Mechanics of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composite Structures

Prof. Debabrata Chakraborty

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Guwahati

Module-04
Macromechanics of Lamina-II
Lecture-07
Strength Failure Criteria-Part I

Hello, welcome to the 4th module of this course mechanics of fiber reinforced polymer
composite structures. In the last module we have been discussing the macromechanics of lamina
and we understood the stress-strain relationship of a lamina with reference to the principal
material axis as well as with reference to the global axis and we also understood the influence of
the direction dependent stiffness of lamina on the stress-strain behavior and specially we
understood how this behaviour is different from that of isotropic materials, like the existence of
coupling terms like shear normal response coupling terms, even the normal-normal response
term in orthotropic lamina is different from that in isotropic material. So, we understood also the
influence of the fiber angle on the stress-strain behaviour of such lamina.
The importance of understanding the behaviour of lamina in the design of a laminate is also
discussed. For example, if we want to design a laminate and the requirement is such that the
laminate should have a good stiffness along x, we must put some of the laminae whose fibers are
directed along x, ie. 0° fiber orientation. But having known that those laminae are actually weak
in the transverse direction, therefore if the requirement is also to have a good stiffness in the
transverse direction, we must also place some lamina with 90° fiber orientation. The number of
0° and 90° lamina depends upon what is the stiffness requirement. Suppose the stiffness in the x
and y directions required are equal then we must put equal number of 0° and 90° lamina.
Suppose in addition to that we also need the laminate to have a good shear resistance, then we
must put some lamina with 45° fiber orientation because we have understood that the shear
modulus is maximum when the fibers are oriented at an angle of 45°.
Number of such lamina in the laminate that is again decided by what is the kind of stiffness
required. So, having understood that, another important aspect of laminate design is that we also
need to know how a laminate performs under load whether subjected to a load whether it is safe,
therefore we must also know the strength of a laminate.

133
Now because the number of laminae actually stacked together to form a laminate, therefore the
strength of a laminate is definitely decided by the strength of the individual lamina comprising
that laminate. Therefore, it is important to understand the strength of a lamina. So, in this module
we will basically try to understand the strength of a lamina.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:05)

Note that this is again under macromechanics of lamina. Therefore, the strength failure theories,
we will be discussing is also under macromechanics, meaning that we will not consider the
individual constituents of the lamina. Like in the stress-strain relationship we have considered
the lamina to be homogeneous, here also we will consider the lamina to be homogeneous,
represented by the average properties and we will consider macromechanics failure theory.
Now, what is strength of a lamina? Suppose we consider a lamina subjected to a stress σ x along

x, (x-y is the global axes and 1-2 is the materials axes). So, we would like to know what is the
value of σ x at failure or in other words what is the maximum value of σ x it can withstand before

it fails. It could be even σ y , and we would be interested to know what is the σ y at failure.

Similarly, it could also be subjected to say shear τ xy and we will be interested to know what is

the maximum in-plane shear stress it can withstand before it fails. So, this is what exactly is the

134
strength of a lamina. Now it may not be always a single stress, it could be that a lamina is
experiencing all these stresses acting together as combined stresses and we need to know what
combination of these stresses will lead to the failure? So, this is what exactly we mean by the
strength of a lamina, we need to know that what maximum stress, a single stress or a
combination of stresses a lamina can actually withstand before it fails. Again, it is under
macromechanics, therefore the failure theories or failure criteria discussed will be basically
considering the lamina to be homogeneous and off course orthotropic.
Now, there are two types of approaches in the failure theories viz. phenomenological approach
where we are concerned with the phenomenon and what is the consequence. In this we do not go
into much of it is cause. For example, subjected to load, a lamina fails and we want to know what
the strength of a lamina is. So, we take a lamina and suppose load it in UTM and we look at the
stress-strain curve. It fails at a particular stress value and this is the failure point and the
corresponding stress is the failure stress or the strength of that particular lamina. Now how this
failure has taken place, the mechanisms, etc are not discussed.
A lamina is actually made of a fiber and matrix and when the lamina is loaded, there are many
localized failures, like maybe one of the fibers fails but failure of one fiber does not necessarily
mean that the lamina has failed. Now that fiber breakage may lead to fiber matrix debonding,
similarly there may be matrix crack, that matrix crack may lead to delamination. So, these are all
local failures and a combined effect of all these actually leads to the final failure of a laminate.
But in this phenomenological approach, in this macroscopic failure theory we do not discuss this.
Here the main objective is to establish a mathematical expression which can correlate the actual
failure points, so it is more of like fitting the data. Therefore, in that way it is actually kind of
criterion, it is a failure criterion more than a theory. So, we will discuss these failure criteria, and
we will also have a comparison and then finally in this module we will also see the hygrothermal
stresses in a lamina.

