormativity, and the political necessity of decentring this
(Warner 1993). Yet, there remains scope for further critical attention to how ‘sexual orientation’
is defined and the complex implications of its use in human rights law and discourses. Before
pursuing this, the issue of ‘gender identity’ must be examined, prior to an integrated final
discussion.
Identifying human rights: the politics of ‘gender identity’

Transgender politics has established a political concern with the concept ‘gender identity’.
Transgenderism is here understood as a concept encompassing a variety of forms of identifi-
cation and behaviour defying the dominant sex and gender binaries, as explored in the emerging
interdisciplinary field of transgender studies. Contemporary transgender theorists, often influ-
enced by post-structuralism and queer theory (Butler 1990, 1993, 2004), typically argue that
Western societies are structured by a restrictive and dualistic two-gender system (Currah
et al. 2006, Stryker and Whittle 2006, Hines 2007, this volume), and sometimes also that the
global South is misinterpreted in the West in this light (Patel 2006).
There is debate in progress over whether transgender people should aspire to ‘simply human
rights’, rather than ‘transgender rights’, as suggested by Shannon Price Minter. In response to
this, Kendall Thomas has argued convincingly for a more critical approach to human rights,
which could address the problematic formulation of existing human rights with respect to trans-
gender people through a ‘strategic transgender human politics’ (see essays by Minter and Thomas
in Currah et al. 2006). The approach of Thomas suggests the need to consider revising existing
human rights discourses, perhaps by introducing new concepts, although he problematizes
‘gender identity’ as a restrictive concept.
‘Gender identity’ tends to privilege notions of a clear, coherent and unitary identity over
conceptions of blurred identifications. In dominant medical and psychological understandings
of transsexualism, an experience of ‘gender identity’ at odds with the biologically defined
sexed body can lead to a diagnosis of ‘gender dysmorphia’, often as a prelude to medical
treatment and surgery (Waites 2006). Yet, in contemporary social and cultural theory, notions
of ‘identity’ as complete and straightforward are challenged. For example, Stuart Hall, in his
influential discussion of the concept, argues for the benefits of a focus on processes of
‘identification’ rather than ‘identity’, in order to grasp the always incomplete process of relating
subjectivity to social identity through the process he calls ‘articulation’ (Hall 1996). The
dominant dualist model of gender identity in most societies is also at odds with social research
documenting ‘third genders’, as, for example, in many societies (Herdt 1994).
In this light, a dilemma has emerged for transgender politics focused on strategic efforts to
win legal change, over whether to utilize the concept ‘gender identity’ or a more diffuse and
encompassing concept such as ‘gender expression’, which is used by some radical trans-activists
to ‘dis-establish gender’ (discussed in essays by Currah and Thomas in Currah et al. 2006). This
choice particularly faced the two openly transgender-identified individuals – Professor Stephen
Whittle of Manchester Metropolitan University, UK (Stryker and Whittle, 2006), and Mauro
Cabral of the National University of Córdoba, Argentina (Cabral and Viturro, 2006) – who par-
ticipated in the meeting of 29 human rights experts that produced the Yogyakarta Principles in
2006 (according to Cabral at the launch of the principles in South America, at a plenary on 28
June of the International Association for the Study of Sexuality, Culture and Society Conference,
‘Disorganized Pleasures: Changing Bodies, Rights and Cultures’, in Lima, Peru, 27– 29 June
2007). While ‘sexual orientation’ was necessarily the legal category to use with respect to sexu-
ality, given its existing presence in international human rights law through the case of Toonen
(discussed above), existing international case law did not provide a similarly clear, existing
category to address transgender issues, although Sweden had included ‘gender identity’ in a
148 Matthew Waites
CHR resolution on extrajudicial executions in 2005 (Girard 2005, p. 351). According to Cabral,
his decision with Whittle to adopt ‘gender identity’, despite misgivings, was influenced by
considerations of political strategy in engaging with other human rights experts present at the
conference (some of whom might have preferred the Yogyakarta Principles to focus only on
sexual orientation), as well as with broader contexts. However, Whittle and Cabral successfully
argued for inclusion of the broad notion of ‘expressions of gender’ in the principles’ footnoted
definition of ‘gender identity’:
Gender identity is understood to refer to each person’s deeply felt internal and individual experience
of gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth, including the personal
sense of the body (which may involve, if freely chosen, modification of bodily appearance or func-
tion by medical, surgical or other means) and other expressions of gender, including dress, speech
and mannerisms. (Corrêa and Muntarbhorn 2007, p. 6, footnote 2)
It can be noted that the phrase ‘expressions of gender’ is not entirely open or unproblematic from
the perspective of radical queer and transgender theory seeking destabilization of gender iden-
tities, since the phrase might tend to be interpreted as implying an inner, essential, pre-existing
psychological ‘gender’ that is ‘expressed’. However, the most significant aspects of the
Yogyakarta Principles to note with respect to transgender politics are that, on the one hand,
the prominent concept ‘gender identity’ privileges identity above gender blurring, but, on the
other hand, the definition of this concept opens possibilities for future contestation of meanings.
This discussion suggesting the persistence of a dualism in conceptions of gender interpreted
via ‘gender identity’ clearly recontextualizes what can be understood by a ‘sexual orientation’,
to which the following section now returns to commence an integrated analysis.
Queer dis-orientations and dis-identifications

