a) What is protocol?

In computer networks

In computer networks, a protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is
transmitted and received between devices. It defines the format, timing, sequencing, and error
handling of messages exchanged over the network. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP,
and FTP.

b) What is cladding?

In the context of computer networks, cladding refers to a protective layer surrounding an optical
fiber core. It's typically made of glass or plastic and serves to confine the light within the core by
reflecting it inward, preventing signal loss and interference. Cladding is crucial for maintaining
the integrity of the transmitted data in optical communication systems.

c) What is proxy server?

A proxy server is an intermediary server that sits between a client device, such as a computer or
smartphone, and the destination server it's trying to access on the internet. When a client makes
a request for a resource, such as a web page or a file, the request is first sent to the proxy
server. The proxy server then forwards the request to the destination server on behalf of the
client, retrieves the response, and sends it back to the client.

d) What is meant by class test Addressing

It seems there might be a typo in your question. Did you mean "classful addressing" in computer
networks? If so, classful addressing refers to the traditional method of dividing IPv4 addresses
into classes based on the leading bits of the address. These classes, denoted by Class A, B, C, D,
and E, each have a predefined range of addresses and are used to allocate IP addresses to
networks of different sizes.

e) What is transmission medin?

Guided Media: These are physical cables or wires that provide a direct connection between
devices. Examples include twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables.Unguided
Media: Also known as wireless or unbounded media, these transmit data through the air or
space without the use of physical cables. Examples include radio waves, microwaves, and
infrared signals.

f) What is internetwork?

An internetwork, also commonly known as an internet, is a collection of interconnected

networks that use common communication protocols to enable data exchange between
devices and systems across different networks. Essentially, it's a network of networks. The
most famous example is the Internet, which is a global internetwork connecting millions of
devices and networks worldwide.
g) Define stegnography

Steganography is the practice of concealing a message, file, image, or video within another
message, file, image, or video in such a way that the existence of the hidden content is not
readily apparent. Unlike encryption, which aims to secure the content of a message by making it
unreadable to unauthorized parties, steganography focuses on hiding the existence of the
message itself.

h) What is Hub?

In computer networking, a hub is a basic networking device that serves as a central connection
point for multiple devices in a local area network (LAN). When a device connected to a hub
sends data, the hub broadcasts the data to all other devices connected to it, regardless of
whether the data is intended for a specific device.

1) What is Standard Ethernet?

Standard Ethernet refers to the original Ethernet technology developed by Xerox, which later
became an industry standard. It operates at speeds of up to 10 megabits per second (Mbps)
and uses coaxial cable as the transmission medium. Standard Ethernet employs a bus topology,
where all devices on the network share the same communication channel.

J) What is Firewall?

A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. Its primary function is to
establish a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks, such as
the internet, to prevent unauthorized access, data breaches, or malicious attacks.

Q2) Attempt any four of the following:

a) What is Computer Network? Explain Goals of computer Network.

A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other devices that can
communicate and share resources with each other. These devices can include computers,
servers, routers, switches, printers, and more.

Resource Sharing: One of the fundamental purposes of computer networks is to enable the
sharing of hardware and software resources among multiple users. This includes sharing files,
printers, internet connections, and other peripherals, which helps improve efficiency and
collaboration within organizations.Communication: Computer networks facilitate
communication between users, whether they are in the same building or located across the
globe. Networks allow for the exchange of messages, emails, files, and real-time data, enabling
seamless communication and collaboration.Data Transfer: Networks enable the transfer of data
between devices, allowing users to access information stored on remote servers, share files,
and transmit multimedia content. This enables efficient data exchange and access to resources
from anywhere within the network.Remote Access: Networks provide the capability for users to
access resources and services remotely, regardless of their physical location. This enables
employees to work from home or access company resources while traveling, increasing
flexibility and productivity.

b) Explain Function of each layer ISO-OSI reference model.