135
(Refer Slide Time: 10:26)

The philosophy of the strength-based failure theory is same as what we learned in the case of
isotropic material where strength failure theories, like maximum normal stress theory, maximum
shear stress theory, distortion energy theory etc. were discussed. The philosophy is same that
means we find out the maximum stress and compare that with the corresponding strength to
assess the failure or safety of a component subjected to load.
But there is a significant difference between the isotropic materials and the orthotropic materials.
In isotropic materials we have only two strength parameters viz. , the ultimate tensile strength of
that material ( σ u ) and the shear stress at yield ( τ y ). Say we take any component made of

isotropic material subjected to load, we find out what are the principal stresses ( σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3 )

σ1 − σ 2
and then we also find out what is the maximum shear stress ( τ max = ). If the material is
2
brittle, then we check whether σ 1 , the maximum normal stress is less than the ultimate tensile

strength of that material ( σ u ) or if it is a ductile material, then we check that maximum shear

stress ( τ max ) is less than the shear stress at yield ( τ y ). Therefore, basically there are two

parameters in isotropic materials one is ultimate tensile strength or yield point strength and the
shear strength.

136
However, in some cases there are some materials where the tensile strength is not equal to the
compression strength, for example cast iron. In that case we need three strength parameters like
σ u T , σ u C , τ y (T and C stands for tension and compression) but in most of the cases materials like
steel we go with two strength parameters, that is the normal strength and the shear strength. Also,
the principal stress or strain and the maximum shear stress are compared to the corresponding
strengths.
Now the strength of isotropic material is independent of direction, therefore it does not matter in
which direction the maximum normal stress or the maximum principal stress is, we find out the
maximum stress and then equate that to the corresponding strength because strength is same in
all the directions. So, things are much simpler in isotropic material.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:53)

On the other hand, for orthotropic materials, like stiffness, strengths are also direction dependent.
For example the longitudinal tensile strength of a lamina is far higher compared to the transverse
tensile strength. For a lamina the stiffness in the longitudinal direction E 1 is greater than E 2 . The
strength here, the longitudinal tensile strength also is greater than the transverse tensile strength.

137
The reason is what is longitudinal tensile strength is the tensile strength along the longitudinal
direction (direction 1) of the fiber and the transverse tensile strength is the tensile strength
transverse (along direction 2) to the fiber direction. Now because the fibers are very strong and
stiff in the longitudinal direction, therefore the strength of the lamina in direction 1 in the
longitudinal tensile strength is actually decided by the strength of the fiber. On the other hand, in
the transverse direction it is not the fiber but the fibers are bonded by impregnating into the
matrix, therefore it is actually dominated by the matrix. Similarly, we have different strengths in
the longitudinal compression and transverse compression and then the in-plane shear strength.
Hence the strengths are also direction dependent and the transverse tensile strength is the
weakest link, it is the minimum strength of a lamina.
So, depending on the directions, the strengths are different, and it is not possible to measure
strength for all possible direction. Considering a lamina, now if it is loaded along 1, it has
strength. Now if it is rotated by 90° and loaded, it is different, suppose it is rotated by 45°,
strength is different. Therefore, the strengths are different and it is not possible to measure
strength for all orientations.
So, how to then specify the strength of a lamina? It is therefore important to know the stresses in
the principal material direction 1-2 (1 parallel to fiber, 2 perpendicular to the fiber, 1 is known as
longitudinal direction, 2 is known as transverse direction) because, the strengths are specified in
the principal material direction. Thus, while addressing the strength failure theories for
orthotropic material, this is the difference compared to that in the isotropic material. In the case
of isotropic materials we have 2 or maximum 3 strength parameters but in the case of an
orthotropic materials, we have 5 strength parameters.

138
(Refer Slide Time: 18:52)

As shown in the Fig., with reference to the principal material directions, the five strength
parameters are
1. (σ )
T
1 u , the ultimate longitudinal tensile strength.