Having reviewed past problematizations of ‘orientation’, it is useful to initiate a move towards a
deeper reconceptualization of the concept by considering evidence of its dominant cultural mean-
ings. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (Brown 1993) defines ‘orientation’ as a noun
apparently deriving from the verb ‘orient’ in the mid-nineteenth century, in a variety of ways:
1. The placing or arranging of something to face the east; (specifically) the construction of a
church with the longer axis running due east and west; b. The action of turning to the east,
especially in an act of worship.
2. Position or arrangement of a building, natural object, etc., relative to the points of the
compass or other defined data.
3. The action or process of ascertaining one’s bearings or relative position, or of taking
up a known bearing or position; the faculty of doing this, sense of relative position.
b. (Chemistry) The orienting effect of a substituent in a ring; the process of ascertaining
the relative positions of the substituents in a ring.
4. (figuratively) A person’s (especially political or psychological) attitude or adjustment in
relation to circumstances, ideas, etc.; determination of one’s mental or emotional
position. b. An introductory talk, course, etc., given especially to newcomers to a
university, organization, etc.
These definitions are followed by illustrative quotations, which for the fourth includes:
‘J. GATHORNE-HARDY An adult’s sexual orientation is determined between the ages of
one and five.’ It is apparent that this quotation associates ‘sexual orientation’ with the first
part of the fourth, figurative, definition.
The dictionary thus offers an interesting set of supposedly authoritative definitions of
‘orientation’. It can be noted that they all share an emphasis upon conceptualizing orientation
as being relative to given, and sometimes specific, characteristics of a real external world: ‘to
face the east’ (1); ‘relative to the points of the compass or other defined data’ (2); ‘sense of rela-
tive position’ (3); ‘in relation to circumstances, ideas, etc.’ (4). In some, such as definitions 2 and
4, there is the sense that orientation is relative to a particular aspect of reality (‘relative to . . .
defined data’; ‘relation to circumstances’). It can be suggested that these definitions resonate
with wider cultural meanings, whereby orientation is understood to be relative to specific
objects. For sexual orientation, these objects are specific forms of sexed and gendered individ-
uals, which we can conceptualize as constituted through the ascription of sex through gender
discourses (cf. Butler 1990, 1993, 2004).
In conjunction with the earlier critical discussion of the dominance of biomedical and
psychological conceptions of sexual orientation as a fixed characteristic, this suggests that the
dominant meaning of ‘sexual orientation’ tends to be as a characteristic, is defined relative
to gendered individuals understood as men and women. A problem with this dominant under-
standing of sexual orientation, from the queer perspective suggested by Sedgwick above, is
the tendency for it to be associated with the privileging of a traditional gender dichotomy in
defining sexual desire.
In response to such limiting conceptions, the question, ‘what does it mean to be orientated?’,
is of growing concern in queer studies, having recently also been posed by Sarah Ahmed in her
book Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others (Ahmed 2006). A view of sexuality
as part of an experience of being that is constituted in relation to social context is advanced.
Ahmed usefully foregrounds phenomenology as a resource for reconceptualizing subjectivity,
and particularly ‘sexual orientation’.
According to Harvie Ferguson, phenomenology in the twentieth century from its origin in
the work of Edmund Husserl ‘seizes experience as the essential subject matter of philosophy’,
and seeks to overcome dualisms separating individuals from the objects of their perception
(Ferguson 2006, pp. 37 – 38):
Perception does not consist in staring blankly at something lodged in consciousness, inserted there by
some strange wonder as if something were first there and then consciousness would somehow
embrace it . . . it is an accomplishment that must be new for every novel object. (Husserl, Ideas
Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy: First Book; quoted
in Ferguson 2006, p. 37)
Phenomenology focuses on the power of things to generate ‘wonder’ and ‘astonishment’; the
‘initiatory power of phenomena themselves’ (Ferguson 2006, p. 17). A ‘phenomenon is, first of
all, phenomenal; something astonishing’ (ibid., p. 17). This focus refutes an emphasis on the
detachment of subjects from the objective world, in favour of understanding states of subjectiv-
ity as being inseparable from experience of the external world, including people in the social
world. At the heart of phenomenology is an insistence on the absence of absolute distinctions
between subjects, conceived with an emphasis on the embodiment of lived experience, and
the objects of their perceptions; also central is an emphasis upon the power of objects to
inspire emergent and novel subjective states in those who perceive or encounter them (see
also Moran 2000).
Much sociological literature on the social construction of sexualities has tended to refer to
psychoanalysis to allow for the social formation of desires in the unconscious, albeit while
rejecting most psychoanalytic thinking for its assumptions about how sex and gender binaries
shape the unconscious (e.g. Weeks 1985). Desire and consciousness tend to be presented as
distinct. A great benefit of phenomenology, by contrast, is that it permits conceptualization of
a spectrum of forms and aspects of subjectivity, some of which might be like dominant con-
ceptions of unconscious ‘desire’, while others, importantly, can be thought of as at least partially
aspects of ‘consciousness’. Ahmed comments that ‘consciousness is intentional – it is directed
150 Matthew Waites
towards something’ (Ahmed 2006, p. 27). In this light, ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’
can be reconceptualized as aspects of subjectivity which are, at least to a degree, part of
consciousness, not entirely beyond the scope of individual will.
However, crucially, a phenomenological approach also emphasizes that for a subject to
become orientated it must be ‘lining itself up with the direction of the space it inhabits’; ‘orien-
tation involves aligning body and space’ (Ahmed 2006, pp. 13, 14). Ahmed quotes Husserl’s
view that interpretation of an object involves a ‘twofold directedness’ (E. Husserl, Ideas:
General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1969,
quoted in Ahmed 2006, p. 28). As expressed by Ahmed, ‘First, I am directed toward an
object (I face it) and then I take a direction toward it (for instance, I might or might not
admire it)’ (Ahmed 2006, p. 28). This captures Husserl’s idea that ‘orientation’ and ‘admira-
tion’ are not entirely involuntary, but, simultaneously, that we need a sense of orientation in
order to make sense of and negotiate our world. From this, Ahmed develops a valuable
queer critique of orientation as directionality, arguing that in certain political contexts we