Sure, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model consists of seven layers, each
responsible for specific functions in the process of data communication between devices.
Here's a brief explanation of the function of each layer:Physical Layer (Layer 1): This layer deals
with the physical connection between devices and transmission of raw binary data over the
physical medium. It defines characteristics such as voltage levels, cable types, and data
transmission rates.Data Link Layer (Layer 2): The data link layer is responsible for establishing
and maintaining a reliable link between devices over the physical layer. It handles framing, error
detection, and flow control to ensure data integrity during transmission.Network Layer (Layer 3):
This layer is responsible for routing packets between different networks to enable end-to-end
communication. It determines the optimal path for data transmission, handles addressing, and
performs logical addressing.Transport Layer (Layer 4): The transport layer ensures reliable data
delivery between endpoints by segmenting data into smaller packets, providing error checking
and correction, and implementing flow control and congestion control mechanisms.Session
Layer (Layer 5): The session layer establishes, maintains, and terminates communication
sessions between applications on different devices. It handles session setup, synchronization,
and checkpointing to facilitate data exchange.Presentation Layer (Layer 6): The presentation
layer is responsible for translating, encrypting, and compressing data to ensure compatibility
between different systems and applications. It deals with data formatting, encryption, and data
compression.Application Layer (Layer 7): The application layer provides interfaces for
applications to access network services and resources. It includes protocols such as HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, and DNS, which enable communication between users and network services.

C) what is wireless transmission explain any one media in detail

Wireless transmission refers to the method of transmitting data or information without the use
of physical cables or wires, typically through the air or electromagnetic waves.

Access Point (AP): An access point is a networking hardware device that acts as a central
transmitter and receiver of Wi-Fi signals. It connects wireless devices to a wired network,
allowing them to communicate with each other and access network resources.Wireless
Network Interface Card (NIC): A wireless NIC, also known as a wireless adapter, is a hardware
component installed in devices such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets to enable wireless
connectivity. It communicates with access points to send and receive data over Wi-Fi
networks.Router: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between different
networks. In the context of Wi-Fi, routers often include built-in access points and provide
connectivity between wireless devices and the internet or other networks.

d) Explain IEEE standard 802.11 (WLAN) in detail

IEEE standard 802.11, commonly known as Wi-Fi, defines a set of specifications for wireless
local area networking (WLAN) technology. It enables devices such as computers, smartphones,
tablets, and IoT devices to communicate and connect to a local network or the internet
wirelessly. Here's an overview of IEEE 802.11 WLAN in detail:

Background: IEEE 802.11 was first introduced in 1997 and has undergone several revisions and
updates over the years to improve performance, security, and interoperability. The standard
operates in various frequency bands, including 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, and supports different data
rates and modulation schemes.2. Architecture: IEEE 802.11 WLAN typically consists of the
following components:Access Point (AP): An access point is a networking device that serves as
a central hub for wireless communication. It connects wireless devices to a wired network and
facilitates data transmission between wireless devices and other network resources.Wireless
Stations (STAs): Wireless stations are devices equipped with Wi-Fi capabilities, such as laptops,
smartphones, tablets, and IoT devices. They communicate with access points to send and
receive data over the wireless network.3. Key Features:Multiple Versions: IEEE 802.11 has
evolved through various versions, including 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, and
802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6). Each version offers improvements in terms of data rates, range, and overall
performance.

e) What is attack? Explain various types of attacks.

the context of computer security, an attack refers to any malicious attempt to compromise the
confidentiality, integrity, or availability of information or systems. Attackers may exploit
vulnerabilities in software, hardware, or human behavior to gain unauthorized access, steal
sensitive data, disrupt operations, or cause other forms of harm.

Malware Attacks:Viruses: Self-replicating programs that infect other files or systems by

attaching themselves to host files.Worms: Malicious programs that spread independently
across networks, exploiting vulnerabilities to infect other systems.

Phishing Attacks:Email Phishing: Fraudulent emails disguised as legitimate communications

from trusted entities to deceive recipients into revealing sensitive information, such as login
credentials or financial details.

Denial-of-Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attacks:DoS Attacks: Attempts

to disrupt or disable a network, server, or service by overwhelming it with a high volume of
traffic or resource requests.DDoS Attacks: Coordinated attacks involving multiple compromised
devices (botnets) to flood a target with traffic from multiple sources, making it difficult to
mitigate.
Q3) Attempt any four of the following:

a) What is Bridge? Explain types of bridges.

A bridge is a network device that connects multiple network segments or LANs (Local Area
Networks) together and forwards traffic between them based on MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses. Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and are commonly
used to segment larger networks, improve performance, and enhance network security.