2. (σ )
C
1 u , the ultimate longitudinal compression strength

3. (σ )
T
2 u , the transverse tensile strength

4. (σ )
C
2 u , the transverse compression strength and

5. (τ 12 )u , is the ultimate in-plane shear strength.

So, these are the five strength parameters which are required to specify the strength in an
orthotropic lamina. As shown in the Fig., these strengths could be obtained experimentally by
applying corresponding loading in the corresponding directions. From the stress strain curves,
the strengths and the corresponding modulus could also be obtained.
Again, we could only find out the failure stress or strengths and not the mechanisms by which a a
lamina fails. The failure may be due to fiber breakage, matrix cracking, fiber microbuckling,
fiber matrix debonding etc. but are not addressed and hence – macroscopic failure theories.
However, in microscopic failure approaches all these things are actually considered to
understand what the mechanism of different type of failure is.

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Note that in the case of an orthotropic lamina, σ 1 , σ 2 and τ 12 represent the material axes stresses

and do not confuse σ 1 , σ 2 as the principal stresses which are commonly used notations in

isotropic materials. Suppose for a lamina, only σ 1 (along 1) is applied, the maximum stress it

can withstand is (σ 1T ) if σ 1 is +ve and (σ 1C ) if σ 1 is –ve. Similarly for +ve and –ve applied σ 2 ,
u u

the maximum stress it can withstand (σ 2T ) and (σ 2C ) respectively. For applied in-plane shear
u u

stress, τ 12 , the maximum stress it can withstand is (τ 12 )u .

But actual loading may not be like this, it is actually may be a combination of σ 1 , σ 2 , τ 12 .

Therefore, we need to know subjected to combined loading how the failure takes place. So, this
is the objective of developing the macroscopic failure theories.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:06)

Therefore unlike isotropic materials, in the case of orthotropic materials subjected to load, we
actually find out the materials axes stresses σ 1 , σ 2 , τ 12 and not the principal stresses. The reason

is this, because the strengths are specified with respect to the material axes directions.
For a typical graphite epoxy lamina the following are the strength and stiffness properties.

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 (σ T
)
1 u = 1500 MPa
Ε1 =181GPa (σ C
)
1 u = 1200 MPa
Ε2 =
(σ )
10GPa T
= 40 MPa
ν 12 = 0.28 2 u

G12 = 7GPa (σ C
)
2 u = 250MPa

(τ12 u) = 70MPa

Suppose a 45⁰ graphite epoxy lamina subjected to load and the stresses developed along 1 and 2
happened to be the principal stresses say 500 MPa and 80 MPa and there is no shear stress. So
these are the principal stresses. So, the major principal stress 500 MPa is actually less than the
strength 1500 MPa but that does not mean that it will not fail, it will fail because in the other
direction 80 MPa is greater than the strength ie 40 MPa.
Therefore, since the strengths are direction dependent, the principal stresses do not have much
bearing in the analysis of the strength of a lamina. It is important that we actually find out the
stresses in the material direction and then compare those stresses with the corresponding
strengths in the material direction. Now the strength properties in the material directions are
actually determined by conducting laboratory tests. Laboratory tests could be conducted
independently following certain standards and the five strengths parameters (σ 1T ) , (σ 1C ) ,
u u

(σ ) , (σ )
C
2 u
T
2 u and (τ 12 )u could be known with respect to the principal material direction.

141
(Refer Slide Time: 30:45)

So, the applied stresses are actually transformed to principal material axis and then compared to
the appropriate strengths to assess whether it is safe or whether it fails.
Now even though the strengths are actually determined conducting a single test applying one
particular stress at a time but actual stress fields are mostly biaxial or triaxial. Even with applied
uniaxial stress, but not along the material axis might lead to biaxial stresses. For example,
suppose a lamina, (x-y global axes and 1-2 material axes) with fiber orientation θ, is loaded with
uniaxial stress σ x . Now this will lead to σ 1 , σ 2 and τ 12 , along the material axes which could be

obtained by the stress transformation.