should resist the directions that are given to us by our context, and adopt a different sense of
direction.
Phenomenology thus suggests that ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ are not
features of subjectivity entirely beyond consciousness and intentionality. Hence, it can be
invoked in defiance of notions of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ as definitive
natural psychological conditions, or as socially constituted but ‘fixed’ (Waites 2005b,
2006). Yet simultaneously, and highly productively, phenomenology provides a conceptual
vocabulary for understanding how our experience of consciousness is structured, how the
external world presents itself to our consciousness in regular ways, and how we develop
dispositions towards these (Ahmed 2006). It appears to provide a way of conceptualizing
agency and structure within consciousness.
‘Sexual orientation’, it was established earlier, is a concept historically aligned with a pre-
sumed heterosexual/homosexual binary, which has marginalized forms of sexual identification
such as bisexuality and queerness. But the important question in evaluating the concept’s entry
into human rights discourses is whether it is open to reinterpretation, via the assignation of
new meanings, and contestation of the discourses in which it is contextualized. In light of
queer, post-structuralist theorizations of sexual subjectivity, and particularly Ahmed’s (2006)
queer phenomenology, it can be suggested that – particularly if reconceptualized in light of
multiple forms of ‘gender identity’ and ‘gender expression’ (Stryker and Whittle 2006) –
‘sexual orientation’ is potentially a flexible enough concept to be redefined and expanded in
meaning, to be applicable to an individual’s subjectivity understood as potentially changeable
rather than as a continuous state.
However, such a notion of ‘sexual orientation’ is profoundly in tension with the essentialist
understandings existing in mainstream scientific and public discourses. Stretching the concept
‘sexual orientation’ to contest and displace the latter would involve a process leading to uncer-
tainties about meaning, ambiguity and incoherence.
For example, as suggested earlier, naming bisexuality as a singular ‘sexual orientation’
alongside notions of a ‘gay’, ‘lesbian’ or ‘heterosexual’ orientation generates certain degrees
of inconsistency. Nevertheless, in recent decades, bisexuality has occasionally, and increasingly,
been understood as a ‘sexual orientation’, including by some states. This is the case in the UK
Equality Act 2006, which created a new Commission for Equality and Human Rights
(from October 2007), and redefined the UK legal and policy framework relating to equality
and diversity. Fascinatingly, in section 35 of this legislation, ‘sexual orientation’ is defined as
follows:
35. General
In this Part-
[. . .]
‘sexual orientation’ means an individual’s sexual orientation towards –
(a) persons of the same sex as him or her,