Simple Bridge:A simple bridge connects two network segments and forwards traffic between
them based on MAC addresses. It operates transparently and does not modify the data packets
it forwards.Transparent Bridge:A transparent bridge is similar to a simple bridge but includes
additional features for automatic MAC address learning and aging. It maintains a table of MAC
addresses associated with each network segment and uses this information to make
forwarding decisions.Source Routing Bridge:A source routing bridge forwards traffic based on
predefined routes specified in the data packets themselves. Each packet includes a source
routing table indicating the path it should follow through the network.Remote Bridge:A remote
bridge connects network segments over long distances using telecommunications links, such
as leased lines or dial-up connections. It enables geographically dispersed LANs to
communicate with each other as if they were part of the same network.

b) Explain different modes of communication with sketch.

Communication modes describe the direction in which data flows between communicating
devices. There are three primary modes of communication:Simplex Communication: In simplex
communication, data flows in only one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver. The
receiver cannot send data back to the transmitter. This mode is analogous to a one-way street,
where traffic flows in only one direction.�Half-Duplex Communication: In half-duplex
communication, data can flow in both directions, but not simultaneously. Devices take turns
transmitting and receiving data. While one device is transmitting, the other device listens, and
vice versa. This mode is analogous to a walkie-talkie, where only one person can talk at a
time.�Full-Duplex Communication: In full-duplex communication, data can flow in both
directions simultaneously. Both devices can transmit and receive data at the same time,
enabling bidirectional communication without the need for turnaround time. This mode is
analogous to a two-way street, where traffic can flow in both directions simultaneously.

c) Explain TCP/IP protocol in detail.

Internet Protocol (IP):IP is responsible for addressing and routing packets of data across
networks. It provides a unique IP address to each device connected to a network, allowing
routers to forward packets to their intended destinations based on these addresses.IP operates
at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model and uses a best-effort delivery mechanism,
where packets are transmitted with no guarantee of delivery or order.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communication

between devices by establishing virtual connections and ensuring the delivery of data packets in
the correct order and without errors.TCP operates at the transport layer (Layer 4) of the OSI
model and offers features such as flow control, error detection, and congestion control to
optimize data transmission over networks.TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a
connection between the sender and receiver before data transfer begins. It also implements
mechanisms such as acknowledgment (ACK) and sequence numbers to ensure reliable delivery
and order of data packets.

d) What is guided media? Explain any one in detail.

Guided media, also known as wired media, are physical communication channels that use
cables or wires to transmit signals between devices. These cables provide a physical pathway
for electromagnetic signals to travel, ensuring that the signals reach their intended destinations
with minimal loss or interference. One example of guided media is twisted pair cable

Twisted Pair Cable:Twisted pair cable is one of the most common types of guided media used
in networking and telecommunications. It consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk, which occurs when signals
from one wire interfere with signals on adjacent wires. Twisted pair cable is widely used for
both voice and data transmission in LANs (Local Area Networks), telephone systems, and
broadband internet connections.

e) What is Fast Ethernet? Explain categories of Fast Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet is an enhanced version of Ethernet, a widely used networking technology that
allows devices to communicate and share resources within a local area network (LAN). Fast
Ethernet offers significantly higher data transmission rates compared to traditional Ethernet,
providing faster network performance and improved bandwidth utilization. Fast Ethernet
operates at speeds of up to 100 megabits per second (Mbps), which is ten times faster than the
original Ethernet standard.

Q4) Attempt four of the following:

a) What is topology? Explain types of topology

Topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a network, including how devices are
interconnected and how data flows between them. It defines the structure of the network and
determines how devices communicate with each other.

Star Topology:In a star topology, all devices in the network are connected to a central hub or
switch. Data transmission occurs through the hub, which acts as a central point of
communication.
Bus Topology:In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single shared communication
medium, such as a coaxial cable. Data is transmitted along the bus, and devices receive data
intended for them

Ring Topology:In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming
a closed loop or ring. Data travels in one direction around the ring, with each device forwarding
the data to the next device.

Mesh Topology:In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device in the
network, forming a fully interconnected network. There are two types of mesh topologies: full
mesh and partial mesh.

Hybrid Topology:A hybrid topology combines two or more different types of topologies to form
a single network. For example, a network may consist of a combination of star and bus
topologies, or a combination of ring and mesh topologies.

b) What is addressing? Explain different types of addresses.

Addressing in networking refers to the process of assigning unique identifiers to devices and
resources within a network, allowing them to be uniquely identified and communicated with.
Addresses are essential for routing data packets to their intended destinations and ensuring
that communication occurs smoothly across networks

MAC Address (Media Access Control Address):A MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to
each network interface card (NIC) or network adapter. It is hardcoded into the device's hardware
and is used at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

IP Address (Internet Protocol Address):An IP address is a unique numerical identifier assigned

to each device connected to a network. It is used for addressing and routing packets of data
across networks.