So, uniaxial stress not in the principal material direction may lead to multi axial stress along the
principal material axis. Now failure mechanism in composites vary greatly with material
properties and type of loading and a failure may be because of the combination of all these
different modes and interactions between different mechanisms make it really difficult to
accurately predict the strengths and therefore a failure criterion is needed. Now in
macromechanical failure criteria, so the macromechanical failure theories are proposed by
extending and adopting the failure theories which are applied to isotropic material but it takes
into account the anisotropy in stiffness and strength of the lamina though the philosophy remains
same.

142
(Refer Slide Time: 34:36)

Macroscopic failure theories / criteria are actually classified into two types viz. non-interactive or
independent theories / criteria and interactive theories / criteria.
In non-interactive theories it is assumed that there is no interaction among the stresses and each
stress is independently compared to the corresponding strength. As shown in Fig., if we apply
+ve σ 1 then the failure point is (σ 1T ) , if you apply +ve σ 2 the failure point is (σ 2T ) . But what
u u

happens if we apply σ 1 and σ 2 together because the failure is actually influenced by both the σ 1

and σ 2 and there is interactions. So, the non-interactive failure theories do not take into account

this interaction and considers the individual failure independently.

On the other hand, the interactive theories take into account the interactions between the
different stresses which lead to the failure. So, under non-interactive theories there are two
theories viz. Maximum stress theory and Maximum strain theory. Similarly, there are number of
interactive theories which are actually put forward at different point of time. Like Tsai-Hill
theory, then Hoffman failure criterion, then Tsai-Wu theory etc. We will discuss all this one by
one.

143
(Refer Slide Time: 36:55)

Maximum Stress Failure Criterion

As shown in Fig., given the state of stress at appoint in a lamina as subjected to σ x , σ y and τ xy ,

we find out the stresses with reference to the principal material directions (1-2) using the stress
transformation. So, with respect to the global x-y, the stresses are σ x , σ y , τ xy and with respect

to the principal material direction 1-2 the stresses are σ 1 , σ 2 and τ 12 .

Now the five strength parameters (σ 1T ) , (σ 1C ) , (σ 2C ) , (σ 2T ) and (τ 12 )u with reference to the

u u u u

material axis are known, and the stresses σ 1 , σ 2 and τ 12 with reference to the materials axes are

also known, the maximum stress criterion states that failure is predicted if any of the normal or
shear stress in the material axes of a lamina exceeds the corresponding strength of the UD
lamina. Mathematically,
 − (σ 1C ) < σ 1 < (σ 1T ) 
 u u  σ 1   c2 s2 2 sc  σ x 
 − (σ ) < σ < (σ )  where    2  
σ 2 
= −2 sc  σ y 
C T 2
 2 u 2 2 u
 s c
τ   − sc sc c 2 - s 2  τ xy 
 − (τ ) < τ < (τ )   12    
 12 u 1 2 12 u 

Note that the stresses are compared with the corresponding strengths depending upon the sign. In
case of τ 12 , the sign of τ 12 in the material axis does not have any bearing, Therefore, the sign of

shear stress does not does not have any bearing in the material axis. Therefore, the shear stress in

144
the material axis must be less than the corresponding shear strength. So, though it is a maximum
stress failure criterion, it actually it consists of five different criteria corresponding to five
different modes of failure viz. longitudinal tensile (LT) failure ( σ 1 < (σ 1T ) ), longitudinal
u

compression (LC) failure ( − (σ 1C ) < σ 1 ), transverse tensile (TT) failure ( σ 2 < (σ 2T ) ), transverse
u u

compression (TC) failure ( − (σ 2C ) < σ 2 ) and in-plane shear (S) failure ( − (τ 12 ) < τ 12 < (τ 12 ) ).
u u u

So, there is no interaction, each strength is compared independently and that is why it is called
non-interactive theory or independent theory.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:20)

Now let us try to determine the off-axis tensile strength of a lamina using maximum stress
theory. What is off-axis tensile strength? As shown in Fig., for a lamina (1-2 is the principal
material direction and x-y is the global axis). If this lamina is subjected to uniaxial tensile
stress σ x , the maximum value of σ x at failure is the off-axis tensile strength. It is called off-axis

because it is along the x- axis, like the tensile strength along 1 that is (σ 1T ) ?
u

145
 σ x 
 
Now the state of stress with reference to x-y is  0  . Therefore, with reference to the material
0
 
axes the stresses are obtained using the transformation as

σ 1   c2 s2 2 sc  σ x   σ xc2 
   2    2 
σ 2  = −2 sc   0  =  σ xs 
2
s c
τ   2  −σ sc 
 − sc sc c - s   0 
2
 12   x 
where c = cos θ and s = sin θ. Therefore, σ 1 = σ x cos 2 θ , σ 2 = σ x sin 2 θ and