(b) persons of the opposite sex, or
(c) both.
Hence, by the single, little word ‘both’, the law attempts to encompass bisexuality within ‘sexual
orientation’.
Minimizing the language used to ‘both’ appears to be a conscious or unconscious move
by legislators to avoid drawing attention to or confronting this new and distinctive aspect of
the law, or any incoherence of meaning it might generate. Yet here, in any case, is evidence
that legislators can and do institutionalize explicit definitions of the concept ‘sexual orientation’
in law which move beyond the notion of attraction to a single sex or gender. But the preceding
discussion tends to suggest that ‘sexual orientation’ cannot entirely perform this conceptual and
legal work. The concept cannot be coherent if the singular concept orientation is understood as a
core aspect of the self and is said to be conceivable towards persons of a single sex and persons
of both sexes, if an orientation is imagined in the context of gender difference (particularly if in
a context presented as gender dichotomy or ‘opposite’ sexes, as in the UK law quoted).
As noted earlier, international human rights conventions also use a binary model of the sexes,
involving only men and women; and hence similar incoherences will arise if ‘sexual orientation’
is invoked in human rights discourses as encompassing bisexuals, without grasping issues raised
in bisexual politics and related critiques of ‘sexual orientation’ (cf. Hemmings 2007, Ahmed
2008). Bisexuality tends not to make sense as a ‘sexual orientation’ in the terms of the
gender dualism in existing human rights conventions and dominant international discourses;
but, more significantly, this serves to illustrate the wider point that installing ‘sexual orientation’
in human rights discourses entails some exclusionary effects for a huge range of people world-
wide who do not relate sexually to only a single gender.
Attempts to broaden conceptions of ‘sexual orientation’ in international human rights dis-
course to encompass attraction to multiple genders, as in the Yogyakarta Principles definition
cited earlier, will not necessarily fail – since law and culture are full of contradictions.
However, such attempts are likely to produce or reveal certain kinds of incoherence, slippages
and disjunctures between signifiers and their intended signified’s, with potential to be
destabilizing. Attempts to use ‘sexual orientation’ as a universal category in human rights law
may nevertheless be sustainable, but it seems appropriate to expect and look for incoherence,
and perhaps use this to contest and redefine ‘sexual orientation’, sexuality and gender.
In light of the mutability of ‘sexual orientation’ (and implicitly ‘gender identity’) suggested
by Ahmed (2006), it is not necessary to argue for the abandonment of these concepts in human
rights struggles. However, it is necessary to develop political analysis in the context of recog-
nition of their dominant meanings. Politics and human rights literature, NGOs and activists
allied to a radical sexual politics should in certain contexts start noting explicitly the exclusionary
effects of using the concepts ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ within currently dominant
discursive frames, in order to transform their dominant meanings.
Conclusion: global queer politics beyond the Yogyakarta Principles

