Παν.

Πελοποννήσου
Τμήμα Πληροφορικής & Τηλεπικοινωνιών

∆ΙΚΤΥΑ ΕΠΙΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΩΝ ΙΙ

∆ρ. Ιωάννης Μοσχολιός

[email protected], 2710 – (37)2283

ΟΚΤΩΒΡΙΟΣ 2014
 Recommended Reading
Greek literature
A. Tanenbaum, D. Wetherall, ∆ίκτυα Υπολογιστών, 5η έκδοση, εκδόσεις
Κλειδάριθμος, 2011.

English literature
W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, 10th edition, Pearson
Education, 2013.
J. F. Kurose and K.W. Ross, Computer Networking – A top down approach, 5th
edition, Pearson Education, 2009.
H. G. Perros, Connection-oriented Networks SONET/SDH, ATM, MPLS and
OPTICAL NETWORKS, John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
 Introduction
Chapter 1 (Tanenbaum’s book)

• Uses of Computer Networks

• Network Hardware
• Network Software
• Reference Models
• Example Networks
• Network Standardization
• Metric Units
 Uses of Computer Networks

Computer networks are collections of autonomous

computers, e.g., the Internet
They have many uses:
• Business Applications »
• Home Applications »
• Mobile Users »
These uses raise:
• Social Issues »
This text covers networks for all of these uses
 Business Applications
Companies use networks and computers for resource
sharing with the client-server model:

request

response

Other popular uses are communication, e.g., email, VoIP,

and e-commerce
 Home Applications
Homes contain many networked devices, e.g., computers,
TVs, connected to the Internet by cable, DSL, wireless, etc.
Home users communicate, e.g., social networks, consume
content, e.g., video, and transact, e.g., auctions
Some application use the peer-to-peer model in which
there are no fixed clients and servers:
 Mobile Users
Tablets, laptops, and smart phones are popular devices;
WiFi hotspots and 3G cellular provide wireless connectivity.
Mobile users communicate, e.g., voice and texts, consume
content, e.g., video and Web, and use sensors, e.g., GPS.
Wireless and mobile are related but different:
 Social Issues

• Network neutrality – no network restrictions

• Content ownership, e.g., DMCA takedowns
• Anonymity and censorship
• Privacy, e.g., Web tracking and profiling
• Theft, e.g., botnets and phishing

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Network Hardware (1)
There is no generally accepted taxonomy into which all computer networks fit,
but two dimensions stand out as important: transmission technology and scale.
Two types of transmission technology are in widespread use: broadcast links
and point-to-point links.
Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines. To go from the source
to the destination on a network made up of point-to-point links, short messages,
called packets, visit one or more intermediate machines. Point-to-point
transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one receiver is sometimes
called unicasting.
On a broadcast network, the communication channel is shared by all the
machines on the network; packets sent by any machine are received by all the
others. An address field within each packet specifies the recipient.
 Network Hardware (2)

Networks can be classified by their scale:

Scale Type
Vicinity PAN (Personal Area Network) »
Building LAN (Local Area Network) »
City MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) »
Country WAN (Wide Area Network) »
Planet The Internet (network of all networks)

Distance is important as a classification metric because different technologies are used

at different scales.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
Network Hardware (3)
 Personal Area Network

Connect devices over the range of a person

Example of a Bluetooth (wireless) PAN:

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Local Area Networks (1)
Connect devices in a home or office building
Called enterprise network in a company

Wireless LAN Wired LAN with

with 802.11 switched Ethernet

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 Local Area Networks (2)

The Access Point, wireless router, or base station, relays packets between the
wireless computers and also between them and the Internet. Being the AP is like being
the popular kid as school because everyone wants to talk to you. However, if other
computers are close enough, they can communicate directly with one another in a peer-
to-peer configuration.
There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi,
which has become very widespread. It runs at speeds anywhere from 11 to hundreds of
Mbps.
 Local Area Networks (3)

Wired LANs use a range of different transmission technologies. Most of them use
copper wires, but some use optical fiber.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance. Knowing these bounds helps with the task of
designing network protocols. Typically, wired LANs run at speeds of 100 Mbps to 1
Gbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
Newer LANs can operate at up to 10 Gbps. Compared to wireless networks, wired
LANs exceed them in all dimensions of performance.

It is just easier to send signals over a wire or through a fiber than through the air. The
topology of many wired LANs is built from point-to-point links. IEEE 802.3, popularly
called Ethernet, is, by far, the most common type of wired LAN. Fig. shows a sample
topology of switched Ethernet. Each computer speaks the Ethernet protocol and
connects to a box called a switch with a point-to-point link. Hence the name. A switch
has multiple ports, each of which can connect to one computer. The job of the switch is
to relay packets between computers that are attached to it, using the address in each
packet to determine which computer to send it to.
 Metropolitan Area Networks
Connect devices over a metropolitan area
Example MAN based on cable TV:

Cable television is not the only MAN. Recent developments in highspeed wireless
Internet access have resulted in another MAN, which has been standardized as IEEE
802.16 and is popularly known as WiMAX.
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Wide Area Networks (1)
Connect devices over a country
Example WAN connecting three branch offices:

The company probably leases the transmission lines (since most companies do not
have their own lines).
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Wide Area Networks (2)
An ISP (Internet Service Provider) network is also a WAN.
Customers buy connectivity from the ISP to use it.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Wide Area Networks (3)
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a WAN built from virtual
links that run on top of the Internet.