τ 12 = −σ x sin θ cos θ . Therefore, applying maximum stress theory, we have five conditions as

 − (σ 1C ) < σ x c 2 < (σ 1T ) 
 u u 

 − (σ ) < σ s < (σ ) 
C 2 T
 2 u x 2 u

 − (τ ) < −σ sc < (τ ) 
 12 u x 12 u 

Now because σ x is positive, so both σ 1 = σ x cos 2 θ and σ 2 = σ x sin 2 θ are positive, therefore we

will have to check the following

σ x c < (σ
(σ ) T
2 T
)
1 u ⇒σx <
cos θ
1 u
2

σ x s < (σ
(σ ) T
2 T
)
2 u ⇒σx <
sin θ
2 u
2

− (τ 12 ) < −σ x sc < (τ 12 ) ⇒ σ x <

(τ )
12 u
u u sin θ cos θ
So, these are the three conditions which need to be satisfied. So, violating any one of these
conditions will be failure that means it should be less. If we plot σ x vs. θ following these three

conditions the curves look like as shown in Fig. where the first curve corresponding to the first
condition represents LT and the second curve corresponding to the second condition represents
the LT and the third curve represents the S condition of failure. Now naturally what will be the
value of the off-axis tensile strength at failure, σ x will be decide by the value of θ.

146
this is the first condition we will have to check. That means σ x cos 2 θ in the limit could be equal

to (σ 1T ) as long as is less than (σ 1T ) , it is safe. Again, this is also positive, therefore this
u u

condition this leads to σ x sin 2 θ = (σ 2T ) and this is −σ x , so this is the condition. Because it is
u

negative, but there is no bearing on of sign of shear stress in the material axis. Therefore, this
leads to σ x sin θ cos θ = (τ 12 )u .

Therefore, which implies that σ x =

(σ )
T
1 u
or σ x =
(σ )
T
2 u
or σ x =
(τ 12 )u
. So, these are the
cos θ
2
sin θ
2
sin θ cos θ
three conditions which need to be satisfied. So, violating any one of these conditions will be
failure that means it should be less I have written equal to that means it is the limiting case. Now
naturally what will be the value of σ x that is decide by the value of θ. Suppose we try to see

what are the strengths versus θ, say this is θ, σ x .

For the first one (LT), as θ increases, cosθ decreases and we know that, cos 90° = 0. Therefore at
θ = 0°, σ x = (σ 1T ) and the curve actually goes to infinity at 90°. Now suppose we plot the second
u

one (TT) at θ = 0°, sin θ = 0 therefore it is infinite and at θ= 90°, σ x = (σ 2T ) .

u

For the last condition (S), for both θ = 0° and θ = 90° it is infinity and at θ = 45° this is
minimum. So, taking the minimum of these three curves, the variation of σ x vs. θ is as hown.

Here, for θ near 0°, the failure is due to LT and as θ increases the failure is due to S and near
θ =90°, the failure is due to TT.
Now if you can clearly see for a small value of θ near 0° the failure is because of longitudinal
tensile and after that up to certain angle it is actually dominated by shear and as we move away
from 45° towards 90° it is actually the transverse tensile. So, you can clearly see that even the
off-axis strength of a lamina we can see that there are three different modes of failure depending
upon the value of fiber orientation angle θ and θ = 0⁰, σ x = (σ 1T ) , θ = 90⁰, σ x = (σ 2T ) .
u u

147
 Now let us take a very quick example to understand that how we actually decide the failure of a
lamina using maximum stress theory.