We are witnessing a significant degree of mainstreaming of the concepts ‘sexual orientation’
and ‘gender identity’ in international human rights discourse. But, as in critical discussions of
152 Matthew Waites
gender mainstreaming, it is apparent that while such processes may introduce new conceptual
vocabularies, more radical understandings of gender, sexuality and power relations, and associ-
ated interpretations of concepts, risk being lost (Charlesworth 2005, Squires 2007).
There are major problems with using these concepts in the context of their dominant main-
stream meanings. The activist Hossam Bahgat has commented, based on his experience in the
Middle East: ‘There is a problem with sexual orientation as a concept, with identity frameworks.
[. . .] In my country [Egypt], people don’t get arrested for who they are but for what they do;
conduct is the issue. Of course identity politics are still useful for activism but we need to look
at other frameworks’ (quoted in Girard 2007, p. 350). This illuminates how use of ‘sexual orien-
tation’ and, implicitly, ‘gender identity’ focuses attention on subjectivity before behaviour.
However, the discussion of queer phenomenology here has suggested ways to conceptualize
‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ as aspects of subjectivity that are not fixed and
profoundly embedded in the self, but which can be complex and fluid, and change.
As demonstrated in this analysis, dominant understandings of ‘sexual orientation’ tend to

assume that it refers to a fixed characteristic of individuals, existing independently of their
current socio-cultural reality, and that this characteristic involves a desire towards individuals
of a single sex. However, it has been argued that ‘sexual orientation’ is not inherently incompa-
tible with sexual diversity with respect to bisexuality, or queer sexualities that decentre gender as
the focus of sexual ‘object-choice’, ‘desire’ and/or behaviour. Rather, ‘sexual orientation’ and
‘gender identity’ hold a range of potential meanings that are subject to contestation. The con-
cepts bring forms of representation which should be evaluated with an appreciation that there
are both costs and benefits in any form of language used – placing ‘sexual orientation’ and
‘gender identity’ in human rights conventions and discourse brings representation for certain
groups in ways that simply addressing ‘sexuality’ and ‘gender’ cannot (cf. Saiz 2004).
It is already apparent in some existing human rights case law that ‘sexual orientation’ has
been interpreted with detailed reference to biomedical and psychological knowledge claims.
For example, in the important case of Sutherland vs. the United Kingdom, which led to a
ruling in favour of an equal age of consent for sex between men, the European Convention’s
implications were decided by the European Commission of Human Rights with explicit refer-
ence to the evidence of the British Medical Association and other medical authorities concerning
the age at which ‘sexual orientation’ is established (European Commission of Human Rights
1997, paras 56– 66, British Medical Association 1994; for critique of this evidence, see
Waites 2005a, pp. 175 – 182, 2005b). There has been limited research on the role of biomedical
and psychological expertise in human rights case law and discourses concerning ‘sexual orien-
tation’ and ‘gender identity’ at the global level, but leading commentators emphasize the power
of biomedical and health ‘science’ discourses in international governance (Corrêa et al. 2008,
pp. 29– 33). In this context, as the concepts arrive in global human rights discourse, one powerful
interpretation of these concepts mediating between religious moralism and queer radicalism will
be that of secular sexology and psychobiology (Wilson and Rahman 2005).
Foucault argued in 1977 that ‘the movements for “sexual liberation” ought to be understood
as movements of affirmation starting with sexuality. Which means two things: they are move-
ments that start with sexuality, with the apparatus of sexuality in the midst of which we’re
caught, and which make it function to the limit; but at the same time, they are in motion relative
to it, disengaging themselves and surmounting it’ (Foucault 1988, p. 155). Both tendencies
can be seen in the employment of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ in the Yogyakarta
Principles – the terms are adopted from biomedical and psychological understandings, yet the