Now the company/customer uses the Internet (might be multiple ISPs) for connectivity.
The links are virtual in the sense that they refer to some path via the Internet rather than
a particular transmission line.
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 Network Software

• Protocol layers »
• Design issues for the layers »
• Connection-oriented vs. connectionless service »
• Service primitives »
• Relationship of services to protocols »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Protocol Layers (1)
Protocol layering is the main structuring method used to
divide up network functionality.

• Each protocol instance

talks virtually to its peer

• Each layer communicates

only by using the one below

• Lower layer services are

accessed by an interface

• At bottom, messages are

carried by the medium

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 Protocol Layers (2)
Example: the philosopher-translator-secretary architecture
Each protocol at different layers serves a different purpose

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 Protocol Layers (3)
Each lower layer adds its own header (with control inform-
ation) to the message to transmit and removes it on receive

Layers may also split and join messages, etc.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Design Issues for the Layers
Each layer solves a particular problem but must include
mechanisms to address a set of recurring design issues
Issue Example mechanisms at different layers
Reliability despite Codes for error detection/correction (§3.2, 3.3)
failures Routing around failures (§5.2)
Network growth Addressing (§5.6) and naming (§7.1)
and evolution Protocol layering (§1.3)
Allocation of resources Multiple access (§4.2)
like bandwidth Congestion control (§5.3, 6.3)
Security against Confidentiality of messages (§8.2, 8.6)
various threats Authentication of communicating parties (§8.7)

The point is that there are some issues that are not wholly the responsibility of any one
layer, and they crop up again and again in the text. E.g., reliability is often considered a
key function of the transport layer (i.e., making transport reliable) yet reliability
mechanisms also appear in other layers (error codes in the link layer, routing around
failures in the network layer, and replication at the application layer).
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless
Service provided by a layer may be kinds of either:
• Connection-oriented, must be set up for ongoing use
(and torn down after use), e.g., phone call
• Connectionless, messages are handled separately,
e.g., postal delivery

TCP provides a reliable bytestream service at the Transport layer, IP provides unreliable
datagram service at the Network layer.
More examples: RTP (used to carry VoIP data) provides unreliable connection service;
802.11 (WiFi) provides acknowledged datagram service; Ethernet provides unreliable
datagram service. CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Service Primitives (1)
A service is provided to the layer above as primitives
Hypothetical example of service primitives that may provide
a reliable byte stream (connection-oriented) service:

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 Service Primitives (2)
Hypothetical example of how these primitives may be used
for a client-server interaction
Client Server
LISTEN (0)
CONNECT (1) Connect request
ACCEPT (2)
Accept response RECEIVE

SEND (3) Request for data

RECEIVE SEND (4)
Reply
DISCONNECT (5) Disconnect
DISCONNECT (6)
Disconnect

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Relationship of Services to Protocols

Recap:
• A layer provides a service to the one above [vertical]
• A layer talks to its peer using a protocol
[horizontal]

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 Reference Models

Reference models describe the layers in a network

architecture

• OSI reference model »

• TCP/IP reference model »
• Model used for this text »
• Critique of OSI and TCP/IP »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 OSI Reference Model
A principled, international standard, seven layer model to
connect different systems

– Provides functions needed by users

– Converts different representations
– Manages task dialogs
– Provides end-to-end delivery
– Sends packets over multiple links
– Sends frames of information
– Sends bits as signals

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 The Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over
a communication channel. The design issues have to do with
making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit it is received by
the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.

Typical questions here are what electrical signals should be

used to represent a 1 and a 0, how many nanoseconds a bit
lasts, whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both
directions, how the initial connection is established, how it is torn
down when both sides are finished etc.
 The Data Link Layer
Its main task is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that appears
free of undetected transmission errors. It does so by masking the real errors so
the network layer does not see them. It accomplishes this task by having the
sender break up the input data into data frames transmit the frames
sequentially.

If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by
sending back an ACK frame. Another issue is how to keep a fast transmitter
from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation mechanism may
be needed to let the transmitter know when the receiver can accept more data.

Broadcast networks have an additional issue: how to control access to the

shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer, the MAC deals with
this problem.
 The Network Layer (1)
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design
issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.

Routes can be based on static tables that are ‘‘wired into’’ the network and
rarely changed, or more often they can be updated automatically to avoid
failed components. They

can be determined at the start of each conversation. Finally, they can be

highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet to reflect the
current network load.