Port Number:A port number is a 16-bit identifier used by transport layer protocols, such as TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol), to identify specific
applications or services running on a device.

c) Explain propagation method

Propagation method in computer networks refers to the transmission of signals, data, or

information through the communication medium from the sender to the receiver. It involves the
movement of electromagnetic waves or electrical signals over the physical medium, such as
cables, fiber optics, or wireless channels.

Types of Propagation Methods:Wireline Propagation: In wireline propagation, signals are

transmitted over physical cables or wires, such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, or fiber
optic cables. The transmission medium affects the speed and attenuation of signals, with fiber
optic cables offering higher data rates and longer transmission distances compared to copper
cables.

Factors Affecting Propagation:Distance: Propagation distance affects signal strength and

attenuation, with signals weakening as they travel farther from the transmitter. Longer
distances may require signal amplification or repeaters to maintain signal integrity.

Propagation Characteristics:Propagation Delay: Propagation delay is the time taken for signals
to travel from the sender to the receiver. It depends on the propagation speed of
electromagnetic waves through the transmission medium, which is typically close to the speed
of light in free space for wireless propagation and slower in guided media such as cables.

d) What is copyright? Explain-applications of copyright.

Copyright is a legal concept that grants exclusive rights to creators or authors of original works,
allowing them to control the use and distribution of their creations. It provides creators with the
legal protection and recognition for their intellectual property, encouraging innovation, creativity,
and the production of new works.

Protection of Creative Works:Copyright protects the rights of authors, artists, musicians,

filmmakers, and other creators by granting them exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute,
perform, display, and adapt their works. It prevents others from copying or using their works
without permission.Economic Rights:Copyright provides creators with economic incentives by
allowing them to monetize their works through licensing, sales, royalties, and other commercial
arrangements. Creators can earn income from the sale of their copyrighted works and negotiate
licensing agreements with distributors, publishers, broadcasters, and other users.Moral
Rights:In addition to economic rights, copyright also includes moral rights that protect the
integrity and attribution of creative works. Moral rights give creators the right to be credited as
the author of their works, prevent the distortion or mutilation of their works, and control the
association of their works with certain causes or ideologies.Encouragement of Creativity and
Innovation:Copyright encourages creativity and innovation by providing creators with the
assurance that their works will be protected and rewarded. It fosters a thriving creative
ecosystem where artists, authors, filmmakers, musicians, and other creators can express
themselves freely and contribute to cultural and intellectual enrichment.

e) What is Bluetooth? Explain its architecture.

Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology that enables short-range data exchange

between electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, headphones, speakers,
smartwatches, and IoT (Internet of Things) devices. It uses radio frequency (RF) technology to
transmit data over short distances, typically up to 10 meters (33 feet), without the need for
cables or wires.

Bluetooth Radio:The Bluetooth radio layer is the physical layer responsible for transmitting and
receiving RF signals between devices. It operates in the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and
Medical (ISM) band at frequencies of 2.4 to 2.485 GHz.

Bluetooth Baseband:The Bluetooth baseband layer is responsible for managing the physical link
between devices, including connection establishment, packet formatting, error correction, and
power control.

Bluetooth Host Controller Interface (HCI):The Bluetooth Host Controller Interface (HCI) is a
standardized interface between the Bluetooth hardware (radio and baseband) and the Bluetooth
software stack running on the host device (e.g., smartphone, computer).

Bluetooth Link Manager Protocol (LMP):The Bluetooth Link Manager Protocol (LMP) is
responsible for establishing and managing Bluetooth connections between devices. It handles
tasks such as device discovery, pairing, authentication, encryption, link supervision, and power
management.

Q5) Write short note on: any two

a) Switch.

A switch is a network device that operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and
is used to connect multiple devices within a local area network (LAN). It functions as a central
point of communication, forwarding data packets between devices based on their MAC (Media
Access Control) addresses. Here's a short note on switches in computer networks:

b) Virtual LAN.

A Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN) is a logical network segment created within a physical
network infrastructure. VLANs allow network administrators to segment a single physical LAN
into multiple virtual LANs, each functioning as a separate broadcast domain. Devices within the
same VLAN can communicate with each other as if they were connected to the same physical
network, while traffic between VLANs must be routed through a router or Layer 3 switch.