broad definitions offered open possibilities for transcending these. But the crucial analytic issue
to grasp is that, irrespective of authorial intent, when introduced into mainstream human rights
discourse, these concepts become subject to interpretation in the context of broader gender and
sexuality discourses operating in global governance and a fragile, emergent global civil society.
This is the context in which it is necessary to develop a strategy for engaging with these
concepts, appraising costs and benefits for political movements.
Those allied to a broadly conceived ‘global queer politics’, including many individuals in
pro-LGBT, pro-queer and human rights NGOs, legal practitioners, and political activists, need
more vigorously to conceptualize, define and situate the concepts – and contest their meanings.
This is not to deny that there will certainly be times and contexts when the best strategy is to
avoid definitions and challenges. The repeated suggestions of opponents that ‘sexual orientation’
encompasses paedophile desires, for which LGBT activists have often been ill prepared, are evi-
dence that sometimes at the forefront of conflict it is best to avoid rather than engage in definitional
debates (Girard 2007; see also Gamson 1997, Waites 2005a). Nevertheless, in many contexts –
public debates, the media and school education – NGOs and activists need to switch from unpro-
blematized, undefined uses of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’, to taking the opportunities
that arise to offer careful, explicit definitions of the concepts that are compatible with the diversity
of sexual and gender subjectivities discussed in this essay. This might generally include use of the
definitions in the Yogyakarta Principles, but perhaps with additional notes or commentary. What
is needed is a practical strategy that can be operationalized at multiple levels, not only in official
documents, but also in public speech in a wide variety of settings. It is most definitely not a sufficient
political strategy or focus, but it should be recognized that the process of contestation has the
potential to facilitate valuable dialogue over sexual and gender diversity.
In relation to global governance, this analysis demands reappraisal of developments at the
United Nations. Even as ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ become at least partially incor-
porated in the global human rights framework, this does not signal the unqualified dissipation of
inequalities in human rights relating to sexuality and gender. Rather it implies the installation of a
particular new Western form of Butler’s ‘heterosexual matrix’ in human rights law and discourse,
a reconfigured ‘grid of intelligibility’ in which ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ are key
nodal points at the intersections of sexuality and gender (Butler 1990, p. 151). To contest this
emergent matrix, not only in law and politics, but also via education and inventive public
engagements throughout culture and society, is a vital task for global queer politics.
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On: 01 January 2015, At: 08:59

Critique of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’

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Critique of ‘sexual orientation’ and ‘gender identity’ in human rights

ISSN 1356-9775 print/ISSN 1469-3631 online

approached as itself a product of a Western sexuality/gender distinction (Jackson 2000).

Gender, sexuality and human rights

Orienting human rights: the politics of ‘sexual orientation’

a city) to include ‘sexual orientation’ in its anti-discrimination legislation in 1977 (International

nature’. As Wilton commented in a sociological review of such biomedical science approaches

homosexual/heterosexual binary in Western societies as excluding bisexuality (Storr 1999,

which encompasses historical and contemporary medical, psychological, psychoanalytic,

Identifying human rights: the politics of ‘gender identity’

Queer dis-orientations and dis-identifications

queer critique of orientation as directionality, arguing that in certain political contexts we

(a) persons of the same sex as him or her,

Conclusion: global queer politics beyond the Yogyakarta Principles

As demonstrated in this analysis, dominant understandings of ‘sexual orientation’ tend to

Butler, J., 2004. Undoing gender. London: Routledge.

Anglais.pdf [accessed 21 December 2008].

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