Handling congestion is also a responsibility of the network layer, in

conjunction with higher layers that adapt the load they place on the
network. More generally, the QoS provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.)
is also a network layer issue.
 The Network Layer (2)

When a packet has to travel from one network to another to

get to its destination, many problems can arise. The
addressing used by the second network may be different
from that used by the first one. The second one may not
accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols
may differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to
overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous
networks to be interconnected.
In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the
network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
 Transport Layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above
it, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network
layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that isolates
the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware
technology over the course of time.
The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to
the session layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The
most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point
channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they
were sent. However, other possible kinds of transport service exist,
such as the transporting of isolated messages with no guarantee about
the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to multiple
destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is
established.
 The Session Layer
The session layer allows users on different machines to
establish sessions between them.
Sessions offer various services, including dialog control
(keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit), token
management (preventing two parties from attempting the
same critical operation simultaneously), and
synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to allow
them to pick up from where they left off in the event of a
crash and subsequent recovery).
 The Presentation Layer
Unlike the lower layers, which are mostly concerned with
moving bits around, the presentation layer is concerned
with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
In order to make it possible for computers with different
internal data representations to communicate, the data
structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract
way, along with a standard encoding to be used ‘‘on the
wire.’’
The presentation layer manages these abstract data
structures and allows higher-level data structures (e.g.,
banking records) to be defined and exchanged.
 The Application Layer
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are
commonly needed by users. One widely used application
protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the
basis for the World Wide Web.
When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the
page it wants to the server hosting the page using HTTP. The
server then sends the page back. Other applicatio protocols
are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
 TCP/IP Reference Model (1)
A four layer model derived from experimentation; omits
some OSI layers and uses the IP as the network layer.

IP is the
“narrow waist”
of the Internet

Protocols are shown in their respective layers

ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 TCP/IP Reference Model (2)
The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP, plus a
companion protocol called ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) that helps
it function. The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are
supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly a major issue here, as is congestion
(though IP has not proven effective at avoiding congestion).

TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating

on one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the internet.
It segments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one
on to the internet layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles
the received messages into the output stream. TCP also handles flow control to
make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages than it
can handle.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for

applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide
their own. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply
queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery, such as transmitting speech or video.
 Model Used in this Book

It is based on the TCP/IP model but we call out the

physical layer and look beyond Internet protocols.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Critique of OSI & TCP/IP

OSI:
+ Very influential model with clear concepts
− Models, protocols and adoption all bogged down by politics
and complexity

TCP/IP:
+ Very successful protocols that worked well and thrived
− Weak model derived after the fact from protocols

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Example Networks

• The Internet »
• 3G mobile phone networks »
• Wireless LANs »
• RFID and sensor networks »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Internet (1)

Before the Internet was the ARPANET, a decentralized,

packet-switched network based on Baran’s ideas.

Nodes are IMPs,

or early routers,
linked to hosts

56 kbps links

ARPANET topology in Sept 1972.

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 Internet (2)

The early Internet used NSFNET (1985-1995) as its

backbone; universities connected to get on the Internet

T1 links
(1.5 Mbps)

NSFNET topology in 1988

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 Internet (3)

The modern Internet is more complex:

• ISP networks serve as the Internet backbone
• ISPs connect or peer to exchange traffic at IXPs
• Within each network routers switch packets
• Between networks, traffic exchange is set by
business agreements
• Customers connect at the edge by many means
− Cable, DSL, Fiber-to-the-Home, 3G/4G wireless, dialup
• Data centers concentrate many servers (“the cloud”)
• Most traffic is content from data centers (esp. video)
• The architecture continues to evolve

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 Internet (4)

Architecture of the Internet

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 3G Mobile Phone Networks (1)

3G network is based on spatial cells; each cell provides

wireless service to mobiles within it via a base station

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 3G Mobile Phone Networks (2)
Base stations connect to the core network to find other
mobiles and send data to the phone network and Internet

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 3G Mobile Phone Networks (3)

As mobiles move, base stations hand them off from one

cell to the next, and the network tracks their location

Handover

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Wireless LANs (1)

In 802.11, clients communicate via an AP (Access

Point) that is wired to the rest of the network.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Wireless LANs (2)

Signals in the 2.4GHz ISM band vary in strength due to

many effects, such as multipath fading due to reflections
− requires complex transmission schemes, e.g., OFDM

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 Wireless LANs (3)

Radio broadcasts interfere with each other, and radio

ranges may incompletely overlap
− CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) designs are used

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 RFID and Sensor Networks (1)

Passive UHF RFID networks everyday objects:

− Tags (stickers with not even a battery) are placed on objects
− Readers send signals that the tags reflect to communicate

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 RFID and Sensor Networks (2)

Sensor networks spread small devices over an area:

− Devices send sensed data to collector via wireless hops

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 Network Standardization

Standards define what is needed for interoperability

Some of the many standards bodies:

Body Area Examples

ITU Telecommunications G.992, ADSL
H.264, MPEG4
IEEE Communications 802.3, Ethernet
802.11, WiFi
IETF Internet RFC 2616, HTTP/1.1
RFC 1034/1035, DNS
W3C Web HTML5 standard
CSS standard

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 Metric Units

Prefix Exp. prefix exp.

K(ilo) 103 m(illi) 10-3
M(ega) 106 μ(micro) 10-6
G(iga) 109 n(ano) 10-9

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 End

Chapter 1

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011