Example : A 60° GR/E lamina subjected to σ x =

4p , σ y =
− 6 p,τ xy =
8p ;
Using maximum stress theory, determine max. value of p > 0, so that the lamina is safe.   
Given,
=(σ 1T ) 1725
= MPa, (σ 1C ) 1350 MPa
u u

=(σ ) 40=
MPa, (σ ) 275MPa
T
2 u
C
2 u

(τ )
12 u = 95MPa

(Refer Slide Time: 52:51)

Solution:
 4p 
 
Given the state of stress with reference to the x-y is −6 p  , the material axes stresses are
 8p 
 
obtained using stress transformation for θ = 60° as

σ 1   c s 2 -2 sc   4 p  σ 1   3.4 
2

   2      
σ 2  = s c2 2 sc  −6 p  → σ 2  =−5.4  p
  2      
τ 12   − sc sc c - s   8 p  τ 12   −8.3
2

Now the conditions for safety are

148
  −1350 ×106 < σ 1 < 1725 ×106 
 
Condition for safety :  −275 ×106 < σ 2 < 40 ×106 
 
 −95 ×10 < τ 12 < 95 ×10
6 6

(Refer Slide Time: 53:07)

And putting the values of material axes stresses and taking care of the sign,

 −1350 ×106 < 3.4 p < 1725 ×106 

 
 −275 ×10 < −5.4 p < 40 ×10 
6 6

 −95 ×106 < −8.3 p < 95 ×106 

 

 −397 ×106 < p < 397 ×106 

 
⇒  −7.8 ×106 < p < 50.9 ×106 
 −11.4 ×106 < p < 11.4 ×106 
 
And since p > 0, therefore the maximum value of p is

 0 < p < 11.4 ×106

Therefore, as soon as p > 11.4 x 106, the third condition is violated, then the lamina will fail.
Using maximum stress theory, we could find out the maximum value of p, and we can also see

149
the condition which is first violated the third condition which is actually shear. Therefore, we can
say that the lamina will actually fail due to shear.

(Refer Slide Time: 53:34)

Next, let us try to determine the off-axis shear strength of a 60° glass epoxy lamina. The off-axis
shear strength here means that when the 60° glass epoxy lamina subjected to pure shear τ xy ,

what is the maximum shear stress τ xy it can withstand before it fails.

The state of stress, only τ xy ≠0, σ x = 0, σ y = 0. Therefore, from this state of stress with respect to

x-y, the stresses in the material axis using this stress transformation matrix (θ = 60°) could be
obtained as.

σ 1   0.25 0.75 0.866   0  σ 1   0.866 

        
σ 2  =  0.75 0.25 −0.866   0  → σ 2  =−0.866 τ xy
       
τ 12   −0.433 0.433 −0.50  τ xy  τ 12   −0.5 

150
(Refer Slide Time: 55:04)

Again, we put these in the maximum stress theory the condition for safety are
−350 < 0.866τ xy < 500
−75 < −0.866τ xy < 5
−35 < −0.5τ xy < 35

None of this condition could be violated. If any one of this condition is violated then it fails.
Now rearranging this we get this; these are the conditions.

−407 < τ xy < 577

−5.7 < τ xy < 86.6
−70 < τ xy < 70

If τ xy is positive, the maximum value of τ xy = 70 MPa. But suppose τ xy is negative, the

maximum value of τ xy = −5.7 MPa.

So, here we get two conditions, first, if τ xy is positive the maximum value it can have is 70 MPa.

On the other hand, if τ xy is negative the maximum value it can have is 5.7 MPa.

Now this positive and negative is as shown in the Fig. So, if we try to find out what is the off-
axis shear strength of an angle lamina, we need to specify with reference to the sign of the shear

151
stress, if it is positive in this case, it is 70 MPa, if it is negative, it is 5.7 MPa. Therefore, the sign
of off-axis shear stress is very very important.

(Refer Slide Time: 57:55)

Now, why it happens could be understood from the Fig. above. In case of a 45° lamina subjected
to positive shear stress τ xy . This a pure shear it is equivalent to equal and opposite principal

stresses in a plane 45°. So, now if this lamina is subjected to τ xy , it translates to that it has a

tensile stress along direction 1 and compression stress along direction 2.

But suppose this shear stress is in the opposite direction, in that case this translates to a negative
stress along 1 and appositive stress along 2. The transverse tensile strength is much less
compared to transverse compression as well as longitudinal tension. Therefore, in the second
case of negative shear, the failure will be because of the transverse tensile and hence the strength
is less.
So, for a 60° lamina, in the first case, along the fiber the stress is tensile and transverse to fiber
the stress is compressive therefore it can withstand a very high magnitude of stress, compared to
the second case of negative shear where the tensile stress is transverse to the fiber where it is
very, very weak. Therefore, in this case the off-axis shear strength is much lower compared to
the off-axis shear strength when the sign is changed